Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2016) 82:1041–1048
DOI 10.1007/s00170-015-7430-6
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Analysis of tapping process in three types of cast iron
Igor Cézar Pereira 1 & Marcio Bacci Da Silva 2 & Daniel Fernandes Da Cunha 2 &
Wisley Falco Sales 2
Received: 25 February 2015 / Accepted: 11 June 2015 / Published online: 28 June 2015
# Springer-Verlag London 2015
Abstract The main objective of this work is to investigate the
tapping operation of cast iron when varying the cutting speed
and the method of application of cutting fluid, monitoring tool
wear, torque, and axial force during the operation. Two types
of gray cast iron were evaluated: CrCuSn alloy, FC 250;
CrCuSnMo alloy, FC 300, and compacted graphite iron ma-
chine tool, FV 350. Tests were performed at two lubrication/
cooling conditions: in the first one, it was applied an emulsion
of water and oil; in the second one, the fluid was applied in
minimal quantity (MQF), at pressure of 6.0 bar and intermit-
tent spray at a frequency of 1 pulse/s, resulting in a flow rate of
30 ml/h. For MQF condition, a vegetable oil was used.
Torque, axial forces, and tool wear were measured during
the operation. Statistical analysis showed that the cutting
speed was the parameter that most influences the torque,
followed by the cutting fluid and the material hardness.
Keywords Tapping . Axial force . Torque . Cast iron .
Machinability
1 Introduction
Assemblies provided by screws have been widely used within
all industry sectors. Usually, tapping is the last stage of the
manufacturing process, therefore good tolerance (both
* Igor Cézar Pereira
igorcezarp@yahoo.com.br
1
Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais,
Brazil
2
Federal University of Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
geometrical and dimensional) and surface finishing must be
achieved in order to result in a perfect assembly, with no
clearance [1].
Internal threading is a highly complex operation not only
due to the need for synchronism between the machine rotation
and feed motion but also to features such as chip ejection
difficulty (mainly in blind holes and in materials with short
chip) and the difficulty in cooling and lubrication, when they
are required. These issues are aggravated when machining
large threaded lengths. This leads to great concern for it cannot
fail, since it is an operation in many cases performed in work-
pieces that already present high added value, and its failure
would generate great expenses [2]. It is usually the last oper-
ation held in the workpiece manufacturing.
Other problems associated with the tapping process include
thread dimensional accuracy, thread form error, and surface
roughness of thread forms. Cutting fluids are often used in
tapping processes and are believed to be beneficial to
the reduction of tapping forces and improvement of
thread quality [3].
The lack of synchronism and stiffness of the machine tool
or fastening systems results in a non-uniformity of the threads.
Moreover, some tool materials as, for example, cemented car-
bide, require great pattern of synchronism and hardness in
order to obtain success with the tool [4]. Thus, the synchro-
nism between rotation and feed motion is highly important for
manufacturing threads with good accuracy and surface
quality [5].
Cutting force in internal threading with tap, when the diam-
eter and the pitch are equal, is influenced by tool geometry [6].
The threading process is highly sensitive to lubrication or
cooling. The internal threading operation, for instance, has
been used as pattern for comparison and evaluation of cutting
fluids [7]. Carbon steel threading is an example of a cutting
operation in which the cutting fluid is essential. In this case,
1042
since the cutting speeds are quite low, lubricating fluid such as
mineral oil is usually used in order to facilitate chip exit and
avoid tool breakage.
One way to investigate a machining process and to evaluate
the effect of cutting parameters is through the measuring of the
cutting force. For the threading operation, since the tool is
rotating, torque during machining is a direct measure of the
cutting force. Nevertheless, torque behavior is somewhat
more complex than in more traditional processes, such as
turning and milling. Machining is performed throughout the
several tap screw threads. The complete machining of a screw
thread follows a certain sequence and the number of rotations
to machining a screw thread depends on the geometry of the
tap. Thus, for example, for a tool with three flutes and three
screw threads on the tapered portion, as in Fig. 1, a screw
thread is machined with approximately 8–9 tool rotations.
The machining sequence is illustrated in Fig. 2 for a single
thread. Figure 1 identifies each tool according to its position in
the tap.
Figure 1 shows a cross-sectional geometry of consecutive
threads along each land. There are three zones of threads: the
first one is a couple of chamfered threads, of which radii
increase gradually reaching up to the radius of the full threads
in sequence of A1, B1, C1, A2, … , B3, C3, engaging in the
actual cutting. The second one having full threads plays a role
in finishing threading and guiding the tool itself into the
thread. The third one having a relief angle guides the tool to
come out along the created threads when retreating in back-
ward tapping. The areas progressively cut by the succeeding
chamfered threads are schematically shown in Fig. 2 [5].
An important feature of the threading process is that the
machine tool must reverse the rotation direction for retreat.
During the machine braking period (which depends on the
machine tool acceleration), the axial force may undergo major
variation and reach high values.
During the retreat period, in which several cutting edges go
through a path reverse to the cutting, particles or chips lodged
in the produced screw threads may generate torque greater
than the actual torque from the machining process. In more
Fig. 1 Cross-sections of threads along each land [5]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2016) 82:1041–1048
Fig. 2 Cutting areas by consecutive chamfered threads [5]
severe cases, there is the tap breakage by torsion. In this case, a
cutting fluid is extremely important. As a result, ductile mate-
rials such as steels, that form long chips, must be machined
with a lubricating fluid. In the machining of gray cast
irons, chip may easily clog the tool channels, leading to
its premature breakage. The main objective of this work
is to analyze torque in the machining of gray cast iron
and compacted graphite iron and the effect of cutting
fluid application. The fluid is applied in the traditional
manner, with minimum lubrication quantity. The effect
of the cutting speed, which is the only variable for this
type of operation, is also investigated.
In their work, Ahn et al. [5] evaluate the effect of synchro-
nism error on torque and axial force; in order to assess the
influence of synchronism error, they varied the cutting speed,
which increases synchronism error, and altered the pro-
grammed pitch as a way of including a pre-determined syn-
chronism error. Figure 3 shows the behavior of both torque
and axial force with the programmed pitch alteration. Ideal
pitch is 1.00 mm; note that axial force rises considerably with
the synchronism error increase and that torque shows a slight
decrease with such error increase.
Mezentsev et al. [8] analyzed experimental torque signal
and compared it with the signal obtained by means of simu-
lation for five different cases. The first one is the case in which
both the tap and the tapping conditions are ideal; in the second
one, there is one teeth broken; in the third one, there is a given
runout; in the fourth one, there is a misalignment; and in the
fifth one, there are both a runout and a misalignment. The
referred comparison is crucial to emphasize the importance
of knowing not only the smallest details of the torque and
force graph but also when and how it is possible to use force
and torque signals to detect common threading process
problems.
Da Mota [9] observed a torque decrease with speed in-
crease consistent with literature. However, he also noticed an
increase in the return torque with the cutting speed. According
to the author, this is caused by tool wear and enclosed chip in
the flute and in the tap tooth.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2016) 82:1041–1048 1043

