Nomenclature
Feature
An investigation on the
effect of dimensional
differences in friction
welding of AISI 1040
specimens
H. Erol Akata and
Mumin Sahin
The authors
H. Erol Akata and Mumin Sahin are based at the
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering and Architecture, Trakya University, Turkey.
Keywords
Friction, Welding, Manufacturing industries,
Tensile strength, Steel
Abstract
Most of the machine parts can be produced using several
manufacturing methods, such as forging, machining,
casting or welding. The type of manufacturing method
may be selected with respect to production costs of the
alternatives for individual parts. In the presented study, an
experimental friction welding set-up was designed and
constructed in order to investigate the effects of some
welding parameters on the welding quality. The set-up
was constructed as continuous-drive. Several groups of
specimen were machined from the same material. Some
pilot welding experiments under different process
parameters were carried out in order to obtain optimum
parameters according to statistical approach. The
strengths of the joints were determined by tension tests,
and the results were compared with those of specimen’s
material. Addition to the tensile test data, hardness
variations and microstructures in the welding- zone were
obtained and examined.
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Industrial Lubrication and Tribology
Volume 55 · Number 5 · 2003 · pp. 223–232
q MCB UP Limited · ISSN 0036-8792
DOI 10.1108/00368790310488887
223
Pf ¼ friction pressure (MPa)
Pu ¼ upset pressure (MPa)
s ¼ rotation speed (rpm)
tf ¼ friction time (s)
tu ¼ upset time (s)
D, d ¼ diameter (mm)
D/d ¼ diametrical ratio
HAZ ¼ heat affected zone
1. Introduction
Friction welding is one of the welding
methods, which is obtaining higher
importance among others. Although friction
welding is most suitable for components
having circular cross-sections, latest
developments in control systems and other
technological facilities increase the
applicability of the method for the welding of
noncircular cross-sectioned components. In
this process, heat is generated by conversion
of mechanical energy into thermal energy at
the interfaces of the components during
rotation under pressure. Some of the
advantages of friction welding are high
material saving, low production time, and the
possibility of the welding of parts that are
made from different metals or alloys.
The most important parameters in friction
welding are friction time, friction pressure,
upsetting time, upsetting pressure and
rotation speed. The parameters influence
and determine the welding quality, strength
of joint and hardness of heat affected zone
(HAZ). Parts of different diameters to be
welded, generally produces difficulties in
optimization of welding parameters because
of differences in heat capacities of the
components.
There are various friction welding
machines used in laboratory and industrial
applications. Friction welding machines can
be classified into three types as continuous
drive, inertia welding and mixed according to
the type of welding sequence. Principles of
continuous drive method were applied in
the presented study during design and
construction of experimental welding set-up.
In continuous drive method, one of the
components is rotated at constant speed (s),
The authors would like to thank Trakya
University/Edirne – Turkey, and Hema
Industry/Çerkezköy – Turkey for the help in
experimental part of the study.
 An investigation on the effect of dimensional differences
H. Erol Akata and Mumin Sahin
while the other is pushed towards the rotated
part by a sliding action under a predetermined
friction pressure (Pf). Friction pressure (Pf) is
applied for a certain friction time (tf). Then,
the drive is released and the rotary component
is quickly stopped while the axial pressure
being increased to a higher predetermined
upsetting pressure (Pu) for a predetermined
time (tu). Parameters of the welding method
are shown in Figure 1.
Both the theoretical and the experimental
studies on friction welding parameters can be
found in various articles of the literature.
Parameters that influence welding quality,
strength of joint and hardness of the HAZ
have been investigated by various researchers
like Fomichev (1980), Jenning (1971), Kinley
(1979), Lucas (1971), Tylecote (1968),
Vill (1962).
Ellis (1977) examined the relationships
between “friction time-workpiece diameter”,
“shortening-upsetting pressure” and “carbon
equivalent-hardness variation”. Ishibashi et al.
(1983) selected stainless steel and high-speed
steel as representative materials with an
appreciably difficult weldability, and obtained
their suitable welding conditions. In their
work, distributions of alloying elements at and
near the weld interfaces for joints of sufficient
strength were analyzed using an X-ray
micro-analyzer. Murti and Sundaresan
(1983) directed a study about parameter
optimization in friction welding of dissimilar
materials. Dunkerton (1986) investigated the
effects of rotation speed, friction pressure and
upsetting pressure in all friction welding
methods for steel. Yılbas et al. (1995)
investigated the mechanical and metallurgical
properties of friction welded steel-aluminum
and aluminum-copper bars. Yılmaz (1993)
Figure 1 Parameters for continuous drive friction welding
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Industrial Lubrication and Tribology
Volume 55 · Number 5 · 2003 · 223–232
investigated hardness variations and
microstructures in the welding zone of welded
dissimilar materials.
