International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 37–43

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International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture

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Very high speed cutting of Ti–6Al–4V titanium alloy – change in morphology

and mechanism of chip formation
G. Sutter a,n, G. List a
a
Laboratoire d’Etude des Microstructures et de Mécanique des Matériaux, UMR C.N.R.S. n7239, Université de Lorraine, Ile du Saulcy, 57045 Metz Cedex 1, France

a r t i c l e i n f o abstract

Article history: The chip formation for a Ti–6Al–4V alloy was studied at high cutting speeds combined with large uncut
Received 23 September 2012 chip thicknesses (0.1–0.25 mm). Orthogonal cutting tests were conducted by using uncoated carbide
Received in revised form tools on a specific ballistic set-up with cutting speeds from 300 m/min to 4400 m/min (5–75 m/s).
15 November 2012
A hypothesis on the mechanism of chip generation is proposed for this speed range validated by high-
Accepted 16 November 2012
Available online 29 November 2012
speed imaging system enabled direct observation of cutting process. A transition, from serrated more or
less regular with localized shearing and possible presence of cracking, to discontinuous at very high
Keywords: speed is observed.
Very high cutting speed The inclination of the segment Fseg is shown as resulting from the primary shear angle F that can be
Chip formation
modified by compression between the tool and the uncut part. A maximum value of 601 for Fseg is
Chip morphology
reached with increasing speed after which it decreases to 451 at very high speed.
Titanium alloy
Orthogonal cutting The cutting speed appears as the most important factor when compared with the uncut chip
thickness, in determining the formation of chips by affecting the frequency of segmentation, the shear
angles and the crack length.
The significant reduction of cutting forces occurring with increases in cutting speed was firstly
explained by the conflicting work hardening–thermal softening processes and then depended on
whether the deformation phase of the chip segment is occurred.
& 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction accompanied by several physical and metallurgical changes [1]. The

The formation of serrated chips (or shear-localized chips) is a
typical characteristic of the machining of titanium alloys. These
kinds of chips are favoured for machined components as contin-
uous chip get tangled and are not appropriate for automated
processes. However, segmentation is also believed to be a critical
aspect due to periodic variations in the cutting forces that
increase tool wear rates and degradation of the machined surface
finish. The causes and effects of chip segmentation in titanium
alloys have received important attention in the aim of selecting
the optimal cutting conditions to improve the production and
increase both the tool life and surface quality.
The evolution of the chip morphology under conventional
cutting velocities Vc (up to 5 m/s) has been studied extensively.
The titanium alloy Ti–6Al–4V produces highly serrated chips in a
wide range of cutting speeds. During its formation, the chip is
divided into segments by bands that are very thin with localized
shear strain. The instability of the plastic deformation may also be
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ33 3 87 31 53 67; fax: þ33 3 87 31 53 66.
E-mail addresses: guy.sutter@univ-lorraine.fr,
sutter@lpmm.univ-metz.fr (G. Sutter), gautier.list@univ-lorraine.fr (G. List).
chip segmentation is also related with the vibration encountered in
machining processes such as turning or milling. Amin et al. [2]
considered that the formation of chips with serrated elements is the
primary cause of chatter and highlighted interactions between
chatter, natural frequencies of the tool/spindle and the morphology
of the segmented fragments. To summarize the evolution, Barry
et al. [3] depicted the chip morphology as a function of the cutting
speed Vc (0.25 m/soVc o3 m/s) and undeformed chip thickness t1
(0.02 mmot1 o0.1 mm) in orthogonal cutting of Ti–6Al–4V alloy.
In the results of these authors, aperiodic serrated chips are
produced at low values of cutting speed and undeformed chip
thickness. Increases in Vc or t1 results in a transition from aperiodic
to periodic serrated chip formation. Beside, Bayoumi and Xie [1]
employed the product Vc t1, called cutting load or chip load, as a
criterion of to analyze the conditions under which serrated chips
may occurs. It was found, that the critical value of the cutting load
for Ti–6Al–4V alloy is very low compared to low carbon steel as AISI
1020. It may be noted that continuous chips can exist under certain
conditions at very low cutting speed. It happens sometimes that
cross-sections of chip with mixed segmented and continuous chips
are observed [4].
Although the mechanisms of chip formation are not yet fully
clarified, two prevailing theories are generally claimed to explain

