*nsalry r*i,# 2,^

T"
ffi/
**rE@ ,j4lfl' * fud*'* 'i- ilfo'Xry ,l ' c1e 4 ryy@^l VJp^"",{
#li unitorrnitarinnism The belief lhar evolu- lyallabe, Alfred Russell (r8l3-19fi)
simul-
f) ?b-' )
tionary'change is gradual and thal nlosr raneously with Darwin, atlvanced a rheory
Csarrgn 10
ffi *ffi:tri,.'dHJ,,ffifi'ff1:"'*" :l""jffl',:;;:J;:'::ui'Jonu*'""ffi
WILT{ELM WIINDT
ffiir t"^"\j AND TI{E F'ORMAL FOUNDING

g \:-'
\ ll- OF'PSYCFIOLOGY

I houe Tiroceeded on the conviction that law and

order aun
' if they $re rtot fandamentally souttd are better thnn
ffi contradiclions and law lesshess.
ir . -Hermano von Hclmholtz (1g96)
;i

n
As we have seen in the previous chaplers,
many, ilnportanr intiilectual forces con-
tributed io a climate friendly to the birth and
ffi nourishmeni of the discipline of psychologl:
j
'Ihe most direct influences, however,
came
ffi l: from dwilopmenrs in physiotogr, poinring to
ffi Lhe possibitiiy that mental pro""sses could be
measureil. This chapter examines selected scl-
entific projects in physiblogr thnt led Blmost
'. . il ; .:,
inexorably to the founding of the new disci-
rS "l
ffi pline of psycholo'gr. The chapter then,exam-
ines the formal founding of psycholosr and
the firsr sysrematic approach to ttie Oisciptine,
...r
..4
ffi i8
.:{
l PSYCEOPIruSICS
- With proper equipment, a grecled siries can be
The torrn psyctrophysies refers to rhe stutly
the rolationihips betvrcen the propqrties of
stimuli as measured by a phpical scaie and the
psychological or subjectivc impressionr of
those stirnuli. Tho lnformal beg*nnings of
pry_
cliophpics are encountqred in spmufarion a,aO
wonder abour the nature of.tht relationship
oblgcts in rhe v,rorld and our p"I.
l:*""1
tions of thobe objects. In Chapter 2,'we "p
rL-
viewed various theoretical positions regarding
what rve can claim ro tnoii' aUout obj?as ii
'the world- One extreme
posltion is enioun_
tered in rhe solipsistic claim that we are iso_
lated in pgr subjective wortds. According to
this po'sition, we can know only our own pri_
vate efpericnce. Another extreme position,
naive realisnr, contends that we see-external
rhings as they ara In a timited and modest
way, early studies. in psychophpics challenged
both extreme positions.
'
As nored, pEyo.hophysics involves the study
of the properties bf srimuli as measured by a
physical scale and psyclrological impressions
of those stimull For oeample, a series o[ tones
can be measuied in terms of vibrations or fre-
quencies. Thc term hhm (I{z) is used as rhe in-
ternational unit equal to ope sycle per second-
of presented with known physical chapcteristic. .
One of thc most obvious discoverjes about any
graded series is thrt there are values on thc
lower and uppor extrerncs thst do not register
in erperience. For tones, thc avcrage young
perron hears values ftom approximately Z0 IIz
to 2Q000 FIz. [n otherlr,ords, there are loner
'
and upper thresholds. The nreasuremeat of
lhresholds provides a small quanritative open_
ing into the rrorld of privare expdrience. part
of the earll, r'rorlc in psychophysics was cli_
 .?10 CIIAITER IO
,\
IVILIIEL},, \IIJI,IDTAND
TI.IB I;Oru,,{ALFOU}lDrNcoFpsyCHOLOGy
a-scientinc rranrre ror
me',ar processes. Aeci- :tl.,"
fii!:iil:Tl?:?H3'ff:H1iifl
sensorvrnodali,i*. *',"i1;
s'Ji,r,.*ffi;#r:1o.j,i] of tle nind was suodeniy
r";";i,;;";; I'{ii?i;,lJ':l,11.?;',ff'ffi{,?liil,X,'1ff or rhe rerarionsrrip
,enc+ berrveen
:llr';ri'*;;;'"'q,t.il1[,.
'maximal (for upper iluesholds)
ffi"T!:
,ri-ulur'ii_ ruy,,::m*i:llJ.nJ:ll*ll#
1871,. jusr a veanuero.e w'ner,ir
fi,il; l,,ll.-:"o1o,,,,ons
i{#Ji["]'F-jl1,rT,:l.r:"rr,,yx,H:'.,rxT
tensity rhat is derected So.percent
time.
experience also challeneed
fiffi:n,T j;:ffi* ia psv.troros'. weuei *iigr,o or,n,irG;;il.#;iled
Anorher lype of rhresftbrrr
of the ui"*. su"nlJ.ffiI'ffirtTr.T;ilfi:# Assume that a:measurable
wirh read.

ga]eg was ca'ed rhe d,lfo:*:

rr,rr *r* Jnud- periences il;';;r"J level Jrur"fr-
,,r.*l;;;*;; , [".*, prysic"r worrd in
orrouch iil,X,m';U'"*
orrouch "'h;;;ffi;
ll"."igtring so er. *:i::lt
nffi#ilfi-
*"y* .nj;l;;L*o,uriro* weberrs lvork on rhe sense
mrnrmal sdmulus.difference terween irF
ilrat is o"t".t.Ul- OiuiAu.rc are meardnpfrrl.
. i,,rJri:i
50 percenr of tre dme.
1".:
perimenrer mav srimurare
;;p;;,;;;: ", wbber (r$a/rez8) emproyed rhe
threshold technique ro map
rwo_pornr
-il;;; ilil;dl[,il:_;i#:
rhe suriace bi;; 1t" .r"*,i"ilT,t#[*r,,c
psvchophpics ,;;';d;;;
beginnings of :1:_t"{.l.liH?;i
sysremafica'y rtre suuiect-
," f,"*.igh, , I
"rll"t dre work or rhe curaneous sensiriviry of. r-br J,"rr"r"n.. berrveen rhe
.I"" irurnan uoof.ar
,#d Li"Ll'f:'Jill J :l* ;l;Xli:,i ::l' r il*'"',*i u"in ri"rr weu"i nored earrier' sensiriviry v.arie's c,';'*E
wioery Je- partson);igtii
Sriqioul uno rhe new (com_
rhe subject, i,"o*.".i,i"
*,;;:
f:l;.li:li)r}tf_tiri l^f::XTf{t:T
condid.ons, tr," ,Erurr"st detecmbrL dit-
i,l";l,"",l;nl'fi,'i""ii'Ji"J:+:- ie*"*'ul*l"" *iJ"."0,,0 and the com- c[
d;-,,:l;",,:1il'y, :r:i#t*ffi::"T u," i ;?*,# # rib * *iu.* idlli
ber observerl'ui.i*- .r" is called the E