As mentioned earlier, diametrical
differences of the components generally create
difficulties in determination of the proper
welding parameters because of the differences
in heating capacities of the components.
Nentwig (1996) investigated the effect of
cross-sectional differences in the components
in on the joint quality of friction welds. It was
concluded that: in comparing the friction
welding of parts having different
cross-sections with those of equal
cross-sections using same welding
parameters, the heat input is inadequate,
and friction welding parameters for equal
cross-sectioned parts cannot be transferred
automatically to cross-sections of different
sizes.
Sahin and Akata (2001) investigated
welding quality using tensile test results of
welded parts having different cross-sections.
Akata et al. (2001) conducted a detailed study
about construction and controlling of friction
welding set-up.
Using the results of previous studies, the
presented study deals with friction welding of
parts having different diameters and width.
Strengths of welded joints were determined by
tensile tests, and the results were compared
with tensile strength of component’s material.
In addition to the tensile results, hardness
variations within HAZ and microstructures
of the welding zones were obtained in order
to explain some of the results.
2. Experimental procedure
2.1 Experimental set-up
The friction welding set-up designed and
constructed for experimental part of the
presented study is shown in Figure 2.
The set-up was designed and constructed
according to the principles of continuous
drive welding machines. Drive motor was
selected as adequate for torque capacity in
friction welding of steel bars within 10 mm
diameter considering friction and upset
pressures recommended in related literature.
Friction and upsetting pressures can be seen
on pressure indicator (number 2), and stages
of welding sequences are controlled by
solenoid valve (number 3) driven by an
external timer.
 An investigation on the effect of dimensional differences
H. Erol Akata and Mumin Sahin
Figure 2 Continuous drive friction welding set-up
2.2 Specimen’ geometry and work-piece
material in experimental work
AISI 1040 steel was selected as test material
because of its low cost and wide use in
manufacturing industry. The standard
chemical composition of test material is
shown in Table I (Wegst, 1995). Specimen
dimensions are defined in Figure 3. The
specimens to be welded were machined from
round bars of nearest upper standard
diameters.
2.3 Determination of the strength of
welded joints
The strength of welded joints was determined
by tensile tests using a 20 metric ton capacity
hydraulic tensile machine. Tensile tests were
applied after machining weld flashes around
the joints, and ultimate tensile loads were
recorded. The tensile strength of the joints
were calculated by dividing the ultimate loads
with the cross-sectional area of weld zone of
the bar.
2.4 Determination of welding parameters
and statistical design of experiment
Optimum friction (Pf) and upset pressures
(Pu), and friction times (tf) values were
Table I Chemical compositions of AISI 1040 material (Wegst, 1995)
C P
Material (percent) (percent)
AISI 1040 0.35 , 0.04
0.44
Industrial Lubrication and Tribology
Volume 55 · Number 5 · 2003 · 223–232
determined by optimization process.
Starting values for pressures were selected
among those of recommended in related
literature for such steel of the presented
study (N.N., 1981). This process is explained
later.
The basis of this approach is the
assumption of a simplified linear model for
the optimization parameter h given by h ¼
b0 þ b1 x1 þ b2 x2 þ . . .; where x1, x2,. . . are the
factors on which h depends and b0, b1, b2,. . .,
represent the “true” values of the
corresponding unknowns. From the results of
an experiment comprising a finite number of
trials, one can arrive at sample estimates of the
coefficients, b, which are then usually fitted
into a linear regression equation of the type
y ¼ b0 þ b1 x1 þ b2 x2 þ . . .; where y is the
response function and bs are the “estimated”
values of the bs. In simple terms, each
coefficient represents the influence of the
corresponding factor on the quality of the
weld expressed by the optimization
parameter.
The statistical analysis involves two steps.
First step is the adequacy of the model tested.
A suitable method is based on Fischer or “F”
ratio, which can be used to confirm if the
terms in the assumed linear function are
statistically significant. The second step is to
obtain optimal estimates of the regression
coefficients for the significant factors, which
may be done using the method of least squares
(Murti and Sundaresan, 1983). Parameter
optimization was carried out using factorial
design of experiments (DOEs). In the
presented study, friction time and friction
pressure were chosen as the two factors. The
other parameters such as upset time, upset
pressure and rotational speed were kept
constant. Experimental results are given in
Table II.
