Taxiing Circuit

Basic Concepts
Training

Objective 3. Aeroplane Management 4. Human Factors

Use the aircraft controls correctly to manoeuvre the aircraft on the ground at a speed • Don’t use power Vs. brakes • Clean windscreen
appropriate for the prevailing conditions and situation, following a selected path and stopping • Seat positioned for full rudder deflection and height • Move head and body to avoid blind spots
at a nominated point. • Engine warm before moving
• Brake check soon after first moving
• Carb heat ON only for checks
1. Considerations • Face into wind when stopped
• Taxi on centreline
Speed Control • Watch for wingtip clearance
Throttle controls speed. Forward is more power, and rearwards is less power • No reverse available
• More power is required to get started and overcome inertia • Caution, surface conditions
Minimum power setting
• Taxi speed is affected by surface, slope, wind, and power used
• Should be a fast walking pace – 5 to 10 km/h 5. Ground Exercise
• May need occasional gentle (cadence) braking to maintain the taxi speed while
• Seat is adjusted and comfortable • Wingtip clearance can be judged using shadows
maintaining the recommended power setting • Once engine is warm, use enough power to overcome inertia • Caution slipstream and jet blast from other aircraft
Speed = fast walking pace • Test brakes after moving off • Slipstream (the air blown back by the propeller), can blow
• Stop by closing the throttle and using the toe brakes to come to a halt • Maintain safe taxi speed – fast walking pace objects and people around behind you
• Park brake is set by holding down the toe brakes and engaging the lever • Maintain the centreline (if applicable) • During the taxi and while turning, check instruments
• Turn using the rudder pedals to turn the nosewheel • Stop by applying the toe brakes
Directional Control • Take account of the wind, and the change in the wind • Apply park brake
• Nosewheel steering is achieved by using the rudder pedals, push on the left rudder as you turn
and the aeroplane turns left and vice versa
• Wind affects the speed across the ground. Tailwind makes you go faster, headwind slower,
and crosswind will push the tail and make the aeroplane turn into wind
• Make sure you look at a point in the distance, not one just ahead of the aeroplane

Control Positioning
• Complete details are in the Flight Manual
• Aim to deflect the control surface that will be affected by the wind, so the wind
cannot ‘pick it up’.
• Wind from behind – control column forward (elevator deflected downwards), ailerons neutral
• Wind from ahead – no elevator deflection needed
• Wind from the left – control column left (left aileron raised)
• Wind from the right – control column right (right aileron raised)
• Combination of the above when wind is quartering. For example, wind from
the left and behind – control column forward and left.

2. Airmanship
• Check the right of way rules • Always carry a Vol 4 and aerodrome chart
• Check the aerodrome chart • Radio communication
• Check windsock for wind
Effects of Controls Circuit
Basic Concepts
Training

Objectives 3. Aeroplane Management 4. Human Factors

To operate the primary control surfaces and to experience the feel and observe the first • Engine controls • Limitations on lookout
aerodynamic effect on the aircraft in flight. • throttle • Limitations of memory
• mixture • More comfortable with practice/workload
To operate the primary control surfaces and observe the further (or secondary) aerodynamic
• carb heat • Uncoordinated lesson by nature
effects on the aircraft in flight.
• temperatures and pressures
To operate the ancillary controls and to experience the feel and observe the effect • Flap speed – white arc
on the aircraft in flight. • Preflight inspection

1. Principles of Flight 5. Air Exercise

On the Ground Lift Taxi practice
• Control speed with throttle and brakes • As air flows over the wing, increased
• One hand on control column and other on throttle speed above the wing results in reduced Attitude
• Dual controls fitted pressure = Lift • Attitude flying by referencing nose and wings to the horizon
• Lift can be altered by changing the shape
Aeroplane Axes of the wing, the angle of attack, and
the airspeed
Controls

Axis Control Input 1st Effect 2nd Effect Use

Lateral Elevator Control Column forward Pitch down – Attitude and
rearward up Airspeed
Longitudinal Aileron Control Column right Roll right Slip – Yaw Direction
left left
Primary Controls
Normal Rudder Rudder Pedals left Yaw left Skid – Roll Balance
• Elevator pitches aeroplane – changing attitude right right
• Aileron rolls aeroplane – changing direction
• Rudder yaws aeroplane – balanced flight
• Slipstream strikes rudder and elevator
Airspeed Slipstream
• Increased airspeed – increased control feel, • Increased power g increased slipstream
Ancillary Controls
response rate, movement needed • Increased flow over elevator g more effective control
• Throttle affects speed, direct connection to propeller
• Decreased airspeed – decreased control feel, (not applicable to Tomahawks)
• Trim tabs provide a force to hold primary controls
response rate, movement needed • Strikes rudder g yaw
• Flap changes shape of wing, increases lift, drag,
• Must balance with rudder
and L/D ratio – changes pitch, trim change required

Inertia Power Trim

• Tendency for body to remain in current state – in speed or direction • Decrease in power g nose pitch down and yaw right • To relieve the pressure
• Increase in power g nose pitch up and yaw left • If holding back pressure – trim backwards
• Must balance with rudder • If holding forward pressure – trim forwards

2. Airmanship Flap
• “I have control / you have control” • Horizon is main reference • Extending flap g increase in lift and drag g pitch change – trim change required
• “follow me through” • Land features • Retracting flap g decrease in lift and drag g pitch change – aeroplane will sink
• See and be seen • I’M SAFE
• Clock code, relative height/distance
Straight and Level Circuit
Basic Concepts
Training

Objectives 3. Aeroplane Management 4. Human Factors

To establish and maintain straight and level flight, at a constant airspeed, constant altitude, • Smooth throttle movements • Blind spots
in a constant direction, and in balance. • Mixture rich • New learning consistently reinforced in later lessons
• Carb heat
To regain straight and level flight.
To maintain straight and level flight at selected airspeeds or power settings.