fl{,ffmake
clearly contact widr the .I-tre
ons u ri
mo points of tie comoass
rou ,.,iririu"lr tr,* 3:;T"
n..r;.; i^lr-
ittst noticeabte W;:;:

the experimenter is to
sldn. tast oi I nre
conducting
u,L'*-"-p"1,",i ERNsrrr'lNRrcrrwEsEn
"rr"ri- two
.,)
',ai'i'iry''1J"il;l:ffT:'ir"it#t,i:;i; --f':: many experiments rvith g
many stimulus vatues- weLer
rlueshord (rhat crisrancewrrere
p";; ; rirrre.is
theyari Iuio rianiuen"iy or in a crosswise iur"*"i'r i.."] E
di- like. reJarionship belween,r,;";;;;;;".fi:
,""ioo ro ;" ;;';, ;; unrb. He nored,rhar
experienced as rwo noinrs
insreair ;f ;; Heinricn rcnown abour ihe earry life
*lo.,, orii,.ir"*o*n r-barofhqErnsr
poinr). I'ras rreen'rorinrr
rhar rrreie a;; #: io* rrn":ro,:ii*,i,i,_,i,,,,r0 or 13 crrirdrer was
our.sensitivity i. g.*,owhen the,*";";;
tivety insensirive areas (e.g,
thigh) where rhe rwo_noinr
rtre rr.t r,i qo. **"r; ;
;;#r#of rheotory at rtre
of lhe compass come in.contacr-wirh
*r,io* ffit!:i;::Tgffiil:::::;:::n#
rro;;;ffi,ffsrimutariou.
or.,rr" H
welI over 40 mnr (ovtr.r.5.inches). n,rfrr" uyvgrsirr
rr*es.hotd
;.'"'.1"'1il1fr.;,1i1,,11","#ll1fr#lrJ}
Thus, a ri{

orher exreme, rhe try6_66lin1.rrrresloio ai',iJ

,r'orr*o "r;r;r,:;;;;:l**gJl6, Ernst en_ a dirrerence be.
il1,^"Jl;il;.*u,",;:,".r
*rT" "i;*'u;i;;o,it,
i*r, ,oor[.rr;;;,ilt":"ersity witrenberg bur .r'"i"'"':i*" :Ff i:fi.1Ti,i11;i+n"' so e* 'nJ o ffi
as sma'as 1 mm in
a serrsirive u,", p.[,,r,J
tipoftherongueorrherinsorrhenng!r$. *1.1" r," ;;;Ha , ffi, on u," atrarony
of l-eipzig, ;H5lil';f;;'ff,:*-"j
i.r,**;,*;;*Hti,1!,f,l:*,*l;: tr
o,,ru"
"y*puil",i. n"*o. webe.was.so
or: frf,r,o- i,er,ry *ri.^i.J;;;;,;:n"r
rivelv insenslrive areas. B.v
contrasr, s;j;;;
ff1ffi1,"{'jilffil+1:'#'ffif
r.r"*,r," rrup#;rril::*,srenrry
,,,,,il fl,HiTJ,rilltriuurion

#i3i
riences rt+,:
i##ftTd*;tr""fiI
F:--r^ o*",.rioil
wir'hin singre
nencec wirhin d
a
*ri;#f
;s:*"*:;r"ru ru'n:"
aer
,r!qI nis tife.
rhe udversiry

; may experience a converqrng

when they are moved ovir
areas: The experience
two poinrs when thev are
pJinrs Jiff"r"n."?
of ure .wo
ie_lath,ety,"riririu" ieigr,
divergen;;;;; il:l ,,
of the
*."rr.il
moved .i,.r
lh'e areas and rhe convergence
iwo
of rhe
,r,"
il:1":-*1; "r"""""i
** i"
d;;;Jn
oT?U,,n*
firsr
"'p"r,,ll"
rlerccr-a
.,ar woutc have
aoouiib;;5;il,
me jnd is a tunc_
ffi
tr
stimutarion. EF
ro wrire rhe
ffi
ro

i;iJJ"',x"J$HJTiTl
:.'.'-"-,:r:i?ilx',l,"tn;m1,ffi ';:#l'1.{"":i,!ulxff
rornrura rhat arrcmprlo
roiriog" rrre
resen red
alism because
a n in reres
ir
ri's .riuir*g" I;;il ;5-
*:i
LXTJIiI *:{,ff:.tT,T,::,?;;;;;"
weber il;;"",rii'J11'lili.*i,, I
;,- ". physicar E
dffi;,ili"$ff.: lhe ro,n,u,u.is os
sriruuhsvatues rhar were
de;onstrat"o r"o'u'unL Tjlr::jlli'Jiil"f#tH:r:.,
discovererr rhe irillibirio;;f
trTn . is ress ",':,":, ,, ffi
r,"ro" oi-ruourl"# l.owing stmutafidhTFTel
hearr acrron for- wben tbe two poinrs of rlre
compas;;;;;: 4{*
Sffiiix?t.i;ffi,Hf i"*"*o*i,, ii," il,:,,*,
rhere are arso discov.ry, 1erve,
roura ii;6#H1'.:lt,f :::,:1
r*rrl"neousry and grearer
are presented successively
*r,"" ii.y " .R