First, optimal estimates of regression
coefficients were obtained using the method
of Fischer ratio. The resulting equation is also
given:
y ¼ 1414:6 2 32:533x1 þ 45:067x2
S Mn Si Ni Cr
(percent) (percent) (percent) (percent) (percent)
, 0.05 0.75 0.20 – –
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 An investigation on the effect of dimensional differences
H. Erol Akata and Mumin Sahin
Figure 3 Specimen sizes used in the experiments
Table II Experimental results for factors
Trial No. Friction pressure x1 (MPa)
1 30
2 35
3 30
4 35
5 40
Later, parameters having the least error
using the method of least squares were taken
as the optimum welding parameters.
Therefore, optimum parameters were
determined using the earlier procedure.
They are: friction time ¼ 5 s and friction
pressure ¼ 30 MPa. Upset time and upset
pressure were kept constant as 20 s and
110 MPa, respectively. Parts having various
diameters and widths were also welded using
the optimum parameters.
2.5 Examining the effects of welding
parameters on welding strength
Optimum values for friction pressure and
friction time, regarding welding strength,
obtained from the earlier procedure are single
quantities. For this reason, obtaining the
variations of welding strength with friction
pressure keeping the friction times constant,
and welding strength with friction time
keeping the friction pressures constant will be
useful in examining the effects of welding
parameters on welding strength. The effects
of friction time and friction pressure on the
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Industrial Lubrication and Tribology
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Friction time x2 (s) Tensile strength (MPa)
3 270
4 760
5 764
6 650
7 225
welding strength of the joints were examined
in welding of equal diameter parts. Results of
two sets of welding experiments, keeping the
upset time and upset pressure constant as 20 s
and 110 MPa, respectively, are shown in
Figures 4 and 5.
In the second stage of presented study,
AISI 1040 specimens having different
diameters and widths were welded to examine
the effect of dimensional differences on the
welding strength. Optimum friction pressure
and friction time values obtained in Section
2.4 were used in this stage. All of the process
parameters and work-piece dimensions in this
group of experiments are given in Table III.
Variation of welding strength with work-piece
diameter ratios and widths are shown in
Figure 6.
3. Results and discussion
From Figures 4 and 5 it can be seen that,
change of friction time and pressure results in
a change in the welding strengths of the joints.
This result that is harmonious with literature
 An investigation on the effect of dimensional differences Industrial Lubrication and Tribology
H. Erol Akata and Mumin Sahin Volume 55 · Number 5 · 2003 · 223–232

Figure 4 The effect of friction time on the tensile strength
Figure 5 The effect of friction pressure on the tensile
strength
is related to the produced and useful heat
variations in friction welding. For the lower
values of friction time or pressure in Figures 4
and 5, welding strength increases with
increasing friction time and pressure. This is
due to the increase in produced heat during
the heating period. As expected, welding
strength reaches a maximum and turns down.
Beyond the maximum point, produced heat
causes regional melts that decrease the
welding strength.
According to the earlier explanation,
dimensional differences in friction welding
using the same parameters that are valid for
equal parts must result in different produced
and/or useful heat, therefore, in different
welding strengths. In the present study,
because the optimum diameter of sliding
work-piece was determined by considering
the torque capacity of the set-up drive,
dimensional differences were obtained by
changing the diameters and widths of the
rotating work-pieces. Variation of welding
strength with respect to dimensional
differentiation and welding parameters, given
in Table III, is shown in Figure 6. As expected,
increase in diametrical ratios and width
generally result in the decrease of welding
strength. However, the welding strength
decreases more rapidly as the diametrical
ratios increase in this study. This statement
is more evident for joints having less width.
The decrease in strength for diametrical ratios
between 1 and 3 is less than those of between
3 and 4. For example, although strength of

Figure 6 Variation of the tensile strength with respect to

the diameter ratio (material: AISI 1040, Pf ¼ 30 MPa,
Pu ¼ 110 MPa, tf ¼ 5 s, tu ¼ 20 s)

Table III Parameters used in friction welding experiments

W D d tf Pf tu Pu
(mm) (mm) (mm) (s) (MPa) (s) (MPa)
10 10 5 30 20 110
15
15 20
30
40

10
15
5 20
30
40

227
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H. Erol Akata and Mumin Sahin Volume 55 · Number 5 · 2003 · 223–232

a welded joint having a diametrical ratio of 3 is hardness variations within the HAZ were
75 percent of equal diameter joints, strength obtained by micro hardness tests according
of a welded joint having a diametrical ratio of to measuring locations shown in Figure 9.