Fig. 3 Tapping torque and thrust

at 2000 rpm

Klocke and Gerschwiler [10] and Weinert et al. [11] ana-
lyzed various studies and compared dry machining and min-
imum quantity lubrication (MQL). The tests indicate that the
technique is also efficient for tapping, since the torque results
for MQL use were lower than those for dry tapping.
2 Methodology
2.1 Workpiece material
Three workpiece materials where used for performing the
tests, as follows: gray cast iron and CrCuSn alloy (material
A) FC 250; gray cast iron and CrCuSnMo alloy (material B)
FC 300; and class 350 compacted graphite iron (material C)
FV 350. Table 1 shows the chemical composition of each of
them. For both gray cast iron alloys, the matrix is 100 %
pearlitic; the class 350 compacted graphite iron, on the other
hand, presents a pearlitic matrix with 44 % ferrite.
Table 2 shows some of the properties of each material.
were the cutting speed, the cutting fluid application type, and
the workpiece material. For each test condition, three test rep-
etitions were performed.
A Discovery 760 Romi machining center with 3 axles and
11 kW power was used for performing the tests. To measure
the axial force and torque during operation, a Kistler dyna-
mometer model 9123 C1211 was used, along with a Kistler
multi-channel signal conditioner model 5223131. For signal
acquisition, a DAK 6202 signal acquisition plate was used at a
acquisition rate of 100 Hz.
During the tests, a water and mineral oil emulsion (15 %)
was used in flood lubrication and minimum quantity of fluid
(MQF). An Accu-Lube LB2000 vegetable oil, fabricated by
ITW Chemical Products LTDA was used for the MQF. The
applied pressure was around 6.0 bar, with intermittent fluid
“spray” in the frequency of 1 pulse/s. The cutting fluid flow
rate is approximately 30 ml/h.
3 Results and discussions