stirnuius ot*.*r*'ri;*"r'rt rog"rr,". *tri-i-uur.qu"nr lone .iusr pr"..Jii,g

otl":)- Similarly, perceived aitftr"r,r"e.ii where/? - rhe arnounr of exisrinp
enced by,,u un"ij"j- s-lnsclljl
reseriirr, *:
ute u'etgltfs o{obJects stimutation ffi
are geat6r when such
l.j:!lH: ",",muoequate
:JT:'#:i1"#ffiT#11-t:::ti'i"e'viil" lio.,.ou ;l*H,#itj,trTtrLx[+ y-"jqhf are pre$eirred srccessivell'. TIre snme
holds for perceivetl temperature
.a,/? - thc amount of srimulation
thar
&
barnnce-berwees exijrarisn
un.iu","; ;;;";;ff,':X,fiilT3,Y::,T and inrribttio'n;#,#ilreror ryLusl rs WOflf On I
rlifferences. must be add
"Lo i., nqrrnnr
stimurus dimereuces aciJ:gl"r
scale and experierrcetl
difrererr.ce.s-
.]; ilffi
sr.[ rr,urui ;i:.':}fi
iio,,.*,
f
;i?i,T ifi''ffif:f;
idiit1;T:ntt';;im**f *:,yr,-;*#ff, l,: fl
relati,rrslrips ol,enecr
u,. po.rir,liif;;ffiil lil" rn,poi,rr,;i;;;;
ing *orr, i" ii,i, ,*^'resurretj,in,;6.ire
of spond
to rr,"
or rhe ,l,ir.T:ll
r#
prrvsicai Jraracrerisrics
,,, Lo"r,*."rd1,,psy. sh'ruli presenred b1'; thg r^p.rin,.noi.
i, nrrl t r.rion l,
,.l'u""JJ,t
,n"ri-iijo
i?lJil,ru:{rt F
r.or-1. o,rr, ior a 30()gm ts

CLIATTER 1O
-,{d{
ffi stanrlird weighr, the mmparison should be
about306gm-
Weber had forged an opening into a hith-
erto inaccessible world. We cannqt directly
W measure a.psychological event, but we can
measure perceived di{ferences in relhtion to
$caled phJcical stim ulus. values. psychological
W evenls, orjnds, can thus:be sludied in conjunc_
tion with nieasurable physical stimulus values.
There was now justifiable optirnism thar psy_
chological proces$es muld be quaritifiid-
ffi somethirg that lnrmanuel Kant lrad declared
to be an impossibility.
Weber's work was the inspiratipn for hun-
dreds of Garly ls5srrrh projects invdstigating
ffi Jncls in each of the sensory nlodalities. His
'work also served as an inspiratiqir'ftJr th6 de-
velopment of new and more rigoioirs inethod-
ologles for the stutiy of threshoitts: The indi-
m vidual wlro wae nost inspired by WoQer,s worh
was Gustsv Theodor Fechner. We will now
turn to a consideiation of FeclureCs contiibu-
tions to psychophysics. . .
W ;
GUSTAVTIIEoDOR FEcIiNEn
ffi Few human beings have been so captivaigo
. .
by the relationship of mind and bodf as Gris-
tav Theodor Fechner (1801-IB7S), The nro
W realms, mind and body, suggest a fundamental
duality in nature, o-ut Fechner, as noted by
Ward (1876), was ..i thoroughgoing. monisi,
regarding body and soul as but a double man_
ffi ifestation of one and lhe same real thing" (p.
452). Fechner devored much of his scientifrc
career to the stxdy ol the relationships
tween the mental and the physical realms. His
ffi' systematic research program in psyc6eply5io
represenB a vital building block for the new
discipline of experimental psychology.
ffii Fechner's fadrer was Samuel Fechner, a
Luth.eran pastor, and his mother rvas Johaua
Dorothea Fischer Fechner. After completing
his srudies. in the gymnasium, Fechnlr enl
ffi' rolled at lhe Univenity of trilizig. FIe com_
pleted an I\4-D. rlegree in lgli, but his earlj,
i"_ scientilic interests were in physiu. Indeed, by
ffii
ffii
1831 he had established hisn reputation in
. otr problems in psychoplysics and experi-
physia and in 1834 lre was apirointed profes_
sor ofphysics ar Leipzig. r
The year,1839 was an unfortunate trlrning
point in Fichner's life. It marlced the begin:
ning o[.a severe emotional disturtrance rhat
forced Fechner to resign his university posl='.
tion.,His emotional maladies may have 6een,
initiated by a repporary parrial blindness.
caused by his study of afterimages. He.gazed at
the EUB through inadequarely shielded lenids,
resulting in debiliuting visual problems. His
visual problerns were aggravated by loss of ap_
petitq severe anxiety, and lraljucinations_ lie
was convinced that he would never have nor_
mal vision again, but by 18a.3 he was regaining
his sight and his emorional healrh.
Fechner resumed his work at flre Univer_
sity of leipzig in 1848, but as professor of
be_ philo;ophy. His new position afforded unique.
opporruniiles [o pufsue borh philosophical
and scientific interesrs. On the ptiitOSopniAt
siile, Fechner called attention to rwo deeply
opposed ways of viewing the univerb-e. The
basic stuff of the universe, inctudingtmqirtal
phenomena, was viewed ty fecnner=di: inen