1. Principles of Flight 5. Air Exercise

• The horizon is the line where the sea meets the sky • Horizon
• All flying references the aeroplane’s nose with the horizon • Power setting
• Attitude for level
The Four Forces
• Lift, Weight, Thrust, Drag Establishing Straight and Level
• Equilibrium when Lift = Weight and Power set for straight and level
Thrust = Drag Attitude elevator set nose attitude
• Forces don’t act through the same point g
aileron wings level relative to horizon
moment arms g couple rudder in balance no yaw – stand on the ball
• Lift and Weight couple balanced by
Trim to relieve pressure – hands off
tailplane force
• Changes in Thrust g pitch changes
Maintaining Straight and Level
Lift Lookout ahead
• Air over the top accelerates compared Attitude four fingers
to air passing under the wing Instruments to confirm – not set
• L = CL ½ V2 S Altimeter, DI, TC, RPM checked every time
• L = Angle of attack x Airspeed Other instruments and gauges, less frequently
• Angle of attack altered with elevator
Regaining Straight and Level
Performance 1. Airspeed and power setting correct
• Power + Attitude = Performance 2. Attitude correct for straight and level
3. Wings level and balance ball centred
4. Reset power
5. P A T

Straight and Level at Different Airspeeds Power + Attitude = Performance

• Any changes in power must be balanced with rudder
• While moving rudder wings must be kept level Power 2200 1800 2500
Airspeed 80–90 knots 60 knots 110 knots
2. Airmanship
• Lookout
Attitude Normal High Low
• Situational Awareness, training area boundaries, clear of cloud
• “I have control / you have control”
Climbing and Descending Circuit
Basic Concepts
Training

Objectives 2. Airmanship 3. Aeroplane Management 4. Human Factors

To enter the climb and the descent from straight and level flight. • Situational awareness – what was, is, and will be • Smooth throttle movements • Trapped gases in ears
• VFR Met minima • Mixture rich • Diving
To maintain a climb and a descent at a constant speed, constant rate, in a constant
• Minimum and maximum heights • Carb heat HOT for descent • Empty sky myopia
direction and in balance.
• Lookout – restrictions • Temperatures and pressures • Noise
To level off at specific altitudes. • I’M SAFE

1. Principles of Flight 5. Air Exercise

Climbing Climbing Descending
• Aeroplane is in equilibrium when climbing
• Lift is not increased Entry Entry
• T must be greater than D
• Rate of climb (climb performance) depends
on excess power available

Power mixt rich, full power, balance Power mixt rich, carb heat HOT, close throttle, balance
Attitude climb attitude, wings level, balance Attitude hold S+L attitude until glide speed, then set
Trim to maintain attitude glide attitude
Trim to maintain attitude
Airspeed = RoC =
Climb Performance Climb Configurations Airspeed controlled with attitude Airspeed = RoD =
Power More power better Airspeed controlled with attitude
climb performance Performance Power Attitude
Maintaining
Altitude Limits the performance Best RoC Full kts Lookout Maintaining
Weight h weight – i rate of climb Best AoC kts Attitude Lookout
Flap h drag – i rate of climb Instruments Attitude
Cruise kts
Wind Affects climb angle and Instruments
distance in climb Recommended kts Change – check – hold – trim
Change – check – hold – trim
Exit
Descending Exit
• Aeroplane is in equilibrium when descending
• Flying speed maintained by lowering nose attitude
• FCW balances D

Attitude select and hold S+L attitude, adjust as

speed increases, balance Attitude carb heat COLD, increase power, balance
Power wait for aeroplane to accelerate, then set Power wait for aeroplane to accelerate, then set
cruise power, balance cruise power, balance
Trim to hold S+L attitude Trim to hold S+L attitude

Descent Performance Descent Configurations

Power Controls rate of descent
L/D ratio Efficiency of wing, steepness of glide Performance Power Attitude
Weight h weight h FCW – h speed down slope Glide Idle kts
Flap Needs h FCW to balance D – Powered kts
h rate of descent
Cruise kts
Wind Affects descent angle and range
Medium, Climbing and Descending Turns Circuit
Basic Concepts
Training

Objectives 2. Airmanship 3. Aeroplane Management 4. Human Factors

To change direction through 360 degrees at a constant rate – using 30 degrees angle • 20° per 2 second scan technique • Smooth and positive throttle movements • 360° turns to minimise
of bank – while maintaining a constant altitude and keeping the aeroplane in balance. • Lookout and Listenout • Carb heat disorientation
• SA – 360° turns, position, altitude, weather • Turning sensation
To complete a medium turn while climbing and while descending.
• VFR minima, 5–2–1

1. Principles of Flight 5. Air Exercise

• In order to turn need to create a force towards the centre of the turn – bank the aeroplane Adverse Yaw
• HCL provides the force • Demonstration only
• VCL reduced \ more L required g increase angle of attack slightly

Entry
Medium Level Turn Climbing Turn Descending Turn
• From S+L • Establish in climb • Establish in glide
• Lookout • Lookout • Lookout
• Roll with aileron to 30° AoB • Roll with aileron to 15° AoB • Roll with aileron to 30° AoB
• Balance with rudder • Balance with rudder • Balance with rudder
• Backpressure to set attitude • Relax backpressure to maintain • Relax backpressure to maintain
– h slightly attitude – i attitude – i

Adverse Yaw
• h L on upgoing wing, also means h D i yaw
away from turn
• Rudder to balance yaw as ailerons
deflected – neutral

Overbanking
• Outer wing travels further,
tries to keep rolling
• Hold off bank with aileron
In Turn
• ‘Check’ the ailerons and maintain balance
more L, • Lookout
• Attitude
• Instruments
• Angle of bank controlled with aileron
• Altitude controlled with backpressure

Exit
• Look for reference point • Relax backpressure
• Anticipate rollout by half the angle of bank • Reset S+L attitude
Performance • Roll wings level • Check PAT
• When climbing and turning, angle of bank must be reduced Maximum of 20°, use 15° • Balance with rudder
Slow Flight Circuit
Basic Concepts
Training

Objectives 3. Aeroplane Management 4. Human Factors

To slow the aeroplane and maintain straight and level at low airspeed (1.2VS). • Smooth but positive throttle and control movements • High level of concentration
• Carb heat • Unfamiliar high nose attitudes
To maintain straight and level at low airspeed in various configurations.
• Engine operating temperatures
To maintain a constant altitude while turning at low airspeed. • Use of flap – power requirements
To return to normal operating airspeeds.