0890-6955/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2012.11.004
38 G. Sutter, G. List / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 37–43
the occurrence of the chip segmentation. The first involves
adiabatic shear, favoured by the low thermal conductivity of the
titanium alloy, and the second involves crack initiation and
propagation. Based on observations from previous works includ-
ing experimental observations and simulations [5–9], Fig. 1 shows
schematically various stages of the shear localization evolution
leading to the formation of periodic serrated chips under rela-
tively low or moderated cutting speeds. Fig. 1(a) presents the final
stage of the creation of a complete segment (I) which is oriented
by an angle named fSeg and the beginning of a new shear band that
propagates from the tool tip. The new shear angle f is necessary
lower than fSeg to respect the principle of volume conservation.
Fig. 1(b) shows an intermediate stage of segment formation, the
shear band is completely propagated with an intermediate shear
angle fint and a form of straight line. The creation of segment (II)
begins with the shear banding. Crack initiation can be initiated and
propagated from the free surface to the tip, the shear band offering a
privileged path for the fracture.
The range of very high cutting speeds when machining titanium
alloys is still however largely unexploited. The main reason is the
difficulty to achieve such speeds with conventional machine tools.
The results from the literature, exploring the very high speeds,
typically use specific devices based on ballistic means that are
similar to the split Hopkinson bars [10–12]. These studies were
mainly interested in the appearance frequency of adiabatic shear
bands or the intensity of the chip segmentation. The mechanisms
of chip formation are quite different from those encountered at
conventional speeds because the plastic instability is more intense
and is accompanied by amplified phenomena of ductile or brittle
fracture. Due to the high speed, the dynamics of cutting itself is
changed, particularly with regard to the chip removing. In this
paper, the field of very high speeds (up to 80 m/s) is explored,
combined with a large uncut chip thickness (up to 0.25 mm) in
order to study the evolution of the chip morphology for the Ti–
6Al–4V titanium alloy. The dynamics of chip formation and the
significant mechanisms that predominate in the field of extreme
cutting speeds are studied. The proposed work is also important to
help to validate the numerical cutting models based on the finite
cutting φ cutting
I II
tool
φι
A workpiece
Fig. 1. Formation of serrated chip at conventional cutting speed.
receiving tube
tools holding
fixture
Support
Chip
strain gauge
cutting tool
Fig. 2. Diagram of the ballistic cutting set-up.
element method, that take into account all physical phenomena
that occur in this domain.
2. Cutting experiments
2.1. Cutting tests
To study the machining of the Ti–6Al–4V titanium alloy in a
wide range of conditions, cutting test were carried out on two
experimental devices. A first range of cutting speeds was realized
on a NC lathe and a ballistic device is employed for higher cutting
speeds. Identical type of uncoated carbide tools (SCMT 120408-235)
without chip breaker was used on these two devices. The high-
power NC lathe was equipped with a dynamometer KISTLER 9265B
for the cutting force measurement. The significant diameter of the
workpiece (200 mm) was selected on the one hand to achieve high
cutting speeds and to the other hand to limit the effects of the
curvature of the machined surface. Orthogonal cutting tests were
performed by cutting discs with a width of 10 mm. The obtained
speeds are ranged from 300 to 1200 m/min (5–20 m/s). The second
device consists of a specific sensor that is used as a tools holding
fixture [13,14]. This sensor was mounted on a ballistic launcher (see
Fig. 2) to complete the cutting speed range (12–80 m/s).
The ballistic launcher consists of two coaxial tubes. Compressed
air of the gas gun was used to propel a projectile through a launch
tube on the two cutting tools so as to ensure its rectilinear
displacement. A set of strain gauges glued on the load sensor
supporting the tools records the axial component of the cutting
forces. A mutual domain of cutting conditions exists for the two
different experimental devices. The validation of the experiments is
ensured by superposition of the results. With the good accessibility
of the second device, an intensified camera can be placed close to
the cutting zone. Snapshots with high magnification may be taken in
real time. However, due to the dynamical sequences of the serrated
chips for the explored cutting speeds, the photographs are not as
sharp as the pictures obtained in the case of continuous chips for the
same cutting speeds [15]. Nevertheless, some images are still usable
φ I
I
cutting
tool II tool
φιnt
A workpiece A workpiece
intensified CCD camera
detail of cutting process
tool
specimen chip
launch tube
specimen
tool
 G. Sutter, G. List / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 37–43 39