matter. He referred lo sucll nn exferue.iniite_
beCs
rialistic position as [he niglrt nien,. By co4$.4gt;
research' (p. 47).
Fechner noled thar one might,tort *iLi1.At,e
assumprion rhat all things have a psruhie i,!1m:
spade*'ork f:or Fechner to develop a more am-
ponenl Fechner argued Lhar plants ira.Vd.',li
bitious fornrula for the measurement of sensa-
VJII,LIELfr,I IVI.INDTA}..D IIE FOR},4.qI- FOUFIDII.IG OF
psycliic life and thar any organic S[glo-has
psychic qualides. He referied rci his panpsy-
clrism as lhe d.ay uiep. Fechner lroped to ac-
cumulate eviderce for the day view in his ex-
perimental work in psychophpics.
In 1860, Fechuer published hisElenrcnts of
Pq,chophyics, a book dhtined to bemme one
of the greatesr classics,in psycholory. In 1876,
he published Vonchule der Aeshetig a classic
in the experinredtal approach to aesthetic
judgments. These worlcs represent lasting con-
tributlons to the science of psychologr. Fech-
ner is remembered for his substandvi mntri-
butions and for the developmetrt of melhods
that,were to become fundamental in the new
psychologr. He continued to work rliligeptly
mental aesthetics until his death in November
of 1887. Angell (1913) called anention ro
Wundt's memoratrle words in his funeral dra-
tion for Fechner: "We shall not look upbn his
lilre again"-(p.49).
Fechuer marlced' October 21 1850, as rhe
date-whetr it.obcurred to him that there must
be a discernibleiquantitative relationship be-
tureen sqnsations and stimull Witbout know-
ing aboqt Webefs work, it rvas clear to Fech-
ner illat there was hot a one-to-Sp, relatlon-
ship beri?een perceived increases iit stirnulus
intensity- and increases in stimulus v'alues.4s
measured on aplrysical scale. Inde8d, Fechqer
came to the conclusion that perceiveO'l.n-
creases on the mental slde were in all.proti.a-
biliLy relatGd to the amount of existing sliinx-
lation on lhe physicut side. Ths conctusion is
corisistent with what Weber had already dis-
covered- : :i
Following tbis insight, Fechner discovered
'WebeCs
work and launched a vigorous ex-
perimental program. Fechner, as quoted by'
Angell (L913), reported rhat "for several years
I considered it a dally task ro experimenr
about. an hour for the purpose of testing We-
law
and for elaborating new merhods of
-F.qbep formula providerl the iiltellectual
l-
PSYCI ft]LOOY ?I1
tion. By integratin! \Veber's formula, Fecliner
gene,rated the new formula
.9=klogB
where ,l is the metrtal sensation aurl ,It is the
Reiz.,or stimiilus magnitude. The formula
specified that the strengrh of a menral sensa-
tion is a cDnstant logaritlmic function of the
stimulus. It ftrrther specified.that as a mental
series increases arithntetically, the stimulus se_
' ries must increase geometrically. Fechner's
.formula also correctly predicted tlte observa-
Iion that is well L.nown to anyone who has ad-
vanced a three-way liglrt through a series from
l(h to 300 watrs. .Equal incremenrs in a phpi-
cal scale are experienced ln terms of a dimin-
ishing series called response compression.
Thus, lhe:difference between 100 and Zffi
.
watls Epp&t$ much greater than the differ-
ence benvtien 200 antl 300 warts. Fechner, rle-
.
ferring tb Webefs pioneering worlc, called his
formula'Weher,s Law. Today, we thinlc of it as
Fechner's Larv and the earlier simpler formula
tlrat inspireid lt asWeber's Law-
The:te51ixg of the Weber and Fechner
[.aw! occupierl a prominent if not centrat
place,in early psycholory laboratories, One
. bbnefit was that research work.on these laws
contributed td the construcfion of sensory
scalei, sucfi aS the decibel scale for rlealing
'with the intensity of auditory srimuli. Another
beneEt was s greater understanding of the ca-
pacities of thb sensory sJ6tems. Research on
the Weber and Fechner I:q6 demonstrated
that their predictions were accurare prinrarily
for the middle ranges of sensory information.
Predictions ard generally nol as aceurate for
the lorver and upper exrremes of physical in-
tensitj'.
Fechnefs Melhorls
Fechner's substanlive contributions rvere com-
plimented by important methodological con-
tribuiions that ire developed in the course of
his iirvestigarion of thresholds. The methods
developed by Fechner became ar integral parr.
of Lhe methodotogy of experimental pslrchot-
 214 CHAPTER IO