1. Principles of Flight 5. Air Exercise

Power + Attitude = Performance Power + Attitude = Performance
• L = Angle of Attack x Airspeed
• As airspeed decreases angle of attack Slowing to S + L at Low Airspeed
must increase to maintain level • Power reduce to decelerate
• High nose attitude + little extra • Attitude increases as aeroplane slows – maintain level
power required • Trim to relieve backpressure
• Fly the aeroplane at a slow speed, • Adjust power to maintain height
but above the stall – next lesson • Airspeed =
• Less control effectiveness
– larger inputs required
• Slipstream effects less – maintain balance Maintaining S + L at Low Airspeed
• Medium level turns – • Lookout
need additional power • Attitude
• Instruments

Turning at Low Airspeed

• To maintain level, Lift must h, Drag will h, more power required
• Adverse yaw countered with rudder
• Ailerons will need to be deflected more for same roll rate
• Balance with rudder
2. Airmanship
• 20°/2 second scan
• HASELL checks
• Aeroplane position in training area
• Warning symptoms of approaching stall

H Height Not less than 2500 feet above ground level Returning to Cruise
A Airframe Configuration – clean or flap • Power increase to full power, balance with rudder
• Attitude lower nose to level attitude
S Security No loose articles, harnesses secure • Trim to relieve pressure
E Engine Ts & Ps Temperatures and pressures normal, mixture rich, fuel sufficient • Reduce to cruise power, balance with rudder
and on fullest
• Lookout
L Locality Not over a populated area and clear of known traffic areas, • Attitude
including airfields • Instruments
L Lookout One 180-degree, or two 90-degree, clearing turns to ensure other
traffic will not result in conflict
Basic Stalling Circuit
Basic Concepts
Training

Objectives 3. Aeroplane Management 4. Human Factors

To control the aeroplane to the point of stall, recognise the symptoms of the approaching • Smooth but positive throttle and control movements • More practice and exposure the better
stall, experience the stall itself, and recover with minimum height loss. • Preflight – no loose objects • Plenty of time between stalls to orientate
• Carb heat use • Sick bags
To control the aeroplane to the point of stall, recognise the symptoms of the approaching
stall, and recover at stall onset with minimum altitude loss.

1. Principles of Flight 5. Air Exercise

• L = Angle of Attack x Airspeed Entry
• Smooth airflow over the wing breaks down and becomes turbulent • HASELL checks and reference point (high)
• Breaks away from upper surface, aeroplane sinks, nose pitches down • Carb heat HOT
• Close throttle
• Keep straight with rudder
• Maintain altitude with h backpressure
• Through kts (or stall warning sounds), carb heat COLD

Symptoms
• Low and i airspeed • Buffet (turbulent air from wing striking tailplane)
• High nose attitude • Control column will be fully back – no further control
At the Stall • Less effective controls – higher stick forces movement
• When the wing stalls there is a i in • Stall warning – if fitted
L and large h in D
• Aeroplane sinks, C of P moves At the Stall
• Aeroplane sinks and nose pitches down
rearwards g pitch down
Recovery
To Unstall
• Check forward with control column to reduce
angle of attack
• Do not use ailerons
• Aeroplane will descend
• Recover to S+L with PAT

To Minimise Height Loss – max of 100’

• Power + Attitude = Performance
• Unstall, as above, check forward
2. Airmanship H Height
• Apply full power – balance with rudder
• No pax • Raise nose to the horizon (stops sink and allows acceleration)
• Awareness of aircraft configuration, position A Airframe • Accelerate to kts, then adjust attitude to maintain speed
• Regain starting altitude and S+L
and other traffic S Security
• HASELL checks
E Engine Ts & Ps Recovery at Onset
• HELL checks
L Locality • Normal situation – when not training
• Recognise symptoms
• Recover at stall warning / buffet
L Lookout
• Height loss – 50’ maximum
Circuit Introduction Circuit Training

Objectives 3. Aeroplane Management 4. Human Factors

To takeoff and follow published procedures that conform to the aerodrome • Landing cues
traffic circuit, avoiding conflict with other aircraft. S Suction Suction gauge operating in the green range • Workload/priorities

To carry out an approach and landing using the most suitable runway. A Amps/Alternator Alternator functioning correctly
D DI DI synchronised to compass and functioning correctly
1. Considerations I Ice Carb ice checked for and carb heat applied if required
Takeoff E Engine Temperatures and pressures are in green range

Slipstream Strikes tail and yaws aeroplane

Torque Tries to rotate aeroplane and yaws aeroplane
Keeping straight With rudder as required – look ahead
5. Air Exercise
Crosswind Tries to weathercock aeroplane, keep straight
1 Takeoff
• Reference point • Hold on brakes
Headwind Reduces takeoff roll – always takeoff into wind and line up checks • Keep straight
Tailwind Increases takeoff roll
2 Climb Out
Climb angle Headwind increases climb angle
• Separation • After takeoff checks • Turn at 500’ agl
Takeoff into wind To minimise ground roll and distance to 50’
3 Crosswind
Power Full power for maximum performance
• Tracking and lookout
Flap Usually not used
Runway length Calculated length required for takeoff
4 Downwind
• Downwind • Checks
radio call • Spacing
Landing
5 Base Turn
Wind Into wind to reduce ground roll and distance from 50’ • Lookout • Power reduced • Airspeed
• Reference point to • Flap – first stage
Flap h L and D, lower speed and lower nose attitude • Carb heat HOT • Turn
Power Controls RoD, more airflow over elevator and rudder
6 Base Leg
Brakes On ground only • Track • Flap – • Attitude
Runway length Calculated length required for landing further stage(s) controls airspeed

7 Final
• Anticipate • Attitude • Short final carb
turn – 500’ controls airspeed heat COLD
2. Airmanship • Aim point • Power controls RoD

• ATC/Traffic • Checklists • Right of Way rules 8 Landing

• Landing assured, • Look down end • Touch down on
U Undercarriage Down and locked close throttle of runway main wheels
B Brakes Brake pressure checked, park brake off • At 50’ nose • Progressively • Let nosewheel
progressively increase back settle
M Mixture Mixture rich
raised for roundout/ pressure • Keep straight
F Fuel Fuel on fullest tank, fuel pump on, pressure checked flare to control sink • After-landing checks
H Harnesses & Hatches Seatbelt secure and doors\canopy closed – clear of runway
Circuit Considerations Circuit Training

