'str

tiffi
%- +,f,ry.r\fl,0 too>). ft ntJ*j + :.te-o *rA
288 ")t'
: CI{.LPTER 12 A
C""^,&* p. 2 ea -.?q1
l{ypothesis A commonly held Cnaprpn
.W',Variability
nineteenth-century belief
. in all things
,that,
traditlon who greatly extended the domain
of otperimental psychologr. Woodworth
13

w physical and menlal, men are morevariable

than women. Tte research of L,eta Stetter
Hollingworth effectively dismantled the'
Yariability hypothesis.
was onc of the first of'the U.S, psycholo-
gist6 to emphasizo the centrality of motiva-
tion, His text, Ery'aintennl Psycholog, may
be tbe most important classic in the field.
BEHAVIORISM
' Woodworth, Robert Sessions {1869-1!t62) A
pioneer psychologist in the tunctionalist
ffi Psycholop at the behaviorist views it is a purely objective
expuimental branch of nahtral science. Its theoretical goal
is the predi*ion and can*ol ofbchavior.
-John B. Watson (1913)
ffi

ffi Behaviorism startod as a system of psychologr mechanism is taken as a fundamental postrl-

but it has proved to be much more than lhat.
Like evolutionary thought, behaviorism cap-
tured the attention of the public and became a
m .
favorite subject for lively comment in popular
magnine articles, erlitorials, books, and ser-
.mons. Public interest in behaviorism is illus-
trated in early.indexes and guides to periodical
ffi Iiferature where numerous entries are encoun-
tered und€r the subjest headings of belnvior
ot behaviorbnr (e-g., see Intumational Inds. to
ffi Peiodicals, volumes 4 and 5 covering lheyears
from 1924to 1931).
Behavioristn commanded intense loyalties
but it also stirred the harshest polemics and
W invectives by its detractors. Titles such as
"Men or Robots?" (McDougall, 1926b),
"Does the Behaviorist Have a Mind?" (John-
son, 1927), "Behaviorism and Its Anti-Reli-
ffi gious Implications" (Frick, 1928), an<l "Para-
dox of the Thinking Behaviorist" (l"ovejoy,
L922) betny the concerns of detractors and
moralists, On the other hand, bnthusiasts were
ffi quick to point to the advantegc$ of a more sci-
entific psychologr and there were reassurances
that behaviorism would not undermine moral
H and ethical interests. For examplc in an article
on bghaviorism and ethics, Weiss (f928) ot-
fereti, the optimistic opinion that "even the
most advarlced thinkers on social evolution
ffi liirve [failed] to foresee some of the possibili-
ties of human achievemenr when scientific
ffi
ffi
late in human behavior" (p.297),
Understandably, the intellectual ferment
generated by behaviorism spilled over into
other disciplines such as literature, philoso-
phy, political science, psychiatry and sociol-
ogy. Moreover, behaviorism had a sustained
influence within some of these disciplines. In-
deed, in lhe tate 198G behaviorism was still a
subject heading with'a sutrstantial number of
entries in the Philosopher's Index It was also a
subject heading, though with fewer entries, in
other standard reference sources such as the
Humanities Inder and the Sociological Ab-
stracls.
Though behaviorism ultimately revolu-
tionized psychologr and attracted widespread
attontion in other disciplines and in the pop-
ular press, its initial r€ception within psychol-
ogf was cool or even gruclging. The new sys-
tem was set forth succinctly in 1913 in an arti-
cle by John B. Waison entitled "Pslahologr as
tho Behaviorist Views It." Though the article,
Iater called the behaviorw manifato, is ww
viewed as a pivotal antl classic piece ln the his-
tory of psychotrory, it was met prirnerily with
criticism by the older coRf6rmtive pcyclrolo-
gists. Samelson (1985) docunrented the initial
cool reception of behaviorism, but cluoting
Watson, pointed our that "thero was hope.
'The younger students . . . seem to be accept-
ing behaviorism. The public is genuinely in-
tao
 290 CHAPTERI3
terested in it' "(p.33). Warson made rhis
statemetrt 15 years after tlre publication of his
manifesto. Within a few more years, behav-
iorism dominated tlle American scene and
Watson's promiuent place in the history of the
discipline was secure.
ANTECEDENTS OF BET.TAVI ORISM
The philosophical antecedents of behaviorism
can be traced to ancient Greek atomic theory
a$ $et forth by such original lhjnkers as [-eu-
cippus and Dernocritus. According to atomic
theory, only the atoms and the void are real
The world, as it appears, is based on tbe
.\
BEHAV|0RISM 29r
(1967), "the first behavioral analysis ofmental $_
Bruin is the work of a young man who had jusr In summarizing
concsp$" 0. 183). Even if d'Holbach's work Sechenods .psychoiosical &
relurned from postgradqate studies abroad. slslem, Razran (1968) emphasit5A wnai
can be viewed as a first, it is nevertheless the ne
How modern, how daring must have appeared, called "a radlcal environmentalisml the
Russians who provided a behavioral approach larsesr ffi
'an at(empt ro esubtish ttre pfrysio- part of thoughts and ideas, 999 parts out
to mental conccpts in terms.of actual labora- ln 18{3: 6f"
ffi
logical basis of psychological processes'!;'.(p. 100Q as Secheno-v would have
torywork Theirwork, and especially the work i8). Daring inrleed-according ir, derive$ f;; "
of Ivan Pavlov, is so pivotal that we must now
ro Froldv training, and only a minimal puir i, Ou,
ro
(1938), the govemmetrt,.imposed a prolonged hereditf'(p. 130). Such radlcal environmen- E
turn to it for more detailed consideration- bu.n:l his book" (p, 4). Brozek (t9tZ11e- tatism would have great appcgl later
minded us rhar whlle Reflwes anricipated:the h tne So_ ffi
vrer system. American beharlorism unrler
physiological approach io psyctrotogicat pro- the
Ivan Mikhailoviclr Seclrenov leadership of John B. Wauon would also
cesses, it did not ,.influence the development lav
Pavlov's immediate predecessor, Ivan Mikhail- major stress on the importrince or tne en#
of the scientiiic study of belravior in the west', ffi
ovich Sechenov (182}-fmq, is commonly re- ronmenl W
garded as the Father of Russian Physiologr.
0. L9). Tg*4 Refiqa of the Braia was nor
published in English until 1965 anj'few En_
Sechenov served as a military engineer in Kiev glish-speaking psychologists read the Russlan Ivan Pavlov ffi
before embarking on medical studies Bt the edition.
s3