and can adequately support the hypotheses on the mechanism of the initial shear similar to the one that describes the formation of
chip formation described in the following paragraphs. a continuous chip in the primary shear zone. Nevertheless, it may
be possible to have an order of magnitude for f by a geometric
analysis as suggested for example by Gente and Hoffmeister [11].
2.2. Geometry of the chip
Considering that an element of volume, characterized by the
angle f, the length p and the width d (cf. Fig. 4), is the source
In these experiments the chip shape was systematically
of a segment with the inclination fseg and the width dch, by
investigated at each cutting conditions using optical microscopy.
applying the condition of incompressibility in plastic deforma-
The chips produced were collected and polished to measure the
tion, we obtain the balance equation:
thicknesses t2max and t2min, dch the distance between each seg- !
ments and fseg the inclination angle, see Fig. 3. t1 d t 2max
t1 p ¼ ¼ dch dch tanfseg ð2Þ
From the values of t2max and t2min, the degree of segmentation sinf cosfseg
G was evaluated by:
Finally, with the assumption that the values of d and dch are
t 2max t 2min close (d ¼dch), the initial shear angle f may be estimated by the
G¼ ð1Þ
t 2max following equation:
0 1
As described in the introduction part, the shear angle f and
t 1
the inclination angle of a segment fseg are differentiated as shown f ¼ arcsin@  A ð3Þ
in Fig. 4. The angle fseg is actually measured on the collected t 2max =cosfseg dch tanfseg
chips while the shear angle f cannot be. The angle f represents
The frequency of serration f can be defined, as being the
number of segments produced per unit time. This frequency
was obtained for a continuous chip as follows:
Number of segments
f¼ ð4Þ
Time of cutting

3. Analysis of the chip segmentation

3.1. Evolution of the chip morphology

Micrographs of the chips collected during the different tests

are presented in Fig. 5 according to the cutting speed and two
depths of cut studied (t1 ¼0.1 and 0.25 mm). For the lowest
speeds used during our tests (5 m/s), the chips are regularly
serrated in form and in frequency. At this speed, the chips have
morphologies similar to those encountered in the conventional
speed range. The presence of random cracks more or less formed
on a same chip is also observed. With a higher depth of cut the
opening of the crack is wider.
With increasing speed, the segments suffer from severe deforma-
tion. After formation, the segment seems to be submitted to
significant compression from the part of material which is not yet
cut and that will form the next segment. This phenomenon is more
important for the depth of cut t1 ¼0.1 mm. For the higher depth of
cut (t1 ¼0.25 mm) this phase of crushing seems to affect only the
bottom part of the segment. Increased speed also has the effect of
Fig. 3. Serrated chip shape from experiments showing the measured parameters. reducing the maximum chip thickness as shown in Fig. 6(a) but also
increases the phenomenon of segmentation as illustrated by the
parameter G tending to the value of 1 (see Fig. 6(b)). The asymptotic
value of 1 means that the teeth are increasingly marked and that the
chip morphology tends to be discontinuous. This phenomenon
accelerates as the cutting depth increases.
It must also be noted that in the field of high cutting speeds, a
certain irregularity in segment formation can occur. The measure-
Φseg ments presented in Fig. 6 are performed on chips machined on a
total length of 12 mm and more than 10 measurements are
performed on each chip. Thus, on each graph, the experimental
cutting p values are symbolized by an average value and by errors bars
tool
showing the dispersion of measures.

