Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Madrasah
Madrasah
INTRODUCTION
Indonesia is the largest island nation in the world. Its 17,000 islands form an
archipelago that bridges the continents of Australia and Asia. The total landmass, which
includes five major islands, is 2 million square kilometers. Indonesia is the fourth most
populous country in the world after China, India, and the United States. In 1999, its
estimated population was 210 million, up from 179 million in 1990. The average annual
rate of population growth was 2.1 percent during the 1980s, but it declined to 1.5 percent
by 1999. The rate is projected to decline slightly further to 1.4 percent by 2005. In
absolute terms, this means that the Indonesian population grew by around 3.2 million
persons per year between 1990 and 1998, and will increase by roughly 3 million annually
until 2005.
By year 2001, children below the age of five will number 22 million, or 10
percent of the population and the school-age children (5 to 14 years) will number 40
million, or 19 percent of the total population. Today, one in every five Indonesians is a
teenager, and, in 2001, the number of adolescents will be 44 million. As Indonesia’s
population is aging, children under age 15 as a percentage of the total population have
decreased from 44 percent in 1971 to 36 percent in 1990; while in 2001, children under
15 years of age will account for just 29 percent of the population.
Java and Bali are home to 60 percent of the total population, but represent only 7
percent of the total land area of the country. The Eastern islands that comprise Nusa
Tenggara, Sulawesi, The Mollucas and West Papua support 21 percent of the population,
but account for 69 percent of the country’s land area. From 1971 to 1990 (when the latest
National census was conducted), annual urban growth rates were consistently double
those of the total population.
Indonesia has the largest number of Muslims as of any country. Its population is
made up of 300 ethnically distinct groups who speak a multitude of local languages and
practice four major religions (Islam, Christianity, Buddhism and Hinduism). Divided into
26 provinces, Indonesia derives its identity from both regionality and heterogeneity.
Whether in economic, geographic, religious, cultural or ethnic terms, Indonesia has a
pronounced diversity.
1
Muslim. While Islam and other formal religions are practiced, however, many groups
continue their adherence to customary beliefs, tradition, and laws, known as adat.
Practices relating to marriage and divorce, inheritance and land resource management are
often still governed by adat law.
From roughly the seventh to the 14th century, Indonesia had a number of powerful
Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms like Sriwijaya and Majapahit that exerted influence
throughout Southeast Asia. Beginning in the 15th century, Islam gained dominance. The
16th century saw the arrival of Europeans, mainly Portuguese and Dutch, who competed
to capture the lucrative spice trade routes. The Dutch emerged victorious and gained
sovereignty over the islands known as the Dutch East Indies for 350 years, ( except for
brief interludes of control by the British during Napoleonic Wars and by the Japanese
during World War II) until Independence was declared in 1945.
Today, however, with the erosion of government spending for social programs and
widespread poverty stemming from the current economic crisis has, at least temporarily,
undermined the decades of progress. Combined with growing disillusionment about
exploitations of the “New Order” regime, the crisis led to massive protest and rioting that
forced out Soeharto from office on 21 May 1998. A reform movement and calls for a
more open and democratic system by an increasingly better informed and self-confident
polity led to the country’s first multi – party freely contested election in nearly 40 years
on 7th June 1999. A dramatic Presidential contest in the National legislature in October
and election of a credible reform administration and cabinet under President
Abdurrahman Wahid and Vice-President Megawati Soekarnoputri followed this election.
2
The National Education System of Indonesia is generally aimed at elevating the
intellectual life of the Nation and developing the Indonesian people fully, i.e. as people
who are devoted to God, have knowledge and skills, are in good physical and spiritual
health, are independent and fair, and feel responsible for their countrymen and Nation.
The education system is organized in two different paths, i.e. school and out-of-school
education. School education is organized in schools through teaching and learning
activities that are gradual, hierarchical, and continuous. Out-of-school education is
organized outside the formal schooling through teaching and learning activities that may
or may not be hierarchical and continuous. Education within the family constitutes an
important part of the out-of-school education and provides religious, cultural and moral
values and the family’s skills.