shapes and combinations of atoms. Psycho-
logical processes such as sensations and
thought are also based on the complex inter-
play of atoms. The atomic theorisu provided
the first complete mechanistic and materialis-
tic approach to psycholory. Over the cen-
turies, the basic idea was rediscovered, re[ined,
and amplified. The modern development of
the philosophical foundations of behaviorism
was reinforced by the remarkable advances in
knowledge of neurophysiologr (see Chapter
8).
Wertheimer (1987) pointed out thar be-
haviorism is typically viewed as an American
school of thought, yet "its predecessors were
Europeans rather than Americans" (p. 121).
There is much to support such a claim. At ev-
ery turn, we encounter key ideas in the.work of
European rldnkers that were later assimilated
by the U.S. school. We are reminded of mate-
rialists such as Condillac, Gassetcli, Helvetius,
and Hobbes; empiricists and associationisls
such as l-ocke and Hartlell and, of cr)nr$6,
physician philosophers sucli as C:bani6 and l-a
Mettri6. According to Campbell (1967), the
"Bible of all material,*sm" came from the pen
of the Oerman philosopher Paul Heinrich Dj-
etrich d'Holbaeh (1723-1789). d'Holbach's
Sl*em of Nnure, pubtisbed unrler the pseudo-
nyrn hfirabrtud set forth a thoroughgoing nat-
uralisrn containing, accordilg to Canrpbell
University of Mosmw. After completing the
medical degree in 1856, Sechenov iqvolved
himself in an intenSe postgraduate program
that brought him into close contact wirh such
leading luminaries in physiolog as Hermann
von Helmholtz, Carl F. W Ludwig, Johannes
Miiller and Ernil DuBoi5-Reymond. During
this period, Sechenov was also ilxpired by the
wolutionary thought of Herbert Spencer and
Charles Darwin.
Sechenot's academic work in Russia start-
ed with a l0-year appointment at St Perers-
burg. This appoinlment ended abruptly when
Sechenov resigned in disgust because the ugi:
versity failed to hire Ilya L Mecnikov, a Jew
Secheuov returned again to St. Petersburg af,
ter serving at the University of Odessa. Hii fi-
nal academic appointment was at the Univer-
sity of Moscow
Esper (1964) arguet{'fhat Seelrenov "wrote
Lhe lirst 'obJective psycholog/ and becamg the
first 'behaviorist' of rmodern tlmes'" (p. !24).
Tlte claim that Sechenov was a precursor of
behaviorism is justified partly by liig mn-
tentiotr "that the psychical activiFj,' qf .mqn
fitds expresslolt in exrernal sig$qi',(F1.oj.oi{,
lffi, p. 5). Sechenov $ct forth hit sryurneilts
for an objective psychology based oii iltexnir-
tliods of natuiat science in an essay..gg1!|i
Reflexes of tlrc Braht, published iil ,:'{..E'.6.3,
IJror.ek (1972) pointed out that "Referei'Wq
. tu/ summBry of Sechenov,s basic psycho-
logical sSatem woulrt have to bsgin ori ttre
philosophical side with materialistic monjsm.
Sechenov, as quoted by Frolov (193g), nored'
th a t new. psychology will have at.f s basis,
n _"tbc
ptace of the philosophizings wlrispered bv
the decei tful voice of conscio usness,' positive
facts or points of departure thar can ie veri_
Iied. at any dme by erperimenr" (p. 6).
The
posttlve facts consist of observable movemenG
or events that are measurable. In the final
analysis, psychological events and cerebral.
even$ are reducible to.muscular movemen$.
The fundamental unit of study, according
to Sechenov, is the reflex consisting of thrd
parts: afferent activify, central connelive pro-
cesses, and efferent activity. Even so_called
voluntary movements are best regardeC as viry
complicated reflex chains. This basic idea wai
more tractable following the condirioning ex_
penmen$ performed Iater by pavlov. For
Sechenov, the idea was advanced largely as a
theolelical or systema{.ic polnt of depirf ure.
On the methodological side, Seihenov ar_
gued for thoroughgoing scientific approach
_a
lo psychologj/ that employs the mr-ricds sf
qhySiology. His article, .,Who Musr Fnvesdgrme
lhe Problems ot psycholory ano Hoiv?','
shesses the idea that physiological
methods
ptovide the most promising inroads
lor untler_
standing psychological phenonrena.
Ivan Petrovich pavlov, born in Ryazan, Russia, ffi
o[ September 74, 1949, was the first of 11
children of Piotr Drnitrievich pavlov and Var-
ffi
vara Ivanova, Pavlot's father was a rather
ffi
e
poorly paid village piiesr who found it neces_
:r? !o culrivare large vegetable gardens to
his family. Ar an early ug", youog
letp {eeA
Ivan
_developed love for trard p-hysicat worf
a
m
The Pavlov family had more than its share of
bard toil and sadness. Of rhe 1l children, 6 did
not survivd childhooc and the youogeri ,on,
Sergei, died oftyphus Auring ttre revoiution
oi ffi
191.7. Young Ivan sustained a $evcre head in_
jury as a youngster. As a'result" his formal
schooling was delayed until he was 11 years
old. Fortunatety, pavlov,s father, a lovir of
boots, took a keeuinterest in theboy,s educa-
l-ion, so the injury was not as detrimental as it
might have been. ffi
'
In lds aurobiography, pavlov (1955) srared s
that he received his ..secondary education at
the local theological seminary, which I recall m'
with graritude" (p. +1). His gratitude was
&
based on the liberal atmosphere that charac-
tedzed the seminary ar th;t time. A srudent
who did no* excel in_one subject was 6ncour- ffi
F
a-eed in olfter sab,ieets. From pavlov's descrip- ffi'
*.ions, the reader gaihs thp sense of a highly in-
dividualized program permitring studen* to
lR.
discover and develop rheir unique talents. The F.
i!s
seminary was an intellectually stimulating cn_ ffii
vironment that encouraged a vigorous er-