og,:. t" irnportance of fte psychophpical

attd nrong caser_ In Uris method,
IVTLHELM WUNDTAIID TrJE FOR^{AL
FOLINDtFroroF pSyCrJoLOOy
partty from rt,"ir rpplioiiiirv comoarison
T:jP_q:,.*"t problems. sfinruli are co_upled wirh tle stand.;;-;il;;; patterns. Fechner,s dream of solving the minrt-
llre.rhint reason for l.orze,s prom_
ll_1*r.,rry.of Irt us brielty exam- m a random fashion, anrl the suUject's brain may have beeu overly ainbi- :]d_:rl
ue t''echnei,s mence was his influence orl others.. He was
tious, -problem
meft orls. task is
to report whether ttre comparisoi but he did provide tlre fouudations for
,ti*ufu, il enthusiastic about the new discipline
::.1 ,:, grearer.rhatr, or weaker &an rhe
of nsv_
1l_,"4p".q"otal at]proach m
Th+ Method of Limitr. Fechner
referred ro rhis psychotogical
melhod as lhe nutltod of jwt_noticeante_iiger_ standard, or alternativelS detected
;;
processes. In the history of scierrce, therJare 1:t9ey anrt regutarly raugt r ;g'rs;-* iil, ffi
encer.He called attention n rhe fact that lected. For absolute t}resholds, ".
;: maly instances in wlriclr the major goal of a
uotttngen. He also had a strong
influence on H
EiEi
it singte stimu_ such later luminaries as Franz
fr;lrtrrq C;;
ljd h-* emptoyett earlier by O"i"r"*"'i, lus values above and below threshol; research effort is unrealized, Uui in its ptace
Stumpf, and Georg Elias Miiljer.
tess of tonal htervals an<l by Weter sented nindornly. The subject simptv "r";;;_ other fortuoate beneflts accrue liy accitleui fne Luer
iu re_ repirt two toolc their degrees undcr l,otzo.
search on weights, touch, ancl vision whetber $e sdmulus is deiecred.
Fechner, 1g66lIS60, p- 62). The
(see
of consraflr stimuli avoids certaiu
t't" *ifr"i -
lorze accepted ilre KAntian notlon that
the F
-"tfroA Jn- eiroiJ uii NUNOT,NEEERMANNI,OTZE discern spariat retafiou, fn ,n a jii_
sists of presenting a standard stimulus a.re.mmrnonly associated with : T],"S_ T."
alons the method of ofl laslllon. At the same time, he argued thaf
rvithvariable or comparison stimuli of gr."re? for example, errors of habiruation fi.e_. Weber arid Fechner had a direct and profound
and lesser value than the standhrd.
f{U.
ta[tng itrto the habit of saying ttat influence on Rudolph Elermrnn :h:.ryr^,Tltil of spattat relations c."u"rop, ,u
Thi com_ on" siim- fnrzi,, rr,".i_ a tunction of experienca SpeciflcaUy, a
parison. s timuli are presen ted i n ulus is of greater or lesser va.lue thor of the ftqt book that attempted'to non_ M
nscending an d than the be a spatial sdrnulus such as'a parri"ufaiiigt
clescending series. Fcir, example, physiological psychologr. mue was r io-
a stan'rlard Qlher) are easily established in a graAeO series. Uofi, in tensity may create a ,,Iocal iign,, or
weight of, say, 100 gm mny U" pr"s"ntrd . $uctt emors are eliruinated when comparison
-Bautzen, Germany, on May 21, 1g12. srir;ulaA F::
RI
ulonz After point Jn :rhc eye. An externai object
with a coruparisor weigbr of tb5 gm. yalues are randomized. completing his school years in Zittar, may cor_ ll.r
The difl 6rze sist of -several colors, contourr, ,urfr."r, ti!
lerence wi-U easily be detected. enrolled at; tlre University *A
In a descendiap ' -of Lripzis. He
studied anarbmy anaphysiol& und;;ffelr;;
prcijections, each res ul t ing in a'correspondin
g
series, subsequenr conparison
weigtra oir-o{ The ll,Iethod oJ Average Error. Sometimes biightness inrensiry or local sign oo tL"
10J,.102: and l0I
gm rnuy t" pr"sJnr"O rtruri caUed Ure nrcthod of adjusnnenl and physics under Fechner. After-lbmplering rurl ffi
Urir:r;-Ur"n' face of ,thq retina. The retatioristrips
nately wirh the srandard weiglir-
i[en an as_ permtts_ the subject ro manipulate
acdvely a
ft.f. yc M.D. tregrees, t u utt"*pi",r I ri# brigbnress intensiry poiuts from the
behveen ES