The national formal education system consists of three main levels of education,
i.e. basic education, secondary education, and higher education. Pre-school education is
also provided to a limited proportion of children (see figure 1.1). The school education is
provided both by governmental and non-governmental agencies as well as by the
community. Basic education is a general education of nine years, i.e. six years of primary
and three years of junior secondary school. Basic Education is a compulsory education
aimed at providing the learners with basic knowledge and skills. Junior secondary
education consists of two different types of schools i.e. general junior secondary schools
and vocational junior secondary junior secondary schools. The goal of basic education is
to develop students as individuals, members of society, citizens and members of
mankind, as well as to prepare them to pursue study in secondary education. Of the 29.45
million children enrolled in primary schools, about 82 percent attend public institutions
largely financed through the Ministry of Home Affairs, 6 percent attend private schools, 1
3
percent attend the public Madrasah Ibtidaiyah and 11 percent attend private Madrasah
Ibtidaiyahs .
Figure 1.1
School System in Indonesia Based On
Education Law No. 2 Year 1989
Academic Professional
Education Education
Official
School Doctorate Professio
Islamic
Program nal
Age Doctorate
Program (S3) Program
22
Islamic
Master Master Professio
21 Higher Program Program nal
Education (S2) (S2) Program
20
19
Islamic Under
Under Graduate Diploma 4
18 Graduate Degree Program Diploma 3
Program Program Program
Diploma 2
17 (S1) (S1)
Program
Diploma 1
Program
16 Islamic General Senior Vocational Senior
Senior Senior Secon- Secondary School Secondary School
15 Secondary dary School (Sekolah Menengah (Sekolah Menengah
Education (Madrasah Atas/SMA) Kejuruan/SMK)
14 Aliyah)
Islamic Junior
13 Secon-dary General Junior Secondary School/SLTP
School
(Madrasah
(Sekolah Lanjutan Tingkat Pertama)
12 Tsanawiyah)
Basic
11 Education
10 Islamic
Primary
9 School
(Madrasah
Primary School
Ibtidaiyah) (Sekolah Dasar/SD)
8
6 Islamic
Kindergarten
Preschool (Raudhatul Kindergarten
5 Athfal) (Taman Kanak-kanak/TK)
4
In the MTs, pupils receive an education broadly similar to that in the public
primary schools. They follow largely the same academic curriculum but with more
emphasis on religious studies, including elementary Arabic. Most of madrasahs and
pesantren are being developed to combine the teaching of religion and Koran with the
modern sciences in a single educational institution. Because they were originally
religious educational institutions, the MORA is administering them, while the MONE is
administering general schools. However, there are still religious schools that do not
include “secular” subjects as part of their curriculum. These religious schools are given
the name of Madrasah Diniyah and Salafiyah.
At the senior secondary level, in 1995, of the total of over 4.67 million pupils, 49
percent were in private schools, 40 percent in public schools, and 4 percent in public
madrasah aliyah, and 6 percent in private. At senior secondary level, both the public and
private schools are further divided into general schools (Sekolah Menengah Umum-SMU)
and vocational schools (Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan-SMK) of several types, in which
about 1.65 million pupils follow vocationally oriented curricula.
5
the out-of-school. Kindergarten is provided for children age 5 to 6 years for one to two
years, while play groups and daycare centers are attended by children at least 3 year old.
The government of Indonesia (GOI) had put special efforts for the development of
basic education from the beginning of The First 25 Year Development Plan (PJP I) in
early 1970s. Further accelerated level of investment was made for the development of
primary education at the beginning of the Second Five-year Development Plan (Repelita
II). Using revenue from the 1973 oil windfall, GOI initiated a large primary school
construction program, channeled through the Presidential Instructions Block Grant for
primary schools, (called the INPRES SD).