!i: '
igir
 ,! ot CFI.AI'TER i3

ffi prize. Unfortunatoly, the pay was extremely

928) terr pavtov,s comptere
BEI.IAVIORISi,{ r93
meager 'and tho.difficulties for Pavlov's wife
it I us r ra
oevorron different food substances, determined
were compounded during a two-year period
"-,.:Tll. "(]
to science when he told the
of sto set of the work of rhe olgestive
the on_
an assistant who was gla;d; ,,*
;_
ffi (1885-1336) when Pavlov engaged in turther
postgraduate studies that took hirn out of tlre
ing_
late for work one morn_
during the revolurion. contonrJ
Pavlov for his rardiness,
iu
culiariries of their nrnciioning'in
the amount of reagents proouia
;ch;;
country,
;h" ;;;;;r;;;;;1 their composition;1paviov,
uy tr,"m anl
'.,"
Not until 1890, nine years after the mar-
prained rhat rhere was
fighring i" 1ilil;; pavtov observ"a
1955, ;:13d'
*Jfli*n#n
ffi riage, did life circumstances improve for the
Pavlovs. At thst time, Ivair was appointed
and it rvas difficult to get
pry.w{ls, '.What difference
to work pavlov,s re_
does a revolution
vary activiry is "noil,.,
..jntelligent.,,"fn
speech delivered in Stockhofm, paulou
rr,,-
ni, Noirf
y1!e_wn9n fou have work in n e ramraioryio rris"si
chair of pharmacologr ar rhe Military-Medical ,lo!j' pavlov coutd be poinred our rhat..it has long,;;;#;;i
Academy. Five years later, he was appointed 9. 25). ,f,ort iurpJr"i the sighr of hsry food makis
ffi .chair of physiologr. It was then possible for
Pavlov to devote himself unreservetlly to his
and.dem_anding, and, as noted
(1949); "fi he had been an
Uy naUtin
ordinary man, tre
nungry man water" (p. 139).
though such an observation
ure moutfr oil
He noted thai
would be consideietl an egotist,
for wtrom oer_ i, *"i*""p1r.",
,n"urr
sciencewithout the financial worries that ear- sonal interesls were of suctr its implications and mechanisms
p.irrnoonr i*ior_ f,rO
ffi Ivan Pavlov lier plagued his life and work.
ln 1904, Pavlov won the Nobel prize for his
' work on digestion, but even in the Nobel ac-
tance that everyone and everything
serve_ rhem" (pp. 52_53).
Bur'rhen;
ltaf,;
ild;
been investigntetl. pavlov and