practice Wirhin onject and

series may inctude'cbmp".fb",
if comparison stirrulus until it appears Idi.at a year he rvas o-ack at -
:::dilg.
100, 101, 102, 103, 104 gm ,ndso a standard. Following rhe
to ,ui"L *T1.t r]"at" he accepted a fqputry posirioir.
corresponding points on the two-diminsional
fp;il; h, adjustmenr, fte.dii_ . surface of the retina do riot in
themselves pro_
each series, the experimenler re-rence.between tlr6 standard Lolze's faculry tenure at Lcinzie was fromr-,, ffi
can assess the and Lhe. com_ vide unamblguous cues to depth p".""pton
pont at which a difference is no pdrison srimuli ian be measureo. 1839 to During rhis periorl ri" l".rr".ri F
longer de_ f"i'*"_"la _1844.
of fietds, including psyphotory. Ih '
since sligbt movemeflts of the eye or
heaO re_
ll rtre The
llil"lnoticed- p_oinr ar wtrich the difterlnce
is :_:l1yird might qonsisl of a ligtrt ; t;;; ::.i "r-"oy sult in.a whgle new distribution of points
lrst
lY:. h" accepted a facut"ty ,poritioi' ,ai
on
average for severai'ascend_ Dngnmess. The comparison could be "r a lipht the relina. Bu-t,in time, relafional r.liscrimina_
rng and descend-ing series detines source activated by a variable Liorrrngen and. held rhar position
thejnd. switct rtraf p"ei. until lBBl. tions are esublished such rhat rhe local
tnrs melhod is also applicable toabsolute mils thesubject ro a jusr brighrness. l: t99t he accepred the cliair ofphifosoprry.i sign in ff
_,
Inrestrolds.
ffr"iui- the'University of Berlin but died -f"* the rednh f6r a givbn poirr on ilr; ;;J;?;
l;
In tlis
casg single stimulus values .;ect could tlten adjusr the brightness of rhe within', discerned from the tocal sign for a diiferent
are presented in ascending conparison stirnulus until it appe4n weeks after his nove to Berlin- ; ,
and descending se_ ,o o,.,rt poini ou the object- Relational discrimina_ R
n€s._tbr e*ample, rones of lj,
IB, lg, ZO,"ana tie-brighrness of the standarg. ^M;r[y,;;;: Though Lotze's interests in psychologr
tions based on local sigls become cues Fi
21 Hz may be presented. in eral ascending and descending were broad, he set.forth no sysrimatic for the
an ascending series. series;;;;_ ,[_ percepdotr of deprh.
and a subject's rask is to ,.port ployed pnu a m€an is oererminlj. proach ro the fielil An examination
,t,"n tfr" io,ie
is first detectecl. In a descanOing series, the conrparison starts
*;r;;;; of his
Outh:er-of Psycholog,, nrst publisbed
Lotze alsq emphasized the role of rhe mus_
sqries, stait_ a$ a higher or in l8g1, cle sense in depft perceprion. Local signs ffi
brighter value and-is adjusteC reveals interesB in such topiaa ,s for
:9.1b_:.",.rlrreshotd(e..g.,U,Z4,Zi:Ufr;;; Oownwa'rC anO *urory, un_.. an outstretched irrm are distinc( from lhose F
rhe subjectr ta{k ts to specify n-a subsequenl series the comparisoir conscious . processes, psychoparholo
::j:lii?,
Irequency at which tle
rlie
a lowcF Ur dimrner value $nd
starts at and
and sensory procesies. His*rheory i
W . for an une-xtended arm. Lorze (lgg5/1973)
ione is rio tonger is ua.;*rJ lt":jT_:o,, noted that those who are born blind consrruct B
heard^ ward. ",p_ orspaca perccptiofl was ro have a direct H
influ_ t$i8ir image dspace bg means of touch,
Fechner believed lhat Ure methorl etrce on his successors. bur he u
. nf lirnirs T:rlyf devetoperr by Fecbiieq ha{ doubted "whether the concgpt ofspace which
is the-methocl of choice for pretimitary
stuOies
-.,JY_
wrde applicability and became a stan(a.r{ p4rr
E. G Boring (1950) identified lhree rea_ the sense of rouch affords a person torn
but thar rhe other merhoos .r;,"il;;; o{ the rrainiug fo: blind,
m_ore rigorous srurlies (See
f; . Fro8rams ro,
chologku- Variatlons of Fechner,s "rp"ri
n"irieifiij; ::n: ry,*t prominenr place
of psyeliolosr.
trr rho hisrory is at ail similar to that of one who sees,, (I.
ne"fuier, tsiii As noted earlier, he wrote the
1860, p.63). are emp_loyed widely today
r"if,'[is 50). The assumprion of such radical disconi_
by pryl,ofosi;b.'il: Hl_oook.ttgqing ro be a physiotogicat nuity befween informa{ion ftom nvo sensory
his l,Iediziniscne 'rjdrctJgie iir
psy_
The Mbthod
vestrgatutg problenrs as tljvergent lloloey,
of Cuntant Srinuili, Fechner as ibioe"", P;\t:vtol3tts rler Seele, firsr
realms wqs challenged later by orhers
re_ ljttu of air rluatirlr 16 rlre capac'lty published in lB5Z. 1e.g., see
fened to this methocl as the ,;a}iiill,' summary in Viney, l99l).
nreilroJ "f sii,4,iffi1
rar species to discrinrinate atnong {4e second reason was Lotze's theory of
space
"1,rgi, perception (a rheory we
shall pr.rrnrly ioo,
. Goteslry (1967) poirired our rlat ,.Lorze,s
infiuence in Gernrany, France and EnglanJ
riir'.
 CHAPTER IO
Ji
lvas considerable during his lifetime. philoso-
l*5H plrers became more empirical_minded,
I less
I
ffi
i:lT,lt;;'ti
o" Iluenc_e ;3,];,:fff i,ff,ff jXlti*iit
on key figures involved in the foind-
L rng of me hew discipline, such as Hennann
I
w t'*:gll3,',i#"H:T,y$Hl rlil:*;*
George Trumbull t add.
I
ffi ITER IVTANN VON FELMIIOLTZ
Psychology owes an immense intellectual
k* debt
ru iTd;illih Jll,T",tX1ili'jt$;i;:ii:'ff
I L]rdwig Ferdinand
von
tf
Helrnholtz ftBl1l_
m ;:il:ir#T:*r,"-"ffi lilr}j
ffi:'?
physics, plrysiolog', and psycho logy
asone of the scientific gian-ts of
nr-e niirereenrtr
M{@
Born August 3I, LgZl, Helmholtz was, the
L first of four children of Augusr Ferdiriand
ffi Ju[us Helmholrz and CarolinJf"no" noring
{1950) reported-rhar Helmholtz, in tJ*lfy
ry years,
was a rather orrlinary sludent,. hut,his
academic mediocrity rnight have: been
mm ar_
w il:i?'j'""lll5,T :",:J,ill' #:"*"J'#*#
rute in Berlin. He obuined a governilent
stipend that covered rhe costs ofiris medicat
m education in exchange for eight
ru
'"- 1,ears o{ mili_
tary service tollowing graduation. Hetmholtz
completed his dissertation uncler
Johannes
M{lller anrt established close friendshf;
;ii;
Mtillei's other studens. A groqp of pfiitt".i
ffi