Objectives 3. Aeroplane Management 4. Human Factors

To continue circuit training. • SADIE checks • Orientation cues
S Suction
To use the touch and go and go around procedures.
To use the terms and procedures employed when a deviation from the normal circuit is required. A Amps/Alternator
D DI
I Ice
1. Considerations
Touch and Go Low Level Circuit E Engine
• On runways with enough length can land, • 500’, for quicker circuit to practice landings
retract flap and takeoff without stopping • Should only be done with instructor
• Saves time, can do more circuits on board
• Does not give you automatic right-of-way 5. Air Exercise
Go Around / Overshoot
• If for any reason the landing needs Wind Gradient Touch and Go
• Wind strength decreases closer to the • Once nosewheel on runway, raise flap • Keep straight
to be abandoned
• Full power, raise flap, climb ahead and apply full power. • Takeoff
ground because of friction
• Affects flare – possible floating
Orbit Go Around
• 360° medium level turn Windshear • Carry out any time a safe landing cannot be made • Reduce from full flap
• Used to adjust spacing or to hold • Sudden change in wind speed • Aviate – Navigate – Communicate • As speed increases nose on the horizon
• Commonly done downwind • Normal procedure, not emergency • Safe height, safe airspeed, +ve RoC – raise flap
and/or direction
• Wind needs to be 10 kts or more • Carb heat COLD • Track to the right of the runway
Extend Downwind • If encounter sudden drop in airspeed and/or • Full power – beware of pitch change • Continue climb out to normal crosswind turning point
• For separation • Nose to level attitude • Advise ATC “going around”
altitude – Go Around
• Extend the downwind leg, and turn base
when instructed Wake Turbulence
• Disturbed air caused by wing producing lift
Repositioning • Aircraft produces spirals from wingtips
• Usually done downwind, but can be done • Avoid by keeping safe distance from aircraft
on any leg ahead, especially those bigger
• Change of direction used when there • If encounter – Go Around
is a change of runway
Dumb-Bell Turn
• Change circuit direction change by
180° turn on climb out

Glide Approach
• See separate briefing

2. Airmanship
• Aviate – Navigate – Communicate
• ATC clearances
• VFR minima in CTZ
Engine Failure After Takeoff Circuit Training

Objective 3. Aeroplane Management 4. Human Factors

To adopt the recommended procedure in the event of an engine failure • Systems management • Learn checklists and use mnemonics
at low level (below 1000 ft agl). • Loose objects in cabin • Plenty of practice available
• Smooth throttle movements • Avoid mindsets – practise, currency and pre-planning
• Listen for ‘normal’ sounds

1. Considerations 5. Air Exercise

Aborted Takeoff
Cause Prevention
Aviate
Carb ice • Be aware of temp and humidity • Close throttle
• Carb heat HOT
Navigate
• Preflight run-up
• Keep straight, brake as required
Air blockage • Carb hear HOT – alternate air
Communicate
• Preflight inspection
• Tell ATC / traffic
Fuel contamination • Water or solid particles in the fuel
• Preflight fuel check and sample Engine Failure After Takeoff
Fuel starvation • Wrong tank selection (or OFF) or fuel pump problems Aviate
• Preflight run-up • Fly the aeroplane – lower nose, close throttle
• Carb heat HOT
Fuel exhaustion • Run out of fuel
• Preflight planning and inspection Navigate
• Choose landing site from anything in the windscreen
Spark • Preflight inspection and run-up
• Flap as required to make it

Communicate
Aborted Takeoff Go Around • MAYDAY
• Early in the takeoff roll, with runway • Full power, keep straight with rudder, • Land into wind and keep cabin intact
available, close throttle, braking as required, raise the nose attitude to the horizon,
keep straight climb straight ahead, retracting any flap, Trouble Checks
continuing climb out
Engine Failure After Takeoff F Fuel Selector ON, fuel pump ON, change tanks (touch)
Aviate Takeoff Safety Brief
M Mixture RICH, carb heat HOT, primer LOCKED
• Lower nose, close throttle • Intentions in the event of an EFATO
I Ignition BOTH
Navigate
• Choose landing site, flap decisions

Communicate Shutdown Checks

• Tell ATC / traffic
F Fuel OFF
M Mixture OFF
I Ignition OFF
2. Airmanship
M Master OFF
• Pre-takeoff safety brief • Advise ATC/traffic
• Aviate – Navigate – Communicate • Trouble checks
• “Simulating” • Shutdown checks
• Touch checks
Flapless Landings Circuit Training

Objective 3. Aeroplane Management 4. Human Factors

To carry out a flapless approach and landing. • Small power changes to adjust approach path • Lower nose attitude causes illusion and acceleration

1. Considerations 5. Air Exercise

• In all cases, when faced with the unexpected • Will simulate late downwind
• Aviate – Navigate – Communicate • Carry out a go around and position downwind

Flap System Downwind

• Flap system operated by • Flap operating system diagrammatics • Downwind checks and radio call
• Electrical system diagrammatics • Assess runway length
• Confirm appropriate approach speed
Detection
• Choose power setting for approach
• To help detection of this failure before • Regular SADIE checks
• Extend downwind leg
getting airborne • Probably won’t detect it until base leg
• Thorough preflight inspection • Once detected – go around Base
• Sound systems knowledge • Lower power
• Higher nose attitude
Causes
• Trim
• Mechanical linkage failure (manual or electric flap) • Anticipate turn onto final
• Electric flap motor failure
• Electrical current failure The Approach
• Overspeed – should never happen • Attitude to maintain higher approach speed
• Always limit speed to below VFE before deploying flap • Small power changes to adjust RoD
• Higher nose attitude – less forward visibility
Diagnosis
• Attitude + Power = Performance
• Once in level flight, can then diagnose problem
• Check electrics for indications – Master ON, CB set, Battery output Landing
• Visual check for indication failure • Less round-out
• Slight hold-off
Procedure • Do not over-flare – wait for touchdown
• Stall speed h approach speed higher (5 kts) • Caution floating – may require go around
• Longer landing distance – P-charts
have no detail
• Less power required
• Descent angle shallower
• Less visibility over the nose

2. Airmanship
• Good systems knowledge • SADIE checks • Higher approach speed
Crosswind Circuit Circuit Training

Objectives 2. Airmanship 3. Aeroplane Management 4. Human Factors

To correctly position the aeroplane controls while taxiing. • Making the calculations improves SA • Control position on ground wrt wind • Assessing runway suitability
• Max crosswind is a recommendation, • May need to use brakes improved ADM
To compensate for drift throughout the circuit.
To takeoff and land in crosswind conditions. but may be other limits