fl-."_.t:dly
rnetr
observed, after several
his colleamrp-q
fiah. il;i
added, Pavlot's ..ifiterests dogs salivated af the mere
were nol his ner_ sight of the
ffi change of ideas, Early in hls career, Pavlov de- ceptance speech he relerred to the work on sonal interests in the $tdct
,"rr. offf," ,iol.O
food olrject being used in the ea$tiic ;;:
HI
pfu veloped a love of'argument*a love that re-l conditioning tlrat would occupy the central t1{ ourside hiin, so to speak,,
(p. 53). H;
merts. Furthermore, objecrs
1"i., *nruiil".*,
- mained with him throughout his life. place in the rest ofhis scientific work. Indeed, _!ut
or a fairh ampry;,**eij
noises) associated with ihe f.i"i'.Ui".rc ,f.J
In 1870, Pavlov entered $t. Petersburg
Unirrersity, where he pursued a degree in the
Babkin (1949) pointed out that "rhe lasr l;il-1jy:"
ctasstc
.Lectures on Cond.ilioned Refiaei: .Onlv ";1 il; produced salivation. Salivation
early trials, as a resulr of
p.;:;il;
ffi natural sciences. After completing the degree
thirty-four years of his life (from 1902 until science, exbct science
frumiri;;il;1 tfre AirJcia;r;;; ;;
Wffi 1936) Pavlov devoted almost exclusively to the "tout
tglf,rld rhe mosr sincere approach to ir by the ll_"_jl*
is ctearg understandabt"
in t"rnu oi
in 1875, he enrolled in the Med:ico-Chirurgical study of the fuctions of the cerebral cortex by airl of the omnipotent ,ri",itip" crassrc reflex- theory. That is, food
*,* Academy. In his autobiography, he pointed the method of conditioned reflexes" (p. 273). deliver man from his present
,rrno4'itt tras a Oireci
gn the recepror sysrem and rd;;_
gloorn, and will Tlon
ffi itJ ;*;i:: :#i:1ilJi",ffi1":H; ;il:i:;
the idea that after getting the degree of doctor
With the exception of a brief illness with
gallstgnes in 1977, Pavlov remained r{gorous
and in good health until tlre spring df 1935,
purge trim hom his contemporary
the
.sphere of inrerhuma,i ,"r,1rn"*iripf;
shame in
sponse is understandable
and efficient causes. But
sight of the food or ar the
in terms of
salivation rt
*"t"rirt
*"."
(Pavlov, L92B,p.4I). slghr or ",
sound" of a
kffi of medicine, I would qualiff for a chair in when he suffered ftom grippe that was compli- stimulus associated with the
iooo i*, Jiff..**
w *:il:il?;;$ilj::,",?ii;I;,i'J;,"'il'il;: cated by pneumonia. The 85-yeai-old man,
severely weakened, had recurring bouts with ::!lov\ isychotngical lVorlc pavlov,s
rn€ gastric€nd
work on
salivary glands resulted in some
matler. Pavlov referred to such
sction Bt s distance and in
his
salivation as
*ort
diac nerves in circulation. His medical degree flulike symptoms until his dearh on February unexpected observarions
that led rattrer rti- 1{eneO
"nrty
to it as a psychical ."n"*, Irt"., tniJ "t*
figffi was granted on December 19, 1879. He also 26, L936. ternls were replaced with more exact
won a gold medal and a scholarship for post-
yclll to his work on higher *fr"*
,"ii"iry. nologr.
termi_
ffi
' glaouare sruotes.
Pavlov's biographers emphasized his fierce
integfity, abundaut eners/, dedication to facts,
Pavlov antl his workers measured
the amount
ln i881, Pavlov married Serafina
and guality of salivary and
gastric *""r"tion in _ T1" conc€pt of action at a dbtunce was
troullesome for pavlov
Vas- and complete devotion to science. His dedica- relation to rhe naruie of itimulus in the fields
madrials
ffi silievna Karchevskaya. The first nine years of tion to science was so intense that he waC of- a dog's mourh. earfy, rt ere
,-n
was'"ii-
ologr, and psycholory just as the "ipfryJ-
same lerm
the marriage were marred by unuSual financial ten inept when it came to practical matteis. 11"*o nao been trouble3ome for otherscientists
W hardship ald the loss of two children. The first
oence that secretions are ..inieltigent,,
in rhe as Descarres and Newton
such
Indeed, as noted by Babkin (1949), Sara man- sense that their amount anA quitity in me fietJ oi
ii'* child was lost in a miscarriage and the second aged the money (p.i41), bought pavlorls pendent on the nature
of stimulus "r.
O"_ The issue in physics ."nt"r.O
ffi died from a childhood disease. In rhe early clothes (p. 49), and, in general, tended lo all Thus, edible materials stimulate
;"rd;. 1h.1.'sics.
magners, gases, gravirational
on th-*

Fil years ofmarriage, Pavlovwas in chargeofS. P. family matterc; The difficulty of,sarar$ ta$k thick and vis:. ::,1:l
and the"ttransmission of light.
fields.
cous saliva while materials How could such
Botkin's erperimental laboratory'at Sr pe- was oompounded not only by her impraclical high in ,.iO *ri, actions.be exptained in terms
may result in a more waery "i of direct aciion
fluid. fne funOa-
fu tersburg. The work at the laboratgry permit- but by the four children
scienl.ist-husband mental fact, in pavlov's
wonls, was that ..the
or efficient causes? (See Hess,
196,7,;;.;;
ffi led unusual freedom and afforded opportuni- born to the bouple af{er the loss of the:trsl .urrlances geuing into rhe ,ril*rir" for a brief but helpfut rliscussion 'tni
Brur ties for Pavlov's early work in digE$tion that two. The clrildren werb Vladimir, Vbra;,,Vid. f11f,
orf
IelnJ Action
of prot,
, .listrn"", at Ieast from a su-
canal from the efiernal world, i.e., wiether
would later resulr in the awarcl of$he Nobel tor, and V'sevolod. S edible "t
perficial standpoint, appeared to challenoe
or inedible, Ory or tiq,,iO, as;.li;;1i;
ffi
ffi
mareftal and efficient causalitl,,
ro_."nt.ul io
 , BEHAVIORISM )o4
CIjAPTER T3 F."h,'