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1.5. The Present Level of Access to Basic Education and Its Distribution by
Income Levels
The strategy to enroll all children of junior secondary school age involves a mixed
educational program of conventional formal junior secondary schools (SLTPs and
MTs/Madrasah Tsanawiyah), open SLTPs and non-formal junior secondary education
(known as Paket B or Package B). The ‘Package B’ system does not charge school fees
and is intended to facilitate access for children from remote areas and poor families. The
policy of basic education seems to be effective in giving boys and girls equal access at
both primary and junior secondary levels (Table 1.1). However, the difference in
enrolment between urban and rural children at junior secondary level is significant,
implying the need for expanding the public community in education to rural areas more
rapidly and effectively.
Table 1.1
Net Enrolment Ratio
7
It can also be noted that net enrolment ratio in junior secondary schools for the children
from lowest quintile of income group is less than 50 percent. The difference in enrolment
between the lowest and the highest quintile of income group is almost two fold (Table
1.2).
Table 1.2
Net Enrolment Rate (in percentages) by Income Group
The basic education system has significant levels of students’ repetition, dropping
out, and non-completion. This situation, characteristic of the system since the First Five-
year Plan (REPELITA I), is caused among other things such as inadequate facilities,
underpaid teachers and lack of parental support, mainly due to poverty. The Government
has been systematically trying to reduce the incidence of repetition and dropping out. For
example, efforts have been made to abolish tuition fees in both primary and junior
secondary schools. However, this reduces only part of the burden (about 10 percent)
because parents still must pay fees for Parents-Teachers Association) contributions,
uniforms, supplementary textbooks and other necessities.
Dropout rates (DOR) at primary and junior secondary levels do not seem to have
been affected by the crisis. From 1994-1998, the DOR steadily decreased. However,
taking not-enrolled children and dropout students into consideration, there are still, on
average, 1.6 million and 4.8 million children of the relevant age group who are not in
primary and junior secondary schools, respectively. In some provinces, such as Irian Jaya
and Maluku, drop-out rates are influenced heavily not only by economic factors but also
by conditions such as political turbulence and remote geographical location of schools,
which means it is difficult to make universal policy interventions for educational
improvement in many areas.
At the primary level the role of private sector in providing education is relatively
small (17 percent of enrolment), though in some provinces it is substantial. The provinces
in which private sector role is substantial are Jakarta (24 percent), North Sulawesi (25
8
percent), Maluku (24 percent), East Nusa Tenggara (44 percent), and Papua (43 percent).
However, private sector plays an important role at the junior secondary level, where it
represents 40 percent of total enrolment (Indonesian Educational Statistics in Brief,
MOEC, 1993/4). At the senior secondary level, private education institutions absorb more
than 50 percent of enrolment while over time. The private role has been growing at
tertiary level. Private sector accounts for 65-57 of enrolment tertiary level.
Table 1.3
Number of Students enroled in Public and Private Schools at Different Levels
There are three operators of private schools, i.e. local communities, Islamic
groups, and teachers’ associations called PGRI. Other groups such as Catholic
organizations and large enterprises have a smaller participation in numerical terms.
Before establishing the school, the operator to be begins by seeking a favorable ruling on
the part of MONE and local government officials at the subdistrict level. If the officials
perceive that there are a large enough number of primary school graduates have no access
to a public school, they can apply through a non profit association (yayasan) and get
approval from the head of MONE at province level. Normally, it takes about 9 months for
the process to be completed.
9
produced its first graduates. Depending on the results, the school may retain the “listed”
status or be promoted to a higher category. Presently about 9 percent of private schools
are in the “equivalent” category, 56 percent are “recognized,” 25 percent are “registered”
and the remaining 10 percent are “listed.”
The government provides subsidy for junior secondary private schools in the form
of textbook provision to students and grants for schools’ operational cost. It was
estimated in 1993/94 that the need of textbook for students was 31 million and 1 million
teacher guides. Actual distribution during 1993/94 –1995/96 amounted to 15.5 million
textbooks and 0.3 million teacher guides. The government could only serve half of the
private school students with the textbook, and one-third of the teachers’ requirement.