4 is 45 percent of equal diameter joints for Hardness variations on horizontal and vertical
parts having widths of 15 mm rotating directions with respect to the weld-center are
components. These percentages are 85 and shown in Figures 10 and 11.
49, respectively, for parts having widths of As it can be seen from Figures 10 and 11,
5 mm rotating components. It can be friction welding process increases the
concluded from these findings that the friction hardness values due to heating and cooling
welding method is an effective way of joining effects. Hardness values that are equal to
components having diametrical ratios within a normalized hardness of test material are raised
value of 3. to higher levels by the process within the
Increasing the width of welded components HAZ. Therefore, maximum hardness values
decreases welding strength, similar to the are obtained over the weld interface.
effects of increasing diametrical ratios. These Maximum hardness values generally
effects can be explained by the negative results increase with increasing diametrical ratios.
of increasing heat loss with increasing Hardness gradients are also sharper for
diametrical ratios and width between welded
components during the welding period. Figure 7 Effect of friction time on joint tensile strength
However, the heat loss is related to surface (material: AISI 1040, Pf ¼ 30 MPa, D/d ¼ 3)
areas and thermal masses of the welded
components. Therefore, useful heat in the
welded parts decreases as the diameter ratio
and width increase.
It can be concluded from this study that,
although joint strength of friction welded
components that have different cross-sections
are satisfactory to some extent with
diametrical ratios up to 3, optimum welding
parameters that are obtained for equal
diameter specimen are not properly suitable
to obtain maximum joint strength when there
are differences in diameter of welded
components. It seems that, proper friction
pressure and time must be determined to
obtain more successful joints. This suggestion
is harmonious with the results of Nentwig
(1996).
To examine the suggestion, another set of Figure 8 Effect of friction pressure on joint tensile strength
friction welding experiments was directed for (material: AISI 1040, D/d ¼ 3, Friction Time: tf ¼ 7 s)
diametrical ratios of 3 using different friction
pressure and time. Measured joint strength of
the welded components is shown in Figures 7
and 8. As it can be seen from the diagrams, the
results are very similar to those in Figures 4
and 5. Increasing friction pressure for a
definite friction time or increasing friction
time for a definite friction pressure cause, in
general, an increase in joint strength due to
increase in produced heat during the welding
period.
Due to the fact that there were differences
in strength when there were diametrical
differences between welded components,
hardness variation within the HAZ is helpful
in explaining the situation. For this reason,
228
 An investigation on the effect of dimensional differences
H. Erol Akata and Mumin Sahin
Figure 9 Hardness test orientations
Figure 10 Hardness variations along the horizontal
direction (W ¼ 15 mm)
Figure 11 Hardness variations along the vertical direction
(W ¼ 15 mm)
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Industrial Lubrication and Tribology
Volume 55 · Number 5 · 2003 · 223–232
increasing diametrical ratios. Although it is
less effective with respect to axial direction,
there is also hardness variation along the
vertical direction within the welding
cross-section from weld center towards the
outer surface. Evaluation of hardness
variations within HAZ is closely related to the
welding strength variations shown in Figure 6.
Both the gradients and maximums of
hardness variations are very close to each
other and material’s original hardness values
up to a diametrical ratio of 1.5 and therefore
decrease in joint strength occurs in negligible
amount. For higher values of diametrical
ratios hardness variations become increasingly
gradual and therefore decrease in joint
strength become more evident. This result
shows that there is a close relationship
between hardness gradients and joint strength
in friction welding as harmonious with the
literature (Ishibashi et al., 1983; Murti and
Sundaresan, 1983; Yılmaz, 1993).
Hardness variation is related to the heat
flow across the components. Since the sliding
work-piece diameter and rotation speed were
kept constant in the study, produced heat
was constant for constant friction pressure
experiments. The reasons that produce
hardness gradients were the diametrical
ratios and different rotating work-piece
widths. For this reason, increase in
diametrical ratios and work-piece width led
to increase in lost heat and therefore decrease
in joint strength.
In addition to the hardness changes, some
macro photographs and microstructures
in HAZ of welded joints were also taken
to examine the relationship between
microstructures and joint strengths. The
photographs of macro and microstructures
belong to both equal and different diameter
joints. Locations of microstructures were
shown with the capital letters on the related
macro photographs.
Macro photograph ( £ 3) of equal diameter
joint, after etched in picral, is shown in
Figure 12(A). Microstructures of base metal,
HAZ and weld interface after etched in picral
are shown in Figure 12(B)-(D), respectively.