trIGURE 13.1 Temporal Relarions Between the cs antl the ucs in ctasicql cond.itioning &::
science as Pavlov concqiygLl! specifically' ditioned response. The unconditioned, or un-
ffiatingtbesalivary learned, rosponse in all cases has a high degree
of automaticity. The conditioned stimulue Type of Condltionlng Temporal Relatlon of GS and UCS t*s
glands when the animal salivated at the mere
iigtrt of the food? The expression psychical re' (CS) was at one tine a neutral stimulus, but , ffi'
g[w
after r€peated pairings vrith the UCS, tlre CS
flu really didn't explain anything; it provided produces a resPonse lhat is markedly similar cs
only a name for an observed relationship' Pav-
lov wanted to know the mechanism r€sPon- to the UCR A. Delayed tt
sible for the so-caUed psychical retler The temporal relations between the UCS
and the CS resulted in some findings that sur-
ucs I

Pavlov's analysis led him to conclude that

he was dealing with tu,o kinds of rellexes' T'he
first, the physiological reflor, he regarded as
unconditioned, An external stimulus (food)
acts directly on the organism by stimulating
different nerves, which act on tlte effectors
through connecting nerves. The simple reflex
is understandable iir terms of material and ef-
ficient causation' The second reflex also has its
origin in e)iiternal stimuli, but these activate
the eye, eat, or nose (etc.) rather than the re-
ceptors in the oral cavityrPavlov (1904/f955)
observed that the new reflex "is permanently
prioed Pavlov and his co'workers. They found
that conditioning was optimal when the CS ffi'
just precedes the UCS by a fraction of a sec- ffi
ond (see Figure 13.1 A). This arrangement of
the CS and the UCS is called delayed condi'
tionfury. Another temporal arrangemenl ntuch ffi
ffi
less efficient than delayed conditioning, is
called simrltaneous conditiomng (Figure 13.1
C). The nost interesting discovery regarding
the relationship of the CS and tlte UCS is ffi
callel trace condilianing' In this arrangement,:
the CS and the UCS are initially paired, as in :