Public subsidy for operational cost is granted to both SMP and madrasah schools and is
in the form of a flat amount per classroom. The amount granted per classroom was Rp.
480,000 in 1994/95 and it covered 18,363 classroom (Word Bank, 1998). The amount of
subsidy was reduced to Rp. 300,000 per classroom while the number of subsidized
classrooms tripled. At the same time, the total amount of subsidy almost double (from
Rp. 8.8 billion in 1994/95 to Rp. 16.1 billion in 1995/96)
10
Chapter II
When Indonesia entered the New Order Era (1966), Indonesia educational system
was developed under two systems: general education and religious/Islamic education.
Initially, this dualism was born as a product of Dutch Colonialism, while later, it become
the product of two major political bases, Islam and Nationalism. Even though in the later
development, the government of Indonesia tried to reconcile the two into one ideology
called Pancasila, but the influence of Islam in education could not be easily set aside, for
Islamic education had a long history in Indonesia.
In the colonial era, the development of madrasah was started with the
spirit of reformation within the Muslim society. There were two important factors
behind the rise of madrasah. Firstly, the reformists viewed that the traditional
Islamic education did not provide adequate pragmatic ability to the society;
secondly, there was a fear that the rapid development of Dutch schools could
bring a heavy secular thinking in the society. Therefore, the reformists considered
that they need to balance secularism with Islamic education, through the
development of madrasah. With varieties of schools of thought, madrasahs
spread out in many places in Indonesia.
The Dutch policies towards Islamic education were to pit some restriction
on the madrasahs, for they feared the rise of young-Muslim-educated militias that
could threaten Dutch. One of the Dutch policies to monitor madrasahs was the
issuance of Teacher Ordinance to religious teachers. The policy required religious
teachers to have license from the government. Only few religious teachers could
receive the license from the government. The history had pressurized the Dutch to
issue this policy due to the experience of 1888 Cilegon war towards the Dutch
that made the Dutch to learn lessons to restrict Islamic activities. Other policy
attempt to restrict Islamic schools was the issuance of Informal School Ordinance.
This ordinance regulated that every school should report its establishment to
Dutch government and seek approval. The report should include school’s
curricula and other information.
11
reaction was by trying to soften the Dutch discrimination towards madrasahs.
However, despite such pressures and tight monitoring from the Dutch, the
establishment of madrasahs in Java, Sumatra and Kalimantan, especially in the
remote areas, could not be hampered.
In 1966, the People’s representative issued an act No. XXVII of 1966 that
allowed private madrasahs convert in into public madrasahs. As a result, 123 MI,
182 MTs and 42 MAs converted into public Madrasahs. With this conversion, the
management of madrasahs was totally turned into government, but the remaining
madrasahs (about 90 percent) continued to be run by the local community by a
yayasan public partnership in private madrasah that fulfilled certain criteria
public grants in-aid, secondment & teachers supply of textbooks, etc to limited
numbers.
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II.1.3. The New Order Era (1966-1998)
In the beginning of New Order Era, the new government continued using
the previous policies on madrasah. However, in general, the legal framework of
government to support towards madrasahs was not adequate and very weak. In
1972, the former president of Indonesia, Soeharto, issued a Presidential Act No.
34 of 1972 and Presidential Instruction No. 15 of 1974. The acts regulated that the
madrasah will be managed under the Ministry of Education and Culture (MOEC)
instead of under MORA. The Muslim society viewed the issuance of these
regulation as a maneuver to nullify the role and existence of madrasah as a
religious institution. The hand-over of madrasah’s management to MOEC was
seen as an effort from the government to “secularizing” madrasah and to abolish
madrasah from national education system. To calm down the reactions from the
Muslims, the government issued the Join Ministerial Act of Three Ministers of
MORA, MOEC and MOHA (Ministry of Home Affairs) in 1974, known as SKB
Tiga Menteri, under which Madrasahs still remained under MORA but had to
teach some general curricula to prescribed by the government.