The base metal in Figure 12(B) consists of
large pearlite grains surrounded by ferrite
network. Although the size of in pearlite
grains Figure 12(C) are smaller than those in
Figure 12(B), the microstructure is a still
mixture of ferrite and pearlite grains. The
microstructure taken from weld interface of
 An investigation on the effect of dimensional differences
H. Erol Akata and Mumin Sahin
Figure 12(D) consists of pearlite and broken
down ferrite network. As it can be seen from
microstructures, although sizes and forms
of pearlite and ferrite grains changed, all the
structures consisted of pearlite and ferrite. For
this reason, the strength of equal diameter
joints is nearly the same as original material
strength.
On the other hand, macro photograph
( £ 3) of different diameter ðD=d ¼ 4Þ joint,
after etched in picral, is shown in
Figure 13(A). Similar to Figure 12,
microstructures of base metal, HAZ and weld
interface, after etched in picral, are shown in
Figure 13(B)-(D), respectively. The base
metal in Figure 13(B) consists of pearlite
grains surrounded by ferrite networks like
those in Figure 12(B). But in contrast, there is
some martensite formations in HAZ adjacent
to greater diameter component as it can be
seen from Figure 13(C). In addition to
Figure 13(C), microstructure in Figure 13(D)
consists basically of martensite in contrast to
Figure 12(D). Martensite formation weakens
the joint and therefore the overall strength of
friction welded joints having high diametrical
ratio decreases considerably (Dunkerton,
1986; Nentwig, 1996).
Figure 12 Macro and microstructures of equal diameter joint (D/d ¼ 1)
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Industrial Lubrication and Tribology
Volume 55 · Number 5 · 2003 · 223–232
4. Conclusions
Effects of some parameters of friction welding
process were investigated experimentally
using a set-up that was designed and
constructed for this study. Several groups
of specimen of same kind of material were
friction welded under various process
parameters such as friction time and friction
pressure. Optimum parameters were
determined by pilot tests according to
statistical approach. Tensile strength results
obtained by tension tests were regarded as
an indicator of successful welding. Hardness
variations and microstructure examinations
in the welding-zone were used to explain
the experimental results. According to the
examinations, some conclusions can be stated
as follows.
Statistical analysis can easily be employed
to obtain the optimum parameters for
maximum strength in friction welding.
As expected, optimum welding parameters
in friction welding of equal diameter
components give less strength values when
they are used in joining of parts that have
different diameter and/or width of each other.
Decrease in joint strength increases as the
 An investigation on the effect of dimensional differences
H. Erol Akata and Mumin Sahin
Figure 13 Macro and microstructures of different diameter joint (D/d ¼ 4)
diametrical ratio is increased. The decreasing
tendency is low for lower diametrical ratios
and high for higher ones. This result
originates from the fact of increasing
inadequacy of useful heat input as the
diametrical ratio and difference in width are
increased because of the increasing heat
conducted away into the larger cross-section.
Joint strength of components having
different diameters could be increased to
some extent by employing different welding
parameters. For this reason, determination of
proper parameters for a successful joint is very
important especially in friction welding of
such components. This goal can be achieved
by conducting detailed experimental studies
using components that have different
diameters.
There are hardness gradients within
welding zone, harmonious with the related
literature. The hardness values increase in the
horizontal direction from base metal to weld
interface and maximum values are obtained
at the weld interface. Hardness variation
becomes increasingly more evident as
diametrical ratio increases. There is also a
slight increase in hardness at weld interface
from weld center to outward. As the hardness
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Industrial Lubrication and Tribology
Volume 55 · Number 5 · 2003 · 223–232
values are increased, as harmonious with
similar previous studies, joint strengths are
decreased.
It can be commented that, the hardness
increase within the welding zone brings about
the notch effect that weakens the joint
strength. The strength loss is likely due to the
formation of harder microstructures, which
increase brittleness, resulting from faster
cooling caused by the increased heat sinking
toward larger diameter parts. Observation of
martensite formation in HAZ of joint that
have greatest diametrical ratio supported this
idea.
Although there is a reduction in joint
strength to some extent when diameters of
components to be joined are different, the
friction welding method can be considered as
an effective way of joining components with
different diameters up to a diametrical ratio.
It can be concluded that, using the results of
the present study, the ratio can be extended
up to 3.
Conducting more detailed studies using
various metals and alloy couples will give
valuable information and enrich the
application areas of the friction welding
method.
 An investigation on the effect of dimensional differences
H. Erol Akata and Mumin Sahin
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Further reading
Sahin, M. (2001), “Investigation of effects of work-piece
dimensions and plastic deformation on friction
welding method”, Doctoral Dissertation, Graduate
School of Natural Applied Sciences of Trakya
University, Edirne, Turkey.