subject to fluctuation, and is, therefore,condi'
tioned" (p. 144).Pavlov argued that so-called
conditioned rellexes, like the unconditioned
reflexes, "can be easily corrceived ftom the
physiological point ofview as a function of the
nervous system" (p. 1+5). The task was then to
discover the furrctioml relations between the
t\ryo types of reflexes.
Pavlov (1928) Pointed out that "nervous
activity consists in general of the phenomena
of excitation and inhibition" (p. 156) and ar-
guod that either phenomenon can spread or
irradiate over the corten Such spread or irra-
diation provitles a conceptual basis for con-
nections between stimulus events from various
sensory modalities. Thus, rhrough the spread
of newous aclivity over the cortex, viiual, au-
ditory, or other signals may be associated with
the uncondit ioned'refler
In time, Pavlov's basic paradigm was elabo-
rated in terms of an unconditioned stimulus
(UCS) that reliably produces an urrcondition-
eil response (UCR), The unconditioned stint-
ulus is a biologically a<lequate stimulus that
lms tlre capacity autontatically to induce tlte
reflex activity lhat termirlales witlt tlte urrcolt-
Figure 13.1 dbut then tire temporal interval
between the two is increased so that tltg
occurs prior to the UCS and is terminated
before the UCS occurs (Figure 13.1 B). As the
S C. Simultaneous
temporal ilterval between termination of the
CS and the onset of the UCS increases, Pav-
lofs dogs sometimes became drowsy or even
fell asleep. Pavlov argued that the CS may be
associared with local cortical inhibition and
that in the absence of the cxcitatory UCSt th€
inhibition associated with the CS may ingdi-
ate over the surlace of the cortex. Sleep w4s
{rus explained as the result of the spread of
ihhibition.
Pavlov also conducted ploneering wor.l<'on
many other topics in learning that wcre. tQ bq-
corue rnaior areas of research in the twenligth
certury. Some of the key arcas are as folloivsl
Fstitrctiott. When the CS is presenteq re-
peate<lly in lhe absence of the UC$,"PMpv
iountl that the CS loses im ability to p9Q$U--cF
activily.
salivary ,, ,:,
Spontaneous rccovery. As just $sitliol-eq,
the ils loses its ability to produce rhs SR'if it
is presented relleatedly in the absenqq ofttlle'
.: Ub
r rne
--l
n ffi
ffi
Mii
Time
Hi
@
UCS. But following a period of iest, rhe'CS niso'kination Pavlov observed that dis-
may again elicit the CR. The CR, howevi:r, ls criminations, sometimes even remarkably flne
quickly extinguished if rhe CS is again pre-
discriminations, can be conditioned. Thus, a
ffi
$ented several times withouf the UCS. circular shape may be reliably associated with
Disinhibition. An animal that has stopped food (thc UCS) while an ellipse may never be
salivating in the presenc€ of ttre CS malsali, ffi
vate in the presence of a different sudden or
, associated with the UCS. The dog soon learns
ffi
to salivate to a circle, but not to an ellipse. If
unexpecled stimulus. Pavlov assumetl that the the ellipse is gradually changed so that it looks
CS is associated with inhibition. An unex- , . mote and more like the circle, the discrimina-
ffi!
pected stimulus may release the inhibition and 1, tion bemmes difficult. Such a procedure tests
the animal will then salivate. the discriminatory capacity of the animal. It
Srtnruhu genualbation Stimuli similar to also serves as a major frustrationr especially if
the original CS may also elicit the CR. Thus, if
,
it is important to make the discrimination, as
the original stimulus is a bell of a given pitch, it may well be for a hungry dog. The behavior
then a bell of a similar pitch rnay also elicit the of the dog in difficult discrimination tasls
CR.
became a major curiosity to Pavlov and con-
rj
296 CHAPTER13
tributecl to ltis interest in Ihe problerns ofpsy-
chiatry, Btifore turning to this topig it is im-
portant to examine another dimension of his
theory. ; i teract witb learnlng proc€s6es. Moro impor-
Temperament. As noted oarlierr Pavlov be-
lieved That there arg two fundamental pfo-
cesses in the nervous system: inhibition and
excitation., He believed that these two pro-
cesses were distributed differently in different
temperament types. He observed that some
dogs, ilerhaps'the terrier types, are nervous'
easily excltable, quick, short tempered, and
very alert. Pavlov believed that there is more
excitation than inhibition in such dogs. By
contrast, other dogs are somewhat timid, hesi-
tent, and slty. He believed that such dogs (per-;
lmps the collie) are dominated more by inhibii,
tion than excitstion, Otlter dogs, he believed,
are warm, friendl5 and affable. They represent'
what he called the balanced temperament
marked by an even mix of inhibition and exci-
tation.
Pavlov accepted Galen's classification of
temperaments and believed that these are
characteristic of both humans and dogs, Ga-
Ien's scheme is illustratetl in lable 13.1.
In accepting the idea that there are tem-
peramenlal differences, Pavlov departed from
the radical environmentalism of Sechpnov. It
TAIILE l3.l Galen's Classification ol
Temperunetxs
Temperornental Generdl
TJpe Characteristics
Choleric Fxcitable, touehy, quick
tempered; marked by errcess
ofexcitation ' that
Sanguine Marked. by warmth, balance
of excitation, and inhibition
Phlegmatic Not easily excited, also
balanced behreen excitatiou
and inhibition
Melancholic Tendency toimrd depresed
moods, excess of inhibition
was the work of the laboratory, however, that
forced'Pavlov to the conclusion that there are
important temperamental dlfferencns that in-
tantly, temperamental dlfferences dictafe how
a dog will respond to laboratory-induced stress
such as that created by difficult discrimination
problems.
Eqterimental Neurosit, In later years, from