II.2. The Present Status and Legal Framework For Madrasah Education in
Indonesia
Since decade of 90’s, the government policy towards madrasah has been to
integrate madrasah into the national educational system through the issuance of Law No.
2 of 1989 that replaces law No. 4 1950 and No. 12 of 1954. As stated in the Indonesian
constitution, every citizen has the right to education. The Education Act No. of 1989
articulates the government’s policy, objectives and guiding principles for Indonesia’s
education development for the future is act also provide the basis of the government’s
education development strategies and plans under its Second Twenty-Five-year
Development Plan (1994/95 to 2019/20).
In the General Guidelines of State Policy (GBHN), the priority of the Second
Twenty Five Year Plan (1994-2019) is economic and human resource development as a
driving force for development of the country. The primary target of the development in
education sector is the universalization of the nine-year basic education within next 15
years and improving the quality, access and relevance of education that will lead to and
increase in the quality of the Indonesian human resources. This is a prerequisite for
13
enabling the country to increase its productivity and competitiveness during the
approaching the twenty-first century, which is expected to be an are of free trade within
ASEAN region by the year 2003 and Asia Pacific open trade and investment by the year
2020. In this context, education has been viewed as an important investment in human
capital and contributory to socio-economic development by endowing individuals with
the means to improve their health, skills, knowledge, and capability for socio-economic
advancement.
Under Education Act No. 2 of 1989, madrasahs have become integral part of
national education system in providing schooling. At the primary level, madrasahs
Ibtidaiyah enroll 11 percent of the total enrolment. In 1999, there are 21,454 MI of
which 20,000 or 93.2 percent were private indicating the dominant role of private
madrasahs at this level. At the junior secondary level, MTs enroll about 18.35 percent of
the total enrolment. In 1999, there were 9,860 MTs including 8,682 (or 88.1 percent)
private MTs. Student-wise, the private madrasahs enroll much higher proportion of
students. In the MI, private sector students accounted for 91.0 percent of the total
2,894,128 students. In the MTs, private students numbered 1,320,198 or 72,8 percent of
the total enrolment of 1,813,135. Thus, the madrasahs system is dominantly private at all
levels while private schools under MONE number only 6 percent at the primary level and
46 percent at the secondary level. The madrasahs are required to teach the National
Curricula prepared by MONE for its schools, in addition to the religious curricula. Now
madrasah students are required to take the same National Examination as required of
students of MONE schools. Thus, madrasah face a challenging task to provide quality
education in order to compete with MONE schools.
14
The another justification for significant attention by the Government to junior
secondary education is that the number of school places is still limited relative to
demand, despite substantial outlays by parents and a significant response of the private
sector. This inadequacy is evident from continued strong demand for generally more
costly private education often of lower quality. Large numbers of unsuccessful applicants
to schools, the prevalence of double shifts and large classes in schools, are all indicative
of increasing demand for secondary education. These trends make it necessary for the
policy-makers to encourage and strengthen the public-private partnership in provision of
post-primary education, for which madrasahs have the greatest potential because these
are community-base institutions needing public support.
The role of the Government would therefore be to (a) help expand the number of
school places through a combination of direct investment and measures to stimulate
further private sector/community participation in the provision of school places, and (b)
ensure that the poor are given increased opportunity to participate in the expansion
process of schooling.
Event though at present financial support from the government to the private
madrasahs is very small, madrasahs still need partnership with the government. This is
especially needed for getting madrasahs recognition and status, and getting financial and
teaching materials assistance and maintaining minimum educational standards. Through
the Three Ministrial Joint Acts of 1974 and Educational Act No. 2 of 1989, the existence
of madrasahs is acknowledged as a part of national education system. Therefore, legally
the government programs that support madrasahs include secondment of teachers and
principals, provision of textbooks, training for teachers, and some grants assistance.
However, government’s assistance to private madrasahs still remains significantly small
as compared to their genuine requirements and needs to be enhanced many fold to
achieve equity and universalization of basic education.