1. Considerations 5. Air Exercise

On the Ground Takeoff
• Aeroplane has tendency to weathercock • Position controls to compensate for wind • Line-up, adjust reference point for drift • Lift off at slightly higher speed than normal
into wind • Ailerons fully into wind, elevator neutral • After lift-off make a gentle balanced turn into wind
• During takeoff roll reduce aileron to neutral by rotate point
On Takeoff
• Allow for drift to track along the runway centreline Circuit
Climb-out
In the Circuit • Wings level, in balance
• Allow for drift and headwind/tailwind • Base leg will be affected the most • Adjust heading to track extended centreline
on each leg Crosswind
• Reference heading allows for drift
On Landing • Expect some headwind or tailwind
• As crosswind increases amount of flap used • More airspeed needed if gusty conditions
Downwind
decreases – to improve directional control • Need to consider overall suitability of runway
• Allow for wind on downwind turn
on crosswind conditions • Track parallel to runway
• Assess runway and decide on speeds and flap setting to use
Maximum Demonstrated Crosswind
• Check downwind spacing
• In Flight Manual
• Limited by ability of rudder to control aeroplane Base
• For this aeroplane is kts • Allow for drift and headwind or tailwind
• Extend all the landing flap
Calculating Crosswind Component • Anticipate turn onto final
• Need W/V from TAF or METAR Final
• Convert the direction to Magnetic – apply variation • Track extended centreline
• Power controls rate of descent
Vector Diagram
• Need pencil, paper, ruler and protractor
Landing
Flight Manual Graph
• Combination of kick straight and wing down methods
Nav Computer
Kick-straight
Windsock • Crab into wind
Tower • Just before touchdown, kick straight, aileron to keep on centreline

Formula Wing-down
• Angular difference between wind and RWY • From short final
• Wing held down, rudder to keep aligned with centreline – Sideslip
Plot on watch face
• Percentage of distance around watch face • Land on into wind wheel first

x wind strength = X/W component Combination

• 30° = half wind strength, 60° = full wind strength • Crab into wind on final
• During round-out switch to wing down method,
• Aileron to stay aligned with centreline, rudder to stay straight
• Into wind wheel touches down first
Glide Approach Circuit Training

Objective 3. Aeroplane Management 4. Human Factors

To complete a landing without engine power from the late downwind and 500-foot area. • Carb heat HOT • High rate of descent – optical illusions
• No engine warms

1. Considerations 5. Air Exercise

Headwind on Final • Confirm spacing, configure late downwind
• Reduce power, maintain height, carburettor heat
If aim point moves up windscreen
(undershooting): early and trim
• Increase airspeed – better • 1000-foot area close throttle start base turn
• Reference 1/3 aim point to about 500 ft agl
penetration of headwind
“Can the 1/3 aim point be easily reached?”

Yes Make manoeuvres to reduce the

Windshear on Final L/D ratio, where necessary, in
• Only method available to deal with sequence and combined to bring
windshear is to increase airspeed the touchdown point closer
to the threshold.

No Delay the application of flap until

the answer is a positive yes.

Moving the Aim Point

Assuming the 1/3 aim point can be reached, move touchdown point towards
you by changing L/D ratio using:
Flap
• Increases drag

Airspeed
• Reducing airspeed could lead to stall
• Increasing airspeed can lead to float at round out

S-Turns
• Increases distance
• Decreases L/D ratio

Sideslip
• Aileron and rudder in opposite directions
• Not very effective in modern aeroplanes, better if combined with flap
• Some aeroplanes have prohibition on sideslipping with flap
• Caution – maintain airspeed

2. Airmanship
• Aeroplane safety in doubt–go around • No pax
• Not automatic right-of-way • Adjustments for slope
Vacating and Joining at Aerodromes Circuit Training

Objectives 3. Aeroplane Management 4. Human Factors

To vacate and join the circuit in accordance with applicable procedures. • Speed below 120 kts • Orientate using windsocks and aerodrome chart
• landing light on • Relative movement of small objects
To join an uncontrolled circuit in accordance with the standard overhead join procedure.
• Systematic approach best

1. Considerations 5. Air Exercise

Uncontrolled Aerodromes Vacating
Vacating • From home base
• Climb straight ahead to 1500 ft • From (un)controlled aerodrome
• Via crosswind or downwind
• Climb overhead Uncontrolled Aerodrome Joining –
• All can be done from controlled aerodrome – with clearance Standard JoinStandard Overhead Join
• Radio call to circuit traffic 5–10 NM from aerodrome
Standard Overhead Join
• Used • position
• To keep clear of the circuit until safe to join • altitude
• To observe other traffic, including NORDO • intentions
• To identify circuit direction Approach
• To determine conditions on the aerodrome – wind, surface, etc • Cross overhead at 1500 ft aal (if no other restrictions)
• When unfamiliar with the aerodrome • Position aeroplane so aerodrome can be seen out
• Check Aerodrome Chart in Vol 4 in preparation of student’s window
• Terminate flight plan once on the ground • Look for other traffic, windsocks, and ground
signals/markings
Controlled Aerodromes Runway in Use
Vacating • Look at windsocks, and other traffic established to
• Same as uncontrolled, but clearance is needed establish circuit direction
• Could turn opposite to circuit direction – good lookout • If can’t tell circuit direction orbit left until can tell
Joining • Watch out for helicopter or glider circuits going
• Can request overhead join in opposite directions
• Normally join downwind, base, or final • When circuit direction established,
• Could also “Cross overhead and join downwind” • all turns in that direction
• Can request joining or may be given joining instructions • Identify traffic and non-traffic sides
• Must still give way to those already in circuit • Position on non-traffic side, make radio call
• Others already in circuit have right of way

Descend to Circuit Height

• Low rate of descent
• Cross upwind end of runway at circuit height
• Track crosswind – give way to aircraft already
on downwind leg
• Prelanding checks before downwind
• Downwind call on downwind leg
• Rest of circuit as normal

2. Airmanship Controlled Aerodrome Joining

• IAW ATC clearance or instructions
• Vol 4, VNC, joining checklists
• Right-of-way rules
• LOOKOUT, don’t rely on listenout
Radio Failure Circuit Training

Objectives 3. Aeroplane Management 4. Human Factors

To join at a controlled or uncontrolled aerodrome in the event of a radio failure. • Below 120 kts before joining • Use mental picture to help orientation
• Landing lights on

1. Considerations 5. Air Exercise

• If controlled, return or divert? • Be familiar with comms failure procedures in AIP
• Clearance required to enter Control Zone • Transmit blind
• Follow any clearance already accepted • Squawk 7600
• If cleared to enter, but no joining instructions–join overhead • Turn on all lights
• How is it detected? • Use a cellular phone to communicate if available
• Aviate – Navigate
Causes • Remain clear of controlled airspace while diagnosing and planning
• Wrong frequency selected
• On/Off and volume switch turned down Uncontrolled Aerodromes
• Altitude too low and/or range too great, • Standard Overhead Join
• Alternator failure • Trasmit ‘blind’
• Comm box switches • Keen lookout for other traffic
• Avionics or master switch accidentally off • Refer to Vol 4 and VNC
• Radio loose in its cradle • Complete checklist
• Avionics master off
• Faulty headset connections Controlled Aerodromes
• Popped circuit breaker • Light Signals used by tower
• Check simple solutions first • Vol 4, VNC
• Checklists
• Carry out Standard Overhead Join
• Report fault to tower after landing