about 1928 to L936, Pavlov's interests turned
increasingly to clinical problems. These inter-
est$ were driven largely by the data that weie
generated in the studies on conditioning. The
basic studies on conditioning are included
primarily in volume I of Pavlov's (1928) classic
Lectures on Conditioned Reflexes (lectures 1-
28). The more clinically oriented studies are jn
volume I (lectures 29-4i) and volume 2 (see
Pavlov, 1941, lectures 42-57).
Pavlov found that almost any assault on the
nervous systemr such as an unsolvable dis-
crimination or a conflict situation, might pro-
duce clearly discernible consequences. Severe
conflict, coupled with. a run-down physical
condition caused by fg4ioOs of loug work, lack
of sleep, or physical iflness, had an especially
powerful effect. Resistance to- $tress was
clearly a function of general h-balrh and tem-
perament. Some dogs were naturally more re-
sistant to stress than others.
Paylov found that severe stresS-pioducing
situations resulted in what lre called ultra-
boundary or ultramaximal inhibition; The ef-
fects of such inhibition car be thought of as
somewhat comparable to the effects of sltoclt
which may also result from a severe birilogical
insull Just after a severe crash or a severe and
life-threatening explosion, an individual may
Fhow shocklike symptoms. Such symptoms
may be marked by a vacant stare, unrbspon-
siveness, or stereotyped respondiirg,:,-F,av"lov
believe<l that a powerful assault on the nei-
vous system may convulse the brain in inhibi-
tion. If the entire cortex is in an inhibitory
mode, then one coutd expect thai tird:io'}.ian'
ism woultl be unresponsive. In thi face- of
overwhelnring lhreat, inhibition can be protec_
tive, at least in the sense that it may block the
input of still more threatening stimulation.
Iaboratory studies revealid three different
kinds of after-effects of ulrramaximal inhibi_
tion. Firsr, some animals may display what
Pavlov relerred to as the equivalent plinse. In
such a phase, an aninral responds with the
. $ame amount of saliva regardless
of tlre
strength of a stimulus. Sargant (1957) poinretl
out that "the obsewalion is comparabti ro the
frequent reports by normal people in perioOs
ofintense fatigug rhat therels liitte ditierence
between their emotional reactions to impor-
lant or rrivial experiences" (p. 64).
( Following a more profound biological or
psychological insult, rhe rlog may display the
paradoxicat phase. In this:phaie, u ,trong
stimulus produces a weak response (very liilJ
saliva) and a weak stimulus ploduces *trong
" phasi
response (much saliva). The paradoxical
nas many counterparts in humans in stress
sif_
uations. A whisper may produce an explosive
outburst, whereas a shout may result in little
more lhan an eyeblink The paradoxical phase
makes sense in terms of pavlov's notion Lf ut_
tramaximal inhibition. perhaps theie are cir_
cumstances in which a weak slimulus gets
ihrough the inhibitory barrier and is tuily
. I;;-
cessed, while a strong stimulus Ooes noi ger
fully processed. If such were the case, lhen Jne
might predict a weak response to a strong
stimulus and a strong response to a weak
stimulus.
The reaction that was of greatest interest
to Pavlov was the ultraparadoiical phase. Fol_
Jowrng very severe trauma, pavlov observed
a long preference for tlre explanation of psy_
radical shift in rhe personalily of rhe dog and
lts response s]6tem. In this phase, stimuli
previously produced a poriiive re$pon$e
now
Produced a negative response and vice versa.
Sargant (1957) otxerved rhar in rhis phase
rhe
dog may "attach itself to a Laboratory atten_
wlom it had previously disliked, and rry
fant
{q..attack rh6 master whom it has previously
loved" (p. 65). 'llre ulrraparadoxicat ptrase ii
aU the more interesting jn view of the
iact that
BE}IAVIORISil,I 297
i.o
."jtu:,, 1ay !e tong lasring. In his booir,
lafile for the Mind, Sargant IUSZ) storJ
how the ultraparadoxical phasi *uy b" unr_
ployed as an explanation for politicaf
and reli_
giorrs sorrcrsions, especially when
such con_
versions follow an intense assaull on the
ner_
vous sj6tem. such an assault, at the
human
level, nay include threab of damnation
or
death given in Bn atmosphere in which
incli-
vidual adequacy and judgment have alrea<.ly
been undermine(
Pavlov became more and more concerned
that inhibition and excitation interact with
temperamental types to produce any of a rran-
ety of psychiatric illnesses. He believed that
choleric (pretlominantly excitatory) and mel-
ancholic (predominanrly inhibitory) inrtivid_
uals ale more vulnerable to bieakdown,
whereas sanguine and phlegmatic (balanced
types) were more resistant to stress,
Howeuer,
any individual, subjected to sufficient srress,
breaks ctown.
hoblem Solving. In his final years, pavlov
came increasingly interested
be_
in the nature of
l-1ol]** solving. The Gestalt psychotogist
fot{e.a1S Kotrler (see Chapter fSj naa argieO
that higher primates do not solve probleris in
a mechanical stimulus_response fashion.
Rather, in open situations, such as fieid set_
tings, primares show evidence of true insight
and goal-orienied behavior that is achierld
not lhrough mechanical nieans but through
creative, novel, and flexible response motlJs.
Such a wholisric approach to probl*m solviirg
represented a direct challenge to pavlov's life_
chological events in highly mechanistic tenns.
As a consequence of Kdhlerh work, pavlov
initiated experimental work on chinpanzees
fronr 1933 ro 1936 (see Windholz, i9g4).
Pavlov replicated some of Kdhler,s experimen-
tal findings but offered his own expianations
in terms of the nrechariics of conditioning
antl
trial and error,
Pavlov's tensions with the field theory ori-
entations of the Gestalt psychologists was
i!-