15
II.5. The Process and Mechanism of Public-Community Partnership in
Development of Madrasah Education.
There are at least two major reasons behind the establishment of madrasah.
Firstly, there is a demand from many communities and parents to educate their children in
religious institutions; and secondly, there is no education institution provided by the
government that is accessible to the community at a reachable distance. When the
community feels that they need a madrasah, the community will initiate the development
of madrasah by raising funding from the community. The community will establish a
yayasan of foundation to manage the development of madrasah. There will always be
someone that will donate land for the madrasah and other people will raise donations that
come from zakah, infaq, and shadaqah to construct the madrasah building. Later on,
when the construction is completed and voluntary teachers are recruited, the yayasan will
report to the office of religious affairs at the district level to register the school’s status.
When madrasah starts functioning with a good standard, the yayasan applies for
accreditation. There are four types of accreditation given by the government: ‘listed’
(lowest), ‘registered’, ‘recognized’, and ‘equivalent’ (highest). After its recognition, the
yayasan of the madrasah is registered with MORA office at the district level, it can apply
for the INPRES fund (Presidential Instruction Fund) grant available for madrasah
ibtidaiyah or primary school to assist the construction of the madrasah. The government
also can give assistance in from of secondment of teachers and principals, and textbooks.
The process similar for establishing MTs. In the past some madrasah that showed good
performance were converted into public madrasahs.
Zakah is a type of donation required by all Muslims to pay/for the welfare of the poor.
16
Figure 2.1
Need to establish
Madrasah from the community:
No government school available
Need of religious schools
Report to MORA
at the district level
to get school’s status
17
II.6 Cost-sharing between government, parents and the community in
Development and Operation Private Madrasahs
18
II.6.5. Teachers’ Salary Assistance from MORA and MONE
Some of the qualified madrasahs have been taken over by MORA and
further developed into a better quality or Model Madrasah. The teacher’s salaries
for non-religious subjects (named as NIP-13) are financed by MORA. Now with
the requirements to include 1994 National Curricula into all Madrasah’s
curriculum, MORA has started to finance the non-religious subjects teachers
through NIP-15 budget.
II.7 Who Bears the Cost, and Who Benefit from the Partnership?
19
Chapter III
Under Education Act No. 2, madrasahs are required to follow all MONE
regulations pertaining to curriculum (in addition to the religious educational
curriculum), textbooks, examinations systems, etc. However, availability of
20
qualified teachers (specially in science, mathematics and English) in madrasah is
far satisfactory. Under agreement of the three Ministries, (MORA, MONE and
MONA) the MONE is responsible to provide teachers for general subjects to
Madrasahs but in actuality, deployment of MONE Teachers for general (core)
subjects in Madrasahs is insignificant.
The madrasahs average school enrolment size is less than 150 in most
provinces, because of their location in rural and remote areas. A small madrasah
is very uneconomical and is indicative, if it is to be fully financed though tuition
fees and donations from the local communities which are pre-dominantly poor.
The madrasah students are generally at the last receiving and in receiving
the free textbook form MONE under the exiting textbook delivery system (which
is budgeted and managed under MONE). For example according to a sample
survey in 1997-1998 only about 30 percent of children of the public MTs received
the textbooks of the new curriculum after mid year, and about 30 percent
purchased their own textbooks, while the remaining 40 percent relied mainly on
class notes. The situation had been changed since the implementation of textbooks
project. Gradually, the availability of students’ textbook had improved. However,
reference books, some of textbooks and reading materials are still lacking in the
madrasahs’ library.
21
In case of private MTs, which generally enroll students from lower income
classes, the situation was found to be worst. Sample classes of private MTs visited
by the researchers indicated that less than 5 students in a class had textbooks of
core subjects. The Government policy emphasized achieving equity in educational
access and upgrading of quality of madrasahs education to bring it equivalent to
that of SMPs. This requires matching inputs to MTs and provision of textbooks to
children in MTs (both public and private) at par with the children in the general
junior secondary schools (SMPs) but implementation of the equity needs reforms
both in textbooks’ budgeting and delivery system.