Colour and Type of Signal To Aircraft in Flight To Aircraft on the Aerodrome

Steady green Cleared to land Cleared for takeoff
Steady red Give way to other aircraft and continue circling Stop
Series of green flashes Return for landing Cleared to taxi
Series of red flashes Aerodrome unsafe – do not land Taxi clear of landing area in use
Return to starting point
Series of white flashes Land at this aerodrome and proceed to apron
on aerodrome
Series of alternate
Danger – be on the alert Danger – be on the alert
red and green flashes
2. Airmanship Red pyrotechnic
Notwithstanding any previous instructions
do not land for the time being
• Anticipate circuit direction
• Vol 4 and joining checklists 1 Circling means continue tracking in the aerodrome traffic circuit. Do not orbit in position.
• Right-of-way rules 2 Clearance to land and taxi will be given in due course.
• Lookout
• Terminate flight plan after landing
Forced Landing Without Power Pattern Circuit Training

Objective 3. Aeroplane Management 4. Human Factors

To be able to select an appropriate landing site and carry out the pattern • Ts and Ps stable • Don’t turn your back on paddock
for a forced landing without power. • Engine warming 1000’ • Practise will make it easier
• Fly the aeroplane • Concentrate on pattern
• Re-evaluate decisions to avoid mindsets

1. Considerations 5. Air Exercise

Configuration From a cruising altitude...
• Best L/D ratio, idle power, prop windmilling, kts Immediate actions
• Effect on range • Carb heat HOT, close throttle
• Convert speed to height
Wind Indicators Landing Site • Set glide attitude and trim
Work out direction from: 7 S’s, C & E • Confirm wind and choose landing site
• Smoke • Size • Make the plan
• Dust • Shape • MAYDAY call
• Crop movements • Slope
•
Trouble Checks
Tree / Leaf movement • Surface
• Wind lanes • Surround
F Fuel Selector ON, fuel pump ON, change tanks (touch)
• Waves and ripples • Stock
• Wind shadow • Sun M Mixture RICH, carb heat HOT, primer LOCKED
• Cloud shadow • Communication
• I Ignition LEFT, RIGHT or BOTH. Ts & Ps
Drift • Elevation
• Local knowledge P Partial power check

Make the plan

1. Choose reference points
• Landing aim point – 1/3 way into field
• 1000’ agl area – 90° from threshold area, but closer
• 1500’ agl area – 500’ back from 1000’ agl area

2. Convert heights to altitudes

3. Positioning
• Assess the aeroplane’s position and its ability to make
it into the 1500’ area
4. Ask regularly
• “Am I confident of making it to the 1500’ area”

5. After 1500’ area reached

Situational Awareness
• Always keep an eye out for forced landing options
• Know what the surface wind is, and the better landing areas
2. Airmanship
• Checks, including touch checks
• No pax/solo limitations
• “Simulating” to begin with
• Go around – landings later
• Legal limitations
• Spacing downwind
6. Approach starts at 1000’ area
• Constant assessment of approach by reference to 1/3 aim point
• Can adjust base turn – but not 1000’ area
• Offset drift
• Ask “Can I reach the 1/3 aim point?”
• Position at 500’ so can touchdown at 1/3 aim point without flap
• Use flap to bring 1/3 aim point back towards threshold
7. Landing phase covered in next lesson
Forced Landing Without Power Considerations Circuit Training

Objectives 5. Air Exercise

To carry out the recommended procedure in the event of a total or partial engine failure, 1 Immediate Actions
incorporating the appropriate checklists. • Carb heat HOT, close throttle
To practice aeronautical decision making (ADM) to troubleshoot and rectify a partial power situation. • Convert speed to height
• Set glide attitude and trim
• Confirm wind and choose landing site
1. Considerations • Make the plan and activate

Best L/D Ratio – Airspeed 2 Trouble Checks

• At exactly knots – approx 4° A of A
• Raising or lowering the nose reduces F M I P
the distance covered
• Never raise the nose to ‘stretch’ the glide
Assess approach
3 Mayday Call
• 7700
Height • Plus ELT activation
• More height means more distance,
and more time to plan Assess approach
Passenger Brief
• Nearest habitation
• Remove sharp objects
• Brace position

Wind Assess approach

Engine Warm
4 Achieve 1500’ Area
• Assess the approach and spacing

Partial Power
If some power is available:
• Close throttle or go somewhere better?
• What if it fails enroute?
• What is the terrain like enroute?
Prelanding Checks
• Instead of Downwind Checks
• F–M–I–M (Master after full flap)
5 Achieve 1000’ Area
• What caused the failure? Will it cause • Start base turn
more problems?
• How much altitude do you have?
6 Approach
• Can I make the 1/3 aim point?

7 Go Around
2. Airmanship 3. Aeroplane Management • Would I have made it?
• Simulated by closing throttle • Ts and Ps stable
• Trouble checks • Engine warming every 1000’ Landing
• PIC responsibility
• Passenger briefing
• Call ATC
• Student to initiate go around
• Do not attempt to takeoff again
• Landing phase will be practiced later 4. Human Factors
• Pattern more important than perfect checks
• Practise will make it easier
Steep Turns Advanced Manoeuvres

Objectives 3. Airmanship 4. Aeroplane Management

To change direction through 360 degrees at a constant rate, using 45 degrees angle of bank, • Minimum altitude • 100 rpm increase
maintaining a constant altitude and in balance. • SADIE checks
• VFR minima
To become familiar with the sensations of high bank angles and high rates of turn.
To turn at steep angles of bank while gliding.
• Sick bags 5. Human Factors
• 360° turns • Effect of G
• Lookout restrictions • May be uncomfortable
1. Principles of Flight
• 45° AoB
• Avoidance / coordination – 6. Air Exercise
practice 360° turn Entry
• Also cover steep gliding turns
• From S+L • Through 30° AoB increase power and backpressure
L 1 • Choose prominent reference point • At 45° AoB, check with ailerons, reduce rudder
= LF = 1 or 1 G
• Lookout to maintain balance
W 1
• Roll with aileron, balance with rudder