2.2 Cutting tool and machine The tool torque, during threading, varies for different reasons
up to the axis reversal. Figure 4 shows a generic graph of
A M6 6H HSS-E tap with Futura coating and a M6 6H Ni torque variation with time in the tapping process. T1 repre-
HSS were used. Cutting parameters and conditions that varied sents the moment when the tool touches the workpiece; from

Table 2 Mechanical properties of the machined materials

Table 1 Chemical composition of the cast irons supplied by Tupy S.A
Property Material A Material B Material C
Material C Si Mn S Cu Sn Mo Cr Ti
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 233.06 251.17 356.52
FC 250 (A) 3.4 2.1 0.55 0.09 0.62 0.055 0 0.19 0.013 Hardness (HB) 216.4 223.5 174.9
FC 300 (B) 3.3 2.1 0.54 0.09 0.9 0.03 0.27 0.26 0.009 Pearlite micro-hardness (HV 0.1) 320.3 330.13 341.64
FV 350 (C) 3.5 2.3 0.25 0.006 0.19 0.024 0 0 0.01 Thermal conductivity (W/K m) 50 45.5 37
1044
Fig. 4 Typical torque graph for internal threading of a blind hole
T1 to T2 cutting is initiated; from T1 to T3, there is the entry
of the entire tapered portion of the tap on the workpiece. From
T2 to T4, the thread formation within the expected require-
ments occurs; from T4 to T5, a programmed outage takes
place in order to happen the movement reversal; the downtime
can be set within the CNC program. From T5 to T6, there is
the movement reversal and, therefore, the tool retreat, causing
the torque values to be negative. Ultimately, from T6 on, the
tool no longer makes contact with the workpiece.
During the thread formation (in the portion circled in
green), there is a torque decrease while approaching the out-
age. This is due to the deceleration required to outage, which
establishes a torque opposed to the movement. This is a typ-
ical graph for a blind hole.
3.1 Effect of the cutting speed on the force and torque
for materials A, B, and C, dry condition
Figure 5 shows the effect of cutting speed on the axial force to
the three materials. One can note a force increase with the
cutting speed. At first, this result may seem inconsistent. How-
ever, this axial force is representative of the thrust force and
composed by several forces, such as friction, tension or com-
pression, and cutting force. Therefore, the axial force is influ-
enced by the synchronism error. And synchronism depends on
Fig. 5 Comparative entrance force graph for materials A, B, and C at
speed of 20, 35, and 75 m/min, dry condition
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2016) 82:1041–1048
the cutting speed. There is also a possible increase in the
adhered material, both in the screw threads and in the screw
thread root, since despite the increase in the cutting speeds,
they are still not high. All these factors contribute to the in-
crease of the axial force with increasing cutting speed.
When talking about operations with rotating tools, torque is
the best representative of the cutting force. Figure 6 shows the
relation between cutting speed and torque for the three mate-
rials, once again with no cutting fluid.
Torque is built by the cutting forces on each operative tap
cutting edge. The resulting torque is the sum of the cutting
force times the tool radius, plus the friction force portion. The
torque portion originated from friction might be predicted.
During the tool retrieval period, even without the occurrence
of machining, there is a torque portion. Such torque may rep-
resent the portion originated by friction force.
The values presented in Fig. 6 are averages obtained during
cutting, which means between input and stop. Therefore, they
contain “errors” due to the high value of breaking decelera-
tion, mainly for the values 35 and 75 m/min. These errors lead
to a decrease of the torque measured values. The results are
more sensitive for the speeds 35 and 75 m/min, due to the
greater deceleration period. Therefore, the differences on
torque could be smaller and the effect of the deceleration
could decrease the real torque value.
Both force and torque point material C as the easier to
machine, followed by materials B and A. However, Naves
[12] presents different results for milling, as in Fig. 7. Consid-
ering tool life as a machinability parameter, material A has the
best machinability, followed by material B and, finally, mate-
rial C.
A fact to explain this machinability difference on the two
studies could be the cutting depth. For milling, cutting depth is
1.5 mm and for threading, around 0.15 mm, which means that
in threading, there is micro-machining. Therefore, size effect
has a direct influence on the cutting force, while for milling,
such effect is not direct. Since materials A and B have micro-
constituents with inferior machinability, its machinability is
impaired.
Fig. 6 Torque graph for materials A, B, and C at speed of 20, 35, and
75 m/min, dry condition
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2016) 82:1041–1048
Fig. 7 Tool life for a 0.15-mm Vb [12]
3.2 Effect of the lubrication
Cutting fluid application had a significant effect on torque,
reducing in approximately 10 % when in comparison with
dry machining. The best results were achieved with the appli-
cation of flooded emulsifiable fluid. Since the cutting fluid
adopted in this work presents a 15 % concentration, it acts
not only as a lubricant and cooling fluid, and also as a chip
remover. This decreases the probability of chip lodging be-
tween the tool and the workpiece, effect that can lead to tool
breakage, as well as problems in the thread quality. It is no-
ticeable that the use of emulsifiable fluid and MQF, in some
cases, matched some torque values for different materials.
This shows that the cutting fluids have different effects in
different types of materials and cutting conditions (Fig. 8).
When the cutting speed was increased to 35 m/min, the
tendency of all three materials remained alike. In Fig. 9, ma-
terial A is still the one that suffers greater influence of cutting
fluid, presenting a general decrease of 12.3 % on torque value,
when in comparison with the dry and flood condition. Cao and
Sutherland [3] claim that the cutting fluid applied on the
threading process acts for decreasing machining forces and
improving the surface quality of the manufactured threads.
However, the cutting fluid will perform its role with greater
efficiency on low and medium cutting speeds, since at high
Fig. 8 Effect of the type of cutting fluid on torque, for the three types of
materials (A, B, and C) with speed of 20 m/min
1045
Fig. 9 Effect of the type of cutting fluid on torque, for all three types of
materials (A, B, and C), with cutting speed of 35 m/min
cutting speeds, in some cases, they start having a negative
effect on machining.
Differently from what occurs for cutting speeds of 20 and
35 m/min, with 75 m/min (Fig. 10), the effects of cutting fluid
on materials B and C are negligible or greatly less significant.
However, material A presented a different behavior than the
other two materials regarding the use of fluid, showing a
torque decrease of approximately 13 %.
3.3 Machinability comparison for the three materials
Torque values indicate that material C has the best machin-
ability, followed by material B and, finally, material A. This
can be explained by the fact that material C has the lower
hardness and worse thermal conductivity being, therefore,
the one that can achieve the greater temperatures, reducing
its strength. Material A, on the other hand, besides presenting
hardness and tensile strength values close to those of material
B, also has the best thermal conductivity, thus creating a con-
trary effect to the one mentioned for material C, which means
that instead of heating, it cools rapidly, maintaining its break-
ing strength closer to that on room temperature.
Fig. 10 Effect of the type of cutting fluid on torque, for all three types of
materials (A, B, and C) at cutting speed of 75 m/min
1046 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2016) 82:1041–1048