d
Φ t1 3.2. Evolution of the shear angle

workpiece The study of inclination of the segment fseg and the initial shear
angle f can be useful for understanding the mechanism of chip
Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of the serrated chip. formation. When the cutting speed increases, the segment angle
40 G. Sutter, G. List / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 37–43

Fig. 5. Chip morphologies for titanium alloy machined at different cutting speeds with two uncut chip thicknesses t1 ¼ 0.1 mm (1–6) and t1 ¼ 0.25 mm (7–12).

t1=0.1 (NC lathe) 70

800
t1=0.1 (BS) 60

700 50
t1=0.25 (NC lathe)

600 40
seg [°]

t1=0.25 (BS)

500 t1=0.1 (NClathe)

t2 max [µm]

30
t1=0.1 (BS)
400 20
t1=0.25 (NC lathe)
300 10
t1=0.25 (BS)
200 0
0 20 40 60 80
100 Cutting speed [m/s]

0
0 20 40 60 80
80
Cutting speed [m/s]
70

1.2 60

50
[°]

1
40
t1=0.1 (NC lathe)
0.8 30
t1=0.1 (BS)
20
t1=0.25 (NC lathe)
G

0.6
10
t1=0.25 (BS)
t1=0.1 (NC lathe)
0
0.4 0 20 40 60 80
t1=0.1 (BS)
Cutting speed [m/s]
0.2 t1=0.25 (NC lathe)
Fig. 7. (a) Inclination of the segment and (b) shear angle evolutions versus the
t1=0.25 (BS)
cutting speed.
0
0 20 40 60 80
Cutting speed [m/s] must be correlated with the evolution of the initial shear angle f
(Fig. 7(b)). Indeed, the shear angle tends to a value estimated to be
Fig. 6. (a) Maximum chip thickness t2max and (b) G, versus the cutting speed.
Experiments results obtained on a NC lathe and the ballistic set-up (BS). around 451. This is the limit value that is expected in the formation
of the continuous chips at very high cutting speeds. This trend was
fseg tends to a limit value around 601 (Fig. 7(a)), then falls also observed experimentally in the case of steels with low carbon
progressively towards a value around 451. The evolution of fseg content that mostly produce continuous chips, [15,16].
 G. Sutter, G. List / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 37–43 41

SERRATED CHIP

REGULAR
Cutting Cutting Cutting
tool tool tool

workpiece
workpiece workpiece
workpiece workpiece
workpiece

Serrated Chip with

Transitional Phase
Cutting Cutting Cutting
tool tool tool

workpiece workpiece workpiece

DISCONTINUOUS
Cutting Cutting Cutting Cutting
tool tool tool tool

CHIP
workpiece workpiece workpiece workpiece

Fig. 8. Schematic sequences of chips formation in Ti alloys machining for high cutting speed.

In the case of very high speed machining of titanium alloy,

above a speed function of t1, this trend shows that the initial
phase of the chip formation (see Fig. 1) is always performed
similarly. The initial shear angle is then close to 451 that would
correspond to a minimum shear energy. The diversity of chips
forms may be then explained by the dynamic effects of segment
evacuation governed by phenomena of shear bands propagation
and crack formation.