In Turn
• Increased apparent weight increases Angle Load % h in New stall • Lookout
stall speed of Bank Factor stall speed speed • Attitude
• Increased drag: 100% at 45° AoB 0 1 50 • Instruments
300% at 60° AoB • Angle of bank controlled with aileron
45 1.4 20 60
• Reduces airspeed g power sandwich • Altitude controlled with backpressure
• Need to increase power 60 2 40 70 • Lookout
75 4 100 100 • If altitude changing check AoB first, then backpressure

Exit
Steep Gliding Turn • Look for reference point
• Cannot increase power, increase airspeed by lowering nose • Anticipate rollout by half the angle of bank (20°)
• Roll wings level
Adverse Yaw • Balance with rudder
• Amount of rudder required to overcome depends • Relax backpressure
on rate of roll • Reset S+L attitude
• Low airspeeds require more aileron deflection • Through kts, reduce power
more adverse yaw • Check PAT

Steep Gliding Turn

• Carb heat HOT
• Close throttle
2. Considerations • Roll to 45° AoB
Out of Balance • Maintain height until glide speed reached
• When correcting with rudder keep correct AoB and adjust attitude • Lower the nose to maintain glide speed
• Trim
Spiral Dive
• Caused by overbanking
• Aeroplane descends, tendency to h backpressure, g turn tightening and h RoD
• Recover by closing throttle, rolling wings level, ease out of dive

Steep Gliding Turn

• Not recommended, but if have to: flap, idle power, max 45° AoB, attitude to maintain speed
Advanced Stalling Advanced Manoeuvres

Objectives 3. Aeroplane Management 4. Human Factors

To experience the effect of power and/or flap on the aeroplane’s speed and nose attitude • Smooth but positive throttle and control movements • More practice and exposure the better
at the stall. • Carb heat • Plenty of time between stalls to orientate
• Ts & Ps • Unusual attitude possible, but plenty of height for recovery
To recognise the symptoms of the stall.
To stall the aeroplane and be able to recover from the stall by taking appropriate action.

1. Principles of Flight 5. Air Exercise

• Aeroplane stalls at critical angle, and speed
will vary with configuration
• Manufacturers list stall speeds for simplicity
• L = Angle of Attack x Airspeed
• Anything that h L required means an h
airspeed at the stall
Factors Affecting Stall Speed
• airspeed will be higher at the critical angle
• Anything that i L required means a i
airspeed at the stall
Entry
• HASELL checks and reference point (high)
• Carb heat HOT
• Close throttle/reduce power as applicable
• Keep straight with rudder
• Maintain altitude with h backpressure
• Through kts (white arc) select flap, adjust attitude
• Through kts (stall warning sounds), carb heat COLD

Weight h W requires h L h stalling speed Same nose attitude Symptoms

Ice/Damage Changes flow and increases weight, requires Same nose attitude • Observe effects of power, flap, and power and flap • Less effective controls
h L h stalling speed • Low and i airspeed • Stall warning – if fitted
• High nose attitude • Buffet
Loading h Apparent weight requires h L h stalling speed Same nose attitude
Power h Power requires i L due h airspeed over wing Higher nose attitude At the Stall
i stalling speed • Aeroplane sinks and nose pitches down

Slats/Slots/Flap Flap h L and i stalling speed Lower nose attitude

Recovery
Aileron Down-going wing will have h AoA, beyond stall To Unstall
i L and h D further g continued roll, not stopping it • Check forward with control column to reduce • Do not use ailerons
angle of attack

To Minimise Height Loss – max of 100’

• Power + Attitude = Performance
• Unstall, as above, check forward
• Apply full power – balance with rudder
• Raise nose to the horizon (stops sink and allows acceleration)
• Reduce from full flap, 1 setting
• At safe altitude, safe airspeed, and +ve RoC, raise all flap,
adjust attitude
• Regain starting altitude and S+L

Recovery at Onset
• Normal situation – when not training
• Recover at stall warning / buffet
• Height loss – 50’ maximum

2. Airmanship
• No pax • HASELL checks
• Awareness of aircraft configuration, • HELL checks
symptoms, traffic
Maximum Rate Turns Advanced Manoeuvres

Objective 2. Considerations 4. Aeroplane Management

To carry out a balanced, maximum rate, level turn using full power. Entry above VA • RPM limit
• Smooth roll in, delay power until decelerated to VA • C of G limits

Entry below VA
1. Principles of Flight • Lead with power or at same time as roll in 5. Human Factors
• To change direction at the highest possible rate – maximum degrees in minimum time • 360° turn to minimise disorientation
• Physical G limits during turn, generally 2G
Maximum Lift 3. Airmanship
• L AoA and Airspeed • Max CL at start of stall warning • VA is kts
or edge of buffet • Smooth control movements
• Minimum altitude
Airspeed
• Max rate turns limited by VA
• VA is the speed at which you can make
6. Air Exercise
abrupt and extreme control movements and
not overstress the aeroplane’s structures Entry
• Found in Flight Manual • Choose reference altitude and prominent reference point • Through 30° AoB increase backpressure to maintain altitude
• Affected by weight • Check speed relative to VA • Stop at the stall warning (light buffet)
• Apply full power, roll in smoothly, balance with rudder • Check ailerons and rudder
– will need more rudder than usual • Maintain backpressure and AoB

Maintaining
• LAI
• Attitude differences due side by side seating
• Maintain first note of stall warning with backpressure
• Altitude maintained with AoB
• With stall warning sounding if altitude is being gained
or lost, alter AoB

Rate of Turn and Radius of Turn

• Rate of turn = rate of change of • High speed – low rate of turn
direction – ° /min • Turning at max rate requires max CPF
• Radius of turn = size of the arc made and max lift
by the aeroplane • Rate of turn velocity power is limiting
• Slow speed – high rate of turn factor in a max rate turn
Exit
Angle of Bank Structural Limit • Anticipate roll out by 30°
• Between level and 90 • For this aeroplane is G • Smoothly roll wings level with aileron, balance with rudder,
and relax the backpressure to re-select the level attitude
Limiting Angle of Bank • Delay power reduction
• h in AoB requires h in AoA to h lift, • Stalling speed h as the load factor • Through kts, reduce power to cruise rpm
associated h drag g decrease in airspeed • Maximum AoB limited by the amount
• Power available limited airspeed will of power available usually 60° AoB
reduce as AoB h
Wing-Drop Stalling Advanced Manoeuvres