I"!_.It*, inclurling Ernst Britcke, Emil Du_
8oi5-Reymond, Karl Ludwig, and
Heirnholrz,
t ,or. m),sterious
wore strongly dedicared to a ndtural
chemical approach ro lhe iru.fy bllysi.o_
'oi -
Processes.
HeLmholtz complered rhe lyl.D.
and seryed.undl lB4B as an arnly,u.sd.o,iH"
ffi
&t was released early from militar5,
11n1y io
a faculrl' posirion in pirysiologS,
a, fOnigrO"rg.
}.IILI-IET-M lVUNI]TAND TI-TE FORI\,IAr-
FOUNITTt.TC Otr T5YCHOI-OCY
21'.!
nretabolizes food. Flelmholrz belisvod.tha
mnservation of energl applies to living or_
t the made it.possihle to peer inro rhoie
windorvs
gattruns Just as ir applies to physical plrenom_ ,
ena. Furthermore, there. are no mysterious j
,
and to entefiain the hope that science could
forge ahearl into another frontier.
Helnrholtz's empirical approach
forces or uirklowable energies that"activate' .
sfudy of percepfion was 6er foittr in an
to the
the orgaqism. The psychology that Helmholrz . article
envisioned was to be frmly grounded in
phpiologL Phpiolog5r, in turn, was to be
published in Ig94 entitled .The Origin
C.onect lqterpretadon of Our S"or"
i.pr"r_
sioJrl" Gee Kahl, 1971; Stromberg, 19Sd). A
and
fTTt g-r".""{ed in phpics and chemisfy. child repeatedly hean sounds in t'ire fonn
Hetmlolt/s vision of.the unity of the sciences
was such that, according to Wertheimer
common.names associated wlth objectj
of
itr the
r* mary repetirionr, tr,.rJ.r" itrong
G99f), "he hardty.lnew wtren he was tloing I^"111.d.
mnnections between sounds (words) and
psychology, physiologr, or physics.,, obi
jects in the rvortd. Sublleties are
siowly de_
ullop:d through. connecrion of Oescriptive
Wsual Peneption. Hetmholtz's masterpiece,
the
!-Ianlhyok of
physiorogicat Oprica
ts a crisj
adjectives with nouns. Thus, finer and
d
hner
isrrimina tions a re pods ible. Helmtrol tz
6rudy of rhe breadth of his in;rests in pgy_ ( 1894/
[n 1855, he accepted a posirion in anaiomv 1971) pointed out that, in lime, ..we are
and physiology ar the Uilversiry of Bonn.
year after arriving at Bonn,
Oul
hb published Vol_
cftological, physiological, and physical
Iems. The physics ahd physiblogy of
niob_
uirt* ,rd
to follow the subtl€st, most varierl shadings
tlrought and feeling. Iffihowever,
we tried 10
able
of
.rrt hio, ume I of his clu;sic Handbaak af p\ysiological Tu"lq in chapters on such topics
physical characrerisrics
as.,tlre say Jlow-r,r'e
acriuired this knowledgri, we could
of liglrl thi crystalline explain.it qnly in rhe form of a gen'eral propo_
o,pyics. Kaht (1967) pointed outina[rnis simi_
is ..frequenrly cailed the priltApia in . lens, the cornea, reftaction in tlre eye, mecha_ sition: we always found certain q,ords ,r.O
Irl I:* a69). The lrandbook
nisms of accommodation, and the ietina:
The certaiil ways" (p.502).
ln
iE,neu" {p. *"urirnrJ discussion. of the retina inclurles detfl
iled. de_
Helmholtz as one of Europe's most promising Helmholtz:arguetl .thar $omethitrg similar
scriptions of tlre rods and cones along with ..
yogng scientists. By lB5B, he.
un an4lysis of rtreir disrrjbutjoru. On psictrotogi_
an ta,kes place rviih respect to sense.
imfressions.
"."ept"e The hand proVirtes reliAbly differeni jnforma_
poiri,rment to_the chair of pt4nioiog,
ar "pl
rlie cal matterb, the handbook contains chapiJis
untverstty of Heidelberg. He remained in tion ro.a baby when the b;by grrrpr.. ,pl,"i"
that covering"sucft topics as illusions, rhe
poJtion for 13 very productive years before 'tion of ddpth, and coior
peicep_ rathe.r than a square. Ar th; su*i ti-i,
Ur.
acceprrng a position in 1g?l as professor
prlysrcs a[ the Universiry of Beilin.
Turner
of
vision.
The hanrlbook dlso covers nrgrtronotogiaii
topics in optics. Helmholrz- mad.e one
reaching and grasping are reliably,rsorirr",J
with visual cues. Wren the conneciions are
in_
(1972) srared, ..By lSg5 Helmhotrz had greatest methodological breakiliroughs
of"the v.arianl the baby gains a sense impression
of a
be- ..[
come lhe patriarch of Gernran science
anrl tlte ne rnvented lhe ophtlnltnrosco?e, an instru-
wlren sphere and a cube, conclude from these
state's foremost advisor on scientific
affairs,,. ment that permim an observer to examine
facts that the meaning of some of the simplest,
(p.743). Helmhottz died on Juty IZ, l}g4. the most imponant visual images tor a human in-
retina.^of anotheis eye. Helmholtz,s genius
is fantmlst be learnect" Gtetmtrottz, 1g94y'1g71,
beauffully illustrated in the handboo-t< as
IfeLuholtz's Contributions discussed the theory of rhe orrhthalmoscone
he p. 506). Even if the baby were articulare, it
(see Southall, 1962, pp.2Z62iB),
could not specis how it gained irs sense im_
Heknholtz rejected the idea that vital forces called alrention
Hetmhoitz pressions. Helmholtz emphasized ..uocon_
to rhe iact thit light lhat scious inferences', in perception. .such
energiti infl uencirl physiologi- reaches the redna is both absorbecl infer_
and re- ences,
3l _o1. lsrchologicat processes. He Letrcvlo His ophthalmoscop€ rvas an ingenious -according
to. Helmholtz, are barilt up
f ir" that all movements within [he organiS,riiare, le_:ted. through counrless rcpctitions of stimalus anll
in rnfirument that made it possible to
principle, undersrandable ln tenis irilercepr Iesponse eveRfs.
in o6 pirysi'cU rays that are reflected. - Thus,. an 'observlr
lB4Z laws. .He dentonstraled thatia simrrle'rnu;" This same line of reasoning was employed
could, for the first time, see images
conlraction generates a slight increase and by Helmholtz ro explain tleprh-perception. por
in tern. anatomical details of the ieiina -another
no."pr of example, q'e learn'that odject
The rotat energy eryrend.a in,rrliveir A is more tiis_
llf i1rl.
untt ol tinle is relaled to rhe rvay the
personrs.eye.If the senses aie,rhe ,i,indo$s of tanl than object B because of inirariant con_
the nrincl, then Helnrhottz's .ourritrurions
.
org#isnr
nections lrehveen A and tlle feeling
of the Out_
 LrB CHATTER ro ;F
jl
1l