3.3. Dynamic of the chip formation

According to the previous observations of chips morphologies

and shear mechanisms, three cases explaining the dynamics of
chip formation can be defined for the explored speeds: (1) the
regular serrated chip formation (2) the serrated chip formation
with transition involving a compression phase of the segments
(3) the formation of discontinuous chips. The different stages of
the segments formation are schematically proposed in Fig. 8 for
three cases. The first category is the most widely observed in
previous studies. The segment formation is characterized by a
relatively high inclination of the segment fseg and by a phenom-
enon of crack propagation that seems to be initiated on the outer
chip surface. The second category with transition phase can
explain the wide variety of chips shown in Fig. 5. The level of
deformation due to compression of the chips depends largely on Fig. 9. Real time photo during Ti alloy machining: Vc ¼ 54 m/s, t1 ¼ 0.25 mm.
the interconnection phenomena between propagation of adia-
batic shear bands and the appearance of the cracks (on the outer phenomenon propagating very rapidly, the material behavior can be
surface but also in the shear band). compared to a brittle material [17]. For the greater depth of cut, due
As crack propagation is not complete, the segment remains to a higher kinetic energy of the segments, they leave the cutting
sometimes attached by a little part. However, the segment is area more quickly without undergoing deformation. The segments
rapidly evacuated thanks to its own kinetic energy. Pictures taken are then regular with triangular shapes. This explains that the value
in real time during the cutting tests as presented in Fig. 9, confirm (around 451) of the inclination of the segment is then similar to the
this experimentally. A detachment between the segment and the initial angle of primary shear.
workpiece is clearly observed. The fact that the segment is largely
separated from the workpiece makes taking pictures even harder.
In fact, the relative movement of the chip induces in a worse 4. Specific cutting force evolution
sharpness on the segments.
Beyond a certain speed (45 m/s for t1 ¼0.1 mm and 20 m/s for During the tests, cutting forces were measured and the
t1 ¼0.25 mm) the chips were all discontinuous with a profile that evolution of their signals plotted against time can be explained
has suffered compression for the shallow depth of cut. The cracking by the phenomena of chip segmentation as well as by the
42 G. Sutter, G. List / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 37–43

dynamics of chip removal as described in the previous section. extrusion [23] limits the decrease in cutting forces that then tend
The signal presented in Fig. 10 that defines the mean cutting to stabilize. At very high speed, as the segments are instantly
force shows a natural frequency of 119 kHz. This frequency is ejected, the cutting forces are expected to decrease.
correlated to the frequency of the segmentation f, deduced from As shown in Fig. 12, the frequency clearly increases with
the chip morphology and varying between 110 and 140 kHz. speed. The saturation observed beyond 40 m/s is consequential
On the evolution of the mean cutting force (Fig. 11 [3,11,18–22]), to the impossibility of measuring the spacing of the segments that
a rapid drop corresponding to the cutting speeds slower than are then detached. However, the frequency is necessarily less
5–10 m/s (300–600 m/mn) was observed. This could be explained than the asymptotic value. With the increasing depth of cut, the
by the predominant effect of thermal softening of the material as a frequency of segmentation is reduced but follows an increasing
result of a strong localized heating (low thermal conductivity). trend with speed. However, the trend seems to be less marked
This drop tends to slow down between 10 and 40 m/s (600– below 40 m/s.
2400 m/min). With increasing speed, the effect of dynamic strain
hardening and strain rate hardening is more competitive than the
thermal effects and limits the drop with speed. This trend may be 5. Conclusion
correlated with the saturation of the primary shear angle and the
shear angle of segmentation that were previously observed. The goal of this work was to propose a detailed analysis of
For the cutting speed ranging from 10 to 40 m/s, the segments geometry of the chip alloy Ti–6Al–4V. The originality of this
are increasingly deformed. This deformation is most clearly approach lies in the speed range explored varying between
observed for the small depth of cut (t1 ¼0.1 mm). The segments 300 m/min and 4400 m/min (5–75 m/s) that corresponds for
are submitted to a compression phase during their extrusion that carbide tools to the field of high speed (500 m/min) and very
could explain the slowdown in the fall of cutting forces. For the large high speed (upper 600 m/mn). This analysis helps to understand
depth of cut t1 ¼0.25 mm the compression phase is less clear. the process of chip formation and proposes a hypothesis of their
At speeds beyond 40 m/s (2400 m/min), the segments do not generation during high speed machining. The ability to save
have time to be evacuated. The cracking is not complete (the snapshots of the cut in progress has complemented the post-
crack length decreases) and a heel connects segments preventing mortem micrographic analysis of chips and strengthens the
their evacuation. The segment is then compressed between the hypotheses.
workpiece and the cutting tool. It is only after the compression The main results are:
phase that it leaves the cutting area. The energy consumed by the
– A monitoring of the evolution of the chip geometry is pro-
posed. Two main types were observed for the explored speed
0.25 range: (1) serrated more or less regular with localized shearing