Objectives 2. Airmanship 3. Aeroplane Management

To revise stalling with power and flap. • Practice in safe area • Carb heat

To carry out a stall from straight and level flight (and the turn) recovering from a wing drop with minimum altitude loss.
• HASELL and HELL checks • Airspeed and rpm limits
• Stall with power and flap
• SA – attitude, airspeed, configuration, flight
phase, symptoms 4. Human Factors
1. Principles of Flight • Overlearn correct technique
• Cause of stall – aeroplane exceeding critical angle of attack

Aileron Use at Stall

5. Air Exercise
Turning AoB maintained with aileron.
Entry
Out of Balance • Yaw at or near stall g tendency to roll, which h AoA on down-going wing • HASELL checks
• Also, if trying to maintain wings level with aileron, down-going aileron will h the mean • Prominent reference point
AoA on that wing • Carb heat HOT
• Set power to rpm
Ice or Damage • Smooth airflow over affected wing disturbed, may break away sooner than over other wing • Keep straight with rudder, and maintain altitude with backpressure
• Below kts (white arc), select flap
Weight Imbalance • If all passengers / fuel on one side of the aeroplane, aileron needed to maintain wings level
• Through kts (stall warning) – carb heat COLD
• At the stall, altitude is lost, nose pitches down, and one wing may drop
Turbulence • May result in aileron being used to maintain wings level, or may cause one wing to exceed
the critical angle
Recovery
Rigging • Wings fitted at different angles of incidence, or flaps rigged incorrectly – one wing would
reach the critical angle before the other To unstall Keep ailerons neutral

Power • Slipstream modifies the angle of attack on each wing aeroplane may drop a wing more At the same time Simultaneously
• decrease the back pressure/check forward and
readily when partial power used
• apply sufficient appropriate rudder to prevent further yaw
Flaps • Flap may extend at slightly different angles
• Also, with flap extended aeroplane less laterally stable (CoP on each wing moves in toward To minimise the Smoothly but positively apply full power.
wing root). h tendency for aeroplane to be disturbed in roll altitude loss At the same time:
• Also, greater need to use aileron to maintain wings level in this configuration • level the wings with aileron,
• centralise the rudder, and
• raise nose smoothly to horizon – to arrest the sink and minimise
• Wing that stalls first has a i in lift g roll
altitude loss
• Roll h the AoA on down-going wing and may delay stall
of up-going wing • Hold nose at level attitude, reduce flap setting immediately
• h AoA past critical angle g i lift but substantial h drag • At safe height, safe airspeed and positive RoC – raise remaining flap (counter the pitch change)
• h drag yaws aeroplane toward the down-going wing, may • Regain starting altitude and reference point
further delay stall of up-going wing as result of h airspeed
– yaw causes roll, which causes yaw = autorotation
• Using aileron to stop roll g h AoA on down-going wing
Lift i with h AoA (past the critical angle), while drag h rapidly
with any small h AoA
• Rudder used to prevent yaw and lower nose
Short-Field Takeoff and Landing Advanced Manoeuvres

Objectives 2. Landing Considerations 5. Human Factors

To ensure by calculation that there is adequate runway length for takeoff and landing • Vision affected by high nose attitude
in accordance with the aeroplane’s performance data.
To apply sound decision making principles before adopting the recommended procedure
for takeoff or approach for a runway of minimal length.
To operate the aeroplane in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommended short-field
techniques in order to obtain the best possible performance.
1. Takeoff Considerations
Temperature • Changes density. h temperature g i in density. Correction needed
• OAT gauge or METAR
Density • As density i , IAS i as the density i , TAS will need to be h to
achieve same IAS for any given rotate IAS
• h takeoff roll, but effects of density on engine performance
far more critical
• Corrects airfield elevation under the existing conditions, to an
Pressure Altitude
elevation within the standard atmosphere
• Set 1013 hPa on sub-scale and read off the pressure altitude
• Or QNH and elevation required for calculation
Aeroplane Weight • Directly affects takeoff and climb performance
• Takeoff roll is reduced on a firm or sealed surface compared • Information from Flight Manual and AC 91-3
Runway Surface
to a soft or grass surface
• Grass surface is defined as short dry grass
Slope • Up-slope h the TODR
• Down-slope i TODR
HWC • When the wind is at angle to runway, need to calculate headwind
component
Wind • With strong or gusty winds, always possibility of windshear in the
climb-out
• VR and VTOSS increased to counter the possible effects of windshear
Calculation
• Information from Flight Manual and AC 91-3 • Calculated takeoff distance to 50 ft assumes
• Takeoff performance figures based on new full power is applied before brake release and
engines and propellers – how does this that stated flap setting is used
aeroplane compare? • TODR includes ground roll and distance
• Is the surface short dry grass or a long travelled over the ground to reach 50 ft at
and wet? VTOSS
• How important is it that a takeoff be • No rounding of takeoff speeds – fly them
conducted now – under these conditions – accurately
and how will the conditions be affected by
a delay?
Elevation • Aerodrome elevation is used when
or PA calculating landing distance and effects of
pressure altitude ignored
• Aerodrome height AMSL will affect LDR
and PA may be used for more accurate
calculations
Weight • Affects inertia and stopping distance
Runway • Landing roll is i on a firm dry surface
Surface compared with a grass or wet surface due
improved braking action
Slope • Up-slope i LDR, and down-slope h LDR
HWC • When wind at an angle to runway,
the HWC needs to be calculated
Wind • If strong or gusty winds, always
possibility of windshear on the approach
• Approach and VTT speeds are increased to
counter the possible effects of windshear
Calculation
• Calculated landing distance from 50 ft assumes correct
speed at 50 ft and stated flap setting is used
• LDR includes distance to touch down from 50 ft over the
threshold and the ground roll to a full stop
• Crossing the threshold higher than 50 ft, using less than Landing
full flap, or crossing the threshold at a higher airspeed, • Downwind, confirm approach and threshold speeds and
will increase the landing distance
3. Airmanship
• Additional decision making required in relation to strong/
gusty wind and EFATO – immediately and positively lower
the nose
4. Aeroplane Management
• Full power before brake release – check static rpm
• If static rpm not achieved could be due
-- Icing
-- Instrument error
-- Propeller damage
• Get problem checked
• During approach perception may be influenced by visual cues of
surrounding terrain, a false horizon, or runway length and width
• Cross-reference instruments regularly
6. Air Exercise
Takeoff
• Hold brakes on (nosewheel straight), elevator neutral,
apply full power. Static rpm, Ts and Ps checked
• Clean brake release, take the weight off nosewheel –
check for normal acceleration
• Hold nosewheel on ground until VR
• At VR smoothly rotate and lift off. Lower nose and
accelerate to VTOSS
• Reaching VTOSS