298 CIIAPTER13
lusualed both in his own research on chim-
panze€s aIId in numerous polemical commsnts
that came out of bis Wednesday meetings with
staff and colleagues. The strength of Pavlot's
reaction to Kdhler is illustrated in an extract
from a stenographic reconl from January 23,
1935.
Now gentlemen, we shall Pass from peaceful af-
fairs, if we may say so, to matters of war, to Mr.
K0hler. We are at war wilh him. l}is is n serious
struggle agahst psychologisa. K0hter is professor
of psychologr at Berlin University. A scientist of
minor aulhority would hardly be elected to a
chair in Berlin Univeisitl5 they respect hierarcby
there. (Pavlov, 19-55, P. 606).
Such a statement surfaoes from a liferime of
dedication to a very tight sj6tematic world
view and a keen sensitivity to storm clouds on
the horizon that threatened rhit view. The
tensions between the mechanistic view em-
braced by Pavlov and the more dynamic
wholistic view advanced by K6hler would do-
minate the intellectual agenda in psychologl
for years to come.
In his autobiography,.Pavlov relishes the
happiness and success he found in his total
dedication to science. "I devoted myself ro the
laboratory. I have renounced practicality in
life wilh ils cunning and not always irre-
proachable wa)rs, and I see no reason for re-
gretting this; on the contrary, precisely in this
I find now certain consolation" (Pavlov, 1955,
p. 44). Pavlov did not live to wimess the enor-
mous influence of his sptem, but lhe later suc-
'cess
of his work and its extensive heuristic
value would have been a soutce of
grealer satisfaction.
Other Russion Psychologies
There was no( a unified viewpoint on psychol-
ory in Russia until well after the Marxist-
Leninist revolution of 191?. Prior to that time,
there were several coqpeting schools of
thought and at least two of drese schools be-
long to the intellectual tradition lhat shaped
bqhavioris tic thinking.
Refewlog, Vladimir Mikhailovich B€khterev
(1857-1927), a contemporary of Pavlov, also
advanced an objective psychologrbased on the
idea that the reflex is the tundamental cate-
gory of inquiry. Bdkhterev took his medical
degree from the Medical and Surgical Acad-
emy of St. Petersburg in 1881. He also did
postdoctoral work with Charcot". Paul Emil
Flechsig, and Wilhetm Wundt before em-
barking on his own career in psychiatry and
neurologr.
Many of Bdkhterev's contributions to psy-
chologr are set forth in his three-volume Ob'
jective Psycho/o6Xr, published from 190? to
1910, and Genqal Principles of Hunun.;Re-
flexologt, published in 1917. Instead of wolk-
ing with salivation as a conditioned respoflse,
Bdkhterev focused on more molar responses.
His pioneering work on (au avenive) UCS
(shock) lrelped establish the basic experimen-
tal paradigm for later work on escape learning
and avoidance learning. B€khterev also at-
tempted to extend his ref{exologr to mllective
or group behavior. ln later years, he worked to
reaoncile his refl exologr with Marrist-l*ninist
thought, bul as noted by Misiak and Sexton
(1966), Bdkhteret's q6tem "gradually lost fa-
vor because of the ideological struggle in the
Soviet Union for a more dialectical psychol-
ogy" (p.?67).
Rmctologt. Konstantin Nikolaevich Kornilov
(1S7F1957) worked valiantly to articulate
psychological system that,complemented the
larger Marxist-kninist political vision. Edu-
even ca(&l rt Moscow University, Kornilov for a
time was one of the most visible figureg in So.
viet psyclrology. He served as editor qf tbe
iewnal Fsychologst and wrote numcrou$ sy5-
tematic books and articles- T\ryo of his better
known booki were The Snldy of Man's Reag-
tions or Reaciologt (l9D) and Tutbook oI P, fy'
cttolopt fi'om the Standpoint of Dialectiial Ma'
terialisnr (1926).
I(omilov, like Pavlov and Bdkhtqrerl, 4r-
guerl ior an objective psychology, bu! 1,4. 1O
jected the re{lex as tlte funrlamental unit,sf
"t''ffi
t-r
BEFrAvroRrsM dffii
analysis. Indeed, he emphasized voluntary be_
havior in social context- He also stressed fhe
bie Brewsrer Ladd. Rlwarf ** *,I*itr"d to#
the bar and had a brief law practice
importance of social and economic forces in was given up in favor of rhe Merhooisr
Uut tUii*
shaping human reacdons. In..his treatmenr, min-ffil
istry. The atmosphere of rlre Thorndif<e
psychology was nor just a naiuial science,.ii norneffi
was auslere and serious, with eurphasis
was also a social science and the tehavioibf on
the whole penon in social contexi was empha_ ' jll
sized. i',fl T:&,ill,l'il'iXhA:l*f
'lhorndike ; ro m
knew little of childhood, Our manyffii
Misiak and Sexron (1966) pointed our lhar
__ of the values of rhe home were pur to produc-
I(ornilot'ssystem was AmreOjred ,.soon after tive use in his a<lult years. Though ttri
the publication of Lenin,s philosophical moraf W
Note_ code.in the home wui srrict, Thlorndike n"u. ffi
books (1929-1930), which claimed rhat man
code of ffi
gradually able to appropriate a moral
was,active.not simply reacrive" (p. Z?l). psy-
llls owtr that was more liberal, at least in mar_
cnotory was not alone in its search for a
sys- tersi of religion.
tem consistent s'ith Marxist-I_eninist thoug-hf
Thorndike entered Wesleyan University in
The same. search took place in other Oiici-
Middletown, C;onnecticut, in lggl anO gradu_
plines such as ph;r5jgs and biolog,. (For
an ex_ ated froln thar instirulion iu 1g95. hf,r, rc
cellent.discussion of science and idiologr,
see
loravstry, tXl.1 l:oiu"{ a n{asrer's degree in psychologr from
;
Harvard,,.where he developed a srrong?ieno-
ship-wirh Wiltiam Jarnps.-Following f,is work
ffi
Drhvard l*e'Ihorndike at Harvard, Thorndike enrolled inihe gradu_
ate program at Columbia, where he siudied
In tlre United States, the work of Edward Lee
Tlrorndike (l17a=1.949) can also be regarded
with Jaines McKeen Cattell. He graduated
with the Ptr.D. from ColumUia in tg9g. ener
ffi
as an lrnportant antecedent of behaviorism.
holding a brief faculty position at Western Re_
Thorndike was educated fu fte U.S. functioyr_
serve University, he accepred an appointment
alist tratlition and remirined sympathetic io
.the tolerant spirit and opennes$ of firnction_
at Lolumbia, where he remained until his re_ @
tiremenr in 1941. Many honors came to
alism. Neyerthetess, his personal preference
was for an objective psycholory that focuses
on the observable actions ofliving organisms.
iffie
Thorndike in his long and producrive careefi
r. ffif
H*-
Thorndike was often critical of rhi mlthod of
a introspection aud with other peoplek minds
1or inner states) as appropriate subject matrer
ffi
lor psychology. He believed that anyrhing rhat ffi
exisls, exists .in some amount, and is. thus i.
quantifiable. 'He believed strongly in the
ffi
methods of lhe other sciences and vlsorouslv
applierl rhose methoG to such a host if proU_:
ffi
lems that he has been referred to as ..Ameri_,
,.
producrive psychotogisr,, (Joncich,
3'l^ygrr $T.
1968) From a broad ptrilosopnical standpoint, , H,".
E*i
Thorndike can be considereO a functioiratist,
Itut irt feims of his pracrical work, he can
also *t,
ue vrewed as a behaviorisl Etr
Tlrorndii<e was the second of rhe four chil- F
dren of Edtvard Roberts Thorndike
and Abi_ Edward Lee Thonzdikc
tri