22
There are only 654 supervisors for more than 8,000 MTs spread over 299
districts and municipalities. Ironically, about 36 percent of them posse
qualification lower than S1. Most of them have no training and professional
supervision. Their traveling budget is extremely low. Thus, virtually there exists
no System of educational supervision.
Children of private madrasahs rarely get free textbooks from MONE. The
secondment of Government teachers to private madrasahs (Table 5.2) is also insignificant
( 1 per 100 pupils at primary level and 0.5 in case of secondary level). Therefor, most
of private madrasahs hire non-permanent or part time teachers (about 80 percent on the
average). As a consequence of the lack of essential inputs to madrasahs, quality of their
facilities and instructions is very low. Despite all this, most parents of private madrasahs
children who belong to poorer segment of society, end up paying more than 70 percent of
the schooling cost as compared to less than 18 percent paid by parents of public schools.
In monetary terms, on the average, they often pay to madrasah in fees and donations
almost double the amount paid by parents of public schools under MONE. Low
expenditure per pupil in madrasahs, is reflecting in the form of inadequate essential
inputs for the teaching-process and hence low educational quality, which in turn,
perpetuates socio-economic inequities among various strata of Indonesian society.
Table No 3.1.
23
Comparative Picture of School Expenditure Per Student and Sources of Funding for
School and Madrasahs (Excluding For Textbooks)
1995 – 1996
Source: Financing of Education in Indonesia: 1998, A joint study conducted by ADB and Published
comparative Education Research Centre, University of Hongkong (compiled from Table 3.4, Table 4.3 and
Table 5.3, and Table 6.5)
Table 3.2
24
Comparative Position of Average Number of Government Teachers Seconded Per
100 Pupils in School and Madrasahs of Various Expenditure Levels
Source: Financing of Education in Indonesia: 1998, A Joint study conducted by ADB, and
published by comparative Education Research Centre, University of Hongkong
(compiled from Table 3.4, Table 4.3, Table 5.3, and Table 6.5)
25
Chapter IV
The World Bank under his study on education under crisis (1998) found out that
the role of private junior secondary school including madrasahs is very significant in
helping government universalize nine-year basic education. Therefore, the facts that
enrolment rate at the JSS level is low and the role of private sector in universalizing basic
education is significant, have brought a need to strengthen the role of MTs in achieving
government targets to universalize nine-year basic education.
26
At present, MTs enroll about 18.35 percent of the total national enrolment at JSS
level, of whom about 54 percent are females as compared to 46 percent females
enrolment in SMPs. About 10.5 percent of total enrolment of Madrasah Tsanawiyah
education are enrolled in private MTs, while remaining 27 percent are enrolled in public
MTs. Most of private MTs are located in rural and under-served urban areas. The
government inputs to private MTs are insignificant. Most of their finances come from
students fees, and community donations. A few (generally one or two) MORA religious
teachers, and rarely one or two MONE teachers of non-religious subjects are seconded to
private MTs, while about 95 percent of their teachers are part-time or non-regular.
A large number of private MTs are also located in pesantrens (religious boarding
schools) and enroll students mostly from rural farmer and other lower or lower middle
income families. Some of the middle income families also prefer to send their daughters
to MTs instead of SMPs for religious reasons and ensuring better moral development. In
localities where there is some fear of drug trafficking, many parents of middle/upper
income level prefer to send their children to a good quality of MTs rather than SMP.
Thus, MTs are playing valuable role in providing junior secondary education to children
from low socio-economic strata, specially the female, mainly in the under-served rural
areas and under-served urban areas.