Another important feature of material C, which contributes Table 4 Influent factors

to a better machinability, is its matrix, with 44 % ferrite. Ac- Variables/interactions Β (regression coefficient)
cording to Machado et al. [13], this structure presents a 150B
hardness, besides being soft and presenting high ductility, Cutting speed (vc) −0.99
which may lead to the occurrence of APCs at low speeds, Material hardness 0.235
yet its machinability is better than pearlite. Fluid −0.29
Still analyzing the machinability of cast irons by their ma- vc2 0.308
trix constitution, Guesser [14] claims that the amount of ce- Material hardness2 0.019
mentite in the pearlite might directly affect the material’s ma- Fluid2 −0.03
chinability. Thus, when analyzing the cause for the worse vc ×material hardness 0.046
machinability of material A when in comparison with material vc ×fluid 0.061
B, on the contrary of the results found in works such as [12] Hardness×fluid −0.01
and also some information from scientific literature, that
claims for the same type of material, the one with great-
er tensile strength will present the worse machinability Thus, this may be one of the reasons why material A has
rates. One should remember that in the present work, it torque values superior to those obtained for material B. This is
is considered that material A presents greater amount of known as size effect: when the cutting depth (in this case, the
cementite in its pearlitic matrix, since it has greater in-feed depth of the cutting edges on the material) is small
amount of tin, which tends to increase the cementite enough so that the micro-constituents start affecting in a more
percentage in the pearlite. effective way the machinability.