500
0.20
OUTPUT SIGNAL [V]

t1=0.1 (NC lathe)

0.15 400 t1=0.1 (BS)

t1=0.25 (NC lathe)
t1=0.25 (BS)
0.10 300
f [kHz]

0.05
200

0.00 Duration of cutting

100

-0.05
0.0 1.0x10-4 2.0x10-4 3.0x10-4 4.0x10-4 5.0x10-4 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
TIME [s]
Cutting Speed [m/s]
Fig. 10. Typical signal recorded during the cutting test on the ballistic set-up (BS), Fig. 12. Effects of the cutting speed on segmentation frequency in Ti alloy
corresponding to the specific cutting force: Vc ¼ 32 m/s t1 ¼ 0.1 mm. machining.

4000
Our Experiments

Hoffmeister et al. [18]

Specific Cutting Force [N/mm²]

3000
Gente and Hoffmeister [11]

Hoppe [19]

2000 Barry [3]

Illgner [20]

1000 Larbi [21]

cotterell [22]

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Cutting Speed [m/s]

Fig. 11. Specific cutting force evolution of Ti–6Al–4V after our experiments and previous results [3,11,18–22].
 G. Sutter, G. List / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 37–43
and possible presence of cracks and (2) discontinuous at very
high speed. A transitional stage involving a compression stage
of the segments separates these two types.
– A process of creation and modification of the segments is
proposed. Compared with previous results found in the litera-
ture, higher speeds and cutting tests with bigger uncut chip
thickness are proposed. At very high speed (Vc 445 m/s and
t1 ¼0.25 mm), the chip formation follows a cyclic phase (repe-
titive) which is reset after the formation and removal of a
segment. This is confirmed by photographs taken during
machining. The chips are then of a regular triangular shape,
because they have no suffered compression phase.
– The inclination of the segment Fseg results from the primary
shear angle F amplified by a phase of compression more or
less intense. Consequently, Fseg is generally greater than or
equal to F. A maximum value of 601 for Fseg is also observed
with increasing speed and then returns to 451 at very high
speed. This trend reversal occurs more rapidly with t1.
– Compared to the uncut chip thickness, the cutting speed
appears as the most important factor in determining the chip
formation. It mainly affects the frequency of segmentation, the
shear angles and the crack length.
– The chip formation can explain the evolution of efforts with
cutting speed and more specifically the saturation observed at
high speed.
Initially (0–10 m/s), efforts drop due to the predominant effect
of thermal softening of the material as a result of a strong
localized heating (low thermal conductivity).
With increasing speed (10–40 m/s), the effects of dynamic
strain hardening and strain rate hardening become more compe-
titive than thermal effects and significantly limit the efforts drop
with speed. The chips are increasingly segmented with more
pronounced cracking. The frequency of segmentation results in a
reduction of cutting forces. However, if cracking is not complete,
the segment remains trapped between the workpiece and the tool
and is compressed before being expelled. The energy consumed
limits the efforts drop and the forces tend to reach a plateau.
The higher speed (40–75 m/s) favours the expulsion of seg-
ments and hence the reduction of cutting forces. Increasing the
depth of cut accelerates the process of chip flow and may be
combined with the speed effect.
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