MTs have great potential in sharing the efforts of MONE for achieving the target
of UNYBE by out-reaching the rural and remote areas and attracting children from the
religious minded and poorer families. The unit cost per student in MTs is much lower
than the unit cost in SMPs, but often at the cost of quality. Therefore, substantial public
inputs are required for their quality improvement in form of better qualified regular
teachers of science, mathematics and English, science equipment, library books, teacher
guides, laboratories, etc. the enrolment potential of MTs Education can be observed by
comparing the trend of their enrolment as compared with that of SLTP/SMPS during the
pre-crisis period of 1989-1993.
Table 4.1
Trends of Enrolment in SMPs and MTs
During 1989-1993 at JSS Level
27
(SLTP+SMP+MTs) 6.779 6.672 6.655 6.742 - 0.2 %
Table 4.1 shows that, during 1989-93, the enrolment of SLTP/SMP (under
MONE) has declined at the rate of 1.6 percent per annum, while enrolment of MTs
increased at the rate of 7.95 percent per annum. Demand for enrolment in madrasah
education in general, and for MTs schooling in particular, has been increasing even
further during the financial crisis years in Indonesia since 1997 (see Table 4.2).
Surprisingly, but not unexpectedly, the enrolment in MTs continued increasing during the
crisis period, while the enrolment in public SMPs remained almost static but enrolment in
private SMPs declined. The increase in MTs enrolment can be attributed to the fact that
(i) they are more easily accessible because of their location closer to the communities, (ii)
the cost of MTs schooling is lower than SMP costs, (iii) parents feels their children more
secure in madrasahs than in other schools against the recent menaces of drug trafficking
and other sources of adolescents delinquencies.
Table 4.2 :
Projected Enrolments, Total Gross Participation Rates, Rates of Entrance in
Grade 7, and Enrolment Share of MTs at Basic Education Level for Universalization
of Access to Nine Year Basic Education
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Gross Enrolment
Ratios at JSS level in
(i) SMPs/SLTP % 43.4 51.5 60.5 78.3
(ii) MTS % 9.2 10.6 13.6 16.2
(iii) Total % 52.6 62.1 74.1 84.5
In addition to the regular MTs, there are about 2,000 pesantrens having some
form of madrasahs education which combine general education and
vocational/entrepreneurial training with the religious education. Most pesantrens also
provide residential and boarding facilities at nominal cost, which are provided free at cost
to homeless and extremely poor students. The contribution of most pesantrens is another
additionally to universalization of nine-year basic education (UNYBE). They are also
source of poverty alleviation and promoting sustainability for the poorest.
The above analysis is indicative of the fact that madrasahs are the educational
institutions which are pre-dominantly source of support for the poor, the females, and
people living in under-served and remote areas. They are community-based institutions
run by community through yayasan or local religious leaders. The actual data on demand
for madrasah education, their community-based location, support by the community and
their moral standards show that MTs have great potential for achieving UNYBE as well
as for creating a just and civic society at modest costs. However, to be fair to madrasah
children, the policy makers should also see beyond the numbers and recognize the moral
development aspects. They should provide resources for quality input such that the
madrasah children can become competitive in the rapidly changing socio-economic and
technological world. This will require allocation of equitable assistance to madrasahs at
par with MONE schools from the government as well as from the international agencies
without any bias. The principle of equity in access to basic education for all children
(whether in schools or madrasahs) should be implemented in the true spirit and actuality.
Table 4.3
Yearly Enrolment Increase Junior Secondary Schools
Table 4.2 shows the long-term enrolment projections for junior secondary level,
which were prepared by educational planning consultants in 1994-1995, based on the
policy parameters of Repelita VI (Indonesian Sixth-Five Year Development Plan) and PJP
II (Second 25 year Development Plan). These parameters were quite ambitious, and so
were the enrolment projections. The projected enrolment target for year 2003 (end of
Repelita VII) was 1,755 million for MTs and 7,827 million for SMPs. Now after five
29
years, we note that, in actual achievement, the MTs have almost exceeded the target of
2003 much earlier (i.e. in 1999-2000), while the SMPs enrolment shows short-fall of
about 0.263 million during the same period (Table 4.3)
30