wrutELMwuNDTAI,IDlt-lEFoRhrALFouNqtNcoFpsycFloLocY
Shetcbed ann versus B and the 2ig
feeling of tlre Ia time, it was understood thif colors
arm wher\ jt is closer to the nre
boiiy. Tleri are, of reliably holtz ttreory. A more appropriate name rniglrt
course, maty otber connectioris associa tetl with specifi c *uu"f rolUo. in a.udition and vision', (p. 345). These conrri_
(visual, pro_ But how do we in mlor? no have been ilre Young-Maxwell_HelmholU
priocepfive, and perliaps verbal)
that otur
see **
specific structure for each. discrirninafrfe
f,r"u"', or wen the young-Maxwelt theorv.
lheory,
Dultous, coupled with his measurement
0f lhe
togerlrer and that. graduirlly conuibute wauJ speed of the nervous impulse and
to me Helmholtz's conLributions to color an*ry, his mm-
mterprehdon of sbnse perceptions.
It would .
Ilryi rf so, rhe physiotosr *r"i"*ili
woulo.lave to be very complex"r because however, ire not to be minimized. He tiJj
milme.nt lo lhe dgctrine of rhe .onservadon
of
De nearly impossible to speCi[,
all tfte cues it ls lo"tCy, mark him as otre of the most pivolal
tftat coltribute lo a given perception, .
possible to split tie visible spectrum
inro rrurr_ I":rq'r rheory €xplicirly to possible physio-
logical mechanisms an4 in ilrl words of nect
figures in ttre hisrory ofpsychology.
but we dreds of.dlfferelt hues. A much simpter soiu_
oo oraw unconscious i[ferences tlrat. are (1968), he ..enended rhe theory to account for
ti_on w-as proposed in lg02 by
mquisitely conditioued by our inleraction ilr" irlyri"iog;t color trlinduess, nega iivo. afterimages, and suc_ WILHELIU WI"INDT
rvith Yopng (1773-f eZS), wto'arg";iil;
objecs in the environmenl ]ronas cessive,contrasrs" (p. 347). The young_Helm_
Helmholtz. was particularly .iqterested itr
atr oo-tors can be produced with various
com- T" foT"l beginnings of modern experimen_
binations hottz theory fu still an importaut rheory in tal psycholos/
depth perception. A major;ctrspter on green, and blue (violet).-it are raced to rhe yJar lBT9,
-of ryd, color science.
dris followed, for young ttrar there **i when Wilhelm Wundt established alaboratorv
topic explainetl moriocular cues,iuch as u" rir""
sizq types of specializett retinal suuctures, at the Universiry of Leipzig. Many of ttre
contours, shadows, and aerial perspective. each Acotrstics and llearing-, Helmholtz,s igreat con'_
He sensitive to a specific primary cotor.'Cofo, ceptual and methodoiogicat toodtor
also discussed binocular cues;lome breadth of inreresr in ptrysics, pfrysiofogyl;nJ the new
of which pflmaries for additive mixtures with light hact already been establistred by
could be amply demonstrated with the psychology are illustraied again in his oTiginal 9j:?pt""_
ttereo-
scope, an instrurnel[ Oat prod-uces a com- lourqes are differenr ftom those for pigmeits. workOnthe Sensatiorc of Tane His reson-ance
Weber, Fechner,' ancl Helmholra What re_
The prinaries for the latter ur" g"o"iuily mained Sas for someone with a vision, and
pelling three-dimensional efiect By Simulrane_ *o- theory- of hearing, for erample, attemfrcd
. ously presenilng slightly ::i.,T.d
ro be red, yeilow, anrt blur. Iioring to with Ln'owledge of the available tools, to
differeni views of a (1942) pointed ou[ thal by positing identify,possible physiological stnictures
visual scene to the Ieft and right'eyesl speciatizef; for tackle,rhe difficu!t aud.risLl business of agi_
pitch perception. Helmholtz observed thht,a
.iercepUon oi
IrAu.i, nerves for color primaries, yo,inrt
Helmholrz's discussion n,"orv for insriru tional space and recogniti Jn.
ii
.
of OepUr '?nticipared Jolranrres lvliiller's string on.h musjcal instrumeiit such.as hu.p ,Withelm
. .tating
st-ill rglevant today.anrl is Ureoly of spJ. Maximitian Wun<tt (1832_p;0) ha;
mmmonly lnrtuOeJ cific nerve energies" or pidno is acdvated by an elfternal'sound "
m iouoductory psyc.holory texts. . . e. f l2). source of tre same frequeo.cy as lhe one
the.requislre vision, lnowfedge, and to,
:' .; : lnterestingly, litrle experimentai work
was which it is tuned- ttehnirotrz spedf.,.J-,f,ri
to "n"rgr
such an undertaking. To be sure, WundtTaced
conducled on color vision in the an uphill hattle because typicauy conservatjve
Colnr Wion- Interest in the nature 200_yeai pe_ : . fiber,$, in the basilar membrane . fi
of color riod from Newt6n ro Hetmholtz iirdJ;, of ihe inuer university officials were less than enthusiastic e
and color vision was undoubtetlly ear, like lhe strings of a piano or haqp,
stimulaled
in-ancienr people by such phenom.enir
Young's work on color vision, provocative . also- may TherE were'even coneerns in some quaffers
!, ;i;; ,1, *r:,
as
yur prirnarily specufarivi. ny rri" mia
resonal.e to specific frequencies.'.Thus,
thal Wundr's inuospective methods mighr
blindness and lhe oi itr" pitch discriminatiort is based on vibration,oi
rainuow dle of the nineteenth cennrry, Helm.hsltz cause studenr to have mental brealcdo*ns.1o
"ppearan"e
and by questions about was H
whether ahimals see in conducting experiments on color Bbers in syrnpathywith external sources. E
mixtures. He In yet say Lie .least, the oudook for the new labora_
color. One of the ftrst naturalistic theories aiorher extension of Miiller's doctrine of spe_ .
of was interested in discovering the torywas not oprimistic
color was attributed to Aristotlg who -particularly cific energies, Helmholtz argued that ,rpuru.t,
appar_ minimum number of primaries ftom But WunrlL's efforts were to have monu-
ently believed thar aI colors resulr
from'art_
-.. ;hicli specialized nerves are acilvated Uy ea.tr
one muld obrain.all colors of the Ois_ mental conseguences. Froru a single labora_
mixlures of lightness and darkness (see
spectrum.
Inirially, he argued agairrsi young,s t"li"f criminable pirch.
Barnes, 1934, pp. LZLT-IZ2B). MoOern l; Helmlroltz also .advanced .lorJ roomj on the I*ipzig campus, Wundt
ttr'eo_ prim4ries, opring instead fJr nu", theoiies at_ b-ecame rhE liey player in launching a nerv riis-
ries of color date ftom the rvork of _tlrree r..,t, tempdng to account for the timbre or quality
Isaac New_ yellow, green, blue, and viole L c_ipline that wab lo be internatjoual in scope_
ton (1642-1727), whose clasiic work in of sound. He reasoned that a specific pir;h, .say
optics The experimentat work favoring young,s Who would have predicted rltat, within a cin_
described the properries of lighf . nriddle C, sounds different qn diffiierr ia_
Newton trichro.matic theory was nor Oone-Uy tury, a course in Pa{chology woulrt be required
demonstratecl tlrat a beam of sullishr Ueift_ struments because of the har.rnoniG br
oassinp holru bur by Janres Cterk Maxweff over- for many univenlty rsriaJors or that psychblogl
through a prism is dispersed irrro'i ligg-1_ lones produced by the st*uctural pmpsflies
sp..f *rfi 1879), rhe grear Scoftish physicisl fif as a major SubjeE-t tsould be among lle most
Wi,iii;;_
-colors. He also rlemonstraterl that rvhite
of the instrumenL
phirtkererl experimenml techniques, pop8lsr s[ unive$ity campu$es? N0ne of fhh
lighr is arrained aggin when rhe Cirp""*,t'*i_ Maxwell Beck (1968) poinred our, ,.From tbe oer_
demonsrrared thar trc tould ls mean$ to imply that Wundt was responsible
ors are recornbined wilh a converging .nu ioEiiXi spective of posterity . . . Helmhdt_r
lens. value with mixlures o[ red,^r,.il
green, ;ri.'.niie. *rsd* h{, for the populariry ofpsychology after rhe for_
Newton's demofftration was parl.icuLrf most s$gni$ednt contrjbutions to the,fiells
ou*- Subsequently, Helmhol u of
aging to lhe common view of tlre day ,. ili-' physiolog, and psychotogy. In parLic_
mal founrling. Nlore than any other, lrowever,
thar chrolnadc tleory of young "ro'Urr.Jo'if
and lhe fnro*'i'r* :?L*yhc laid he. had :'the vision, talent, organizational skil[
white light rvas pure and rlevoicl
of any JIor. been known ever since as the youiiffiiiu_ Plar, the foundalio[s for tie erperi_ and enthasiasn [or establishing rhe formal
mental investigation of the sensory p.orrr.",
disciplinary slatus of psychologi. Accordingly,