Table 3 Variables codifying

vc (m/min) Hardness (HB) Cut fluid vc2 Hardness2 Fluid2 vc ×hardness vc ×fluid Hardness×fluid Torque (N m)

−1 −1 −1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.4296
−1 −1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1.4141
−1 −1 1 1 1 1 1 −1 −1 1.3064
−1 0.7 −1 1 0.49 1 −0.7 1 −1 1.5089
−1 0.7 0 1 0.49 0 −0.7 0 0 1.4186
−1 0.7 1 1 0.49 1 −0.7 −1 0.7 1.3654
−1 1 −1 1 1 1 −1 1 −1 1.5012
−1 1 0 1 1 0 −1 0 0 1.4647
−1 1 1 1 1 1 −1 −1 1 1.3706
−0.68 −1 −1 0.5 1 1 0.68 0.68 1 1.2604
−0.68 −1 0 0.5 1 0 0.68 0 0 1.2476
−0.68 −1 1 0.5 1 1 0.68 −0.68 −1 1.1632
−0.68 0.7 −1 0.5 0.49 1 −0.5 0.68 −1 1.3808
−0.68 0.7 0 0.5 0.49 0 −0.5 0 0 1.2653
−0.68 0.7 1 0.5 0.49 1 −0.5 −0.68 0.7 1.2178
−0.68 1 −1 0.5 1 1 −0.7 0.68 −1 1.3339
−0.68 1 0 0.5 1 0 −0.7 0 0 1.3157
−0.68 1 1 0.5 1 1 −0.7 −0.68 1 1.2168
1 −1 −1 1 1 1 −1 −1 1 1.0808
1 −1 0 1 1 0 −1 0 0 1.0057
1 −1 1 1 1 1 −1 1 −1 0.9892
1 0.7 −1 1 0.49 1 0.7 −1 −1 1.1616
1 0.7 0 1 0.49 0 0.7 0 0 1.0981
1 0.7 1 1 0.49 1 0.7 1 0.7 1.0150
1 1 −1 1 1 1 1 −1 −1 1.1330
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1.1309
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.1229
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2016) 82:1041–1048
3.4 Statistical analysis
The use of factorial design technique consists on, first,
selecting the factors (independent system variables) and
choosing the levels (values assumed by the variables) that will
be studied. Following, one must define the amount of exper-
iments to be performed according to the number of considered
variables and levels. The number of experiments to be per-
formed is represented as power. In order to standardize the
limits and turn the variables non-dimensional, these are codi-
fied as follows [15]:
ξi −ξ0
X ¼ ð1Þ
ðξ1 −ξ−1 Þ=2
Where X is the value of the coded variable, ξ is the original or
yet non-coded value, ξ0 represents the original value in the
central level, and ξ1 and ξ−1 are the values of the non-coded
variable regarding levels 1 and −1, respectively.
The variables were not chosen to compose a factorial de-
sign, since the spacing between its quantified values is not
equal, therefore a multiple regression analysis was made. This
technique consists on codifying the variables by the same
equation previously presented; however, its codifying values
on the intermediate level will not be 0, although the inferior
and superior levels will remain being −1 and 1, respectively, in
an attempt to make the dimensioning more equally spaced as
possible for analyzing the results.
The value chosen as intermediate value of the multiple
regression was the medium value of the adopted variables,
which means for the variables cutting speed and material hard-
ness, the coded value 0 represents 67.5 m/min and 374.1 HB,
respectively; thus, the coded value to the analyzed values of
35 m/min and 216.4 HB are, respectively, −0.68 and 0.7. In
the multiple regression technique for this case, the cutting
fluid codifying is −1, 0, and 1 to dry condition, MQL, and
flood lubrication, respectively; once the influence of each flu-
id condition cannot be modeled, it will only analyzed the
influence of these in the studied manufacturing process. The
influence of the combined effects will also be analyzed ac-
cording to Table 3.
It is possible to identify in Table 4 the significant variables.
Cutting speed is the parameter that most influences torque in
the presented process, followed by cutting fluid and material
hardness; the last two ones present equal significance, consid-
erably inferior than the cutting speed. The analyzed regression
analysis presents a 97, 08 % R2adjusted.
4 Conclusion
& For dry condition at all three analyzed speeds, material A
obtained the greater values for axial force and torque,
1047
followed by material B and finally material C. For all three
materials in such conditions, the axial force increases with
the cutting speed, and the torque decreases.
& As one can note through the charts and the statistical anal-
ysis, cutting fluid has a significant influence. Torque
values decrease around 10 % when comparing machining
with flood lubrication and dry machining.
& Since the cutting depth is quite low, when analyzed for
each cutting edge, the influence, even for low matrix var-
iations, has a direct effect on torque. Therefore, material C,
which presents 44 % ferrite in its matrix, presents lower
torque values.
The statistical analysis showed that the cutting speed is
the most influent parameter in the threading process. Al-
though, the material and the type of fluid also have signif-
icant effect.
Compliance with ethical standards This paper does not present any
types of conflict of interest. No tests, either on animals or in human
beings, were conducted during the development of the present paper,
and no research requiring consent was performed. All the authors agree
with these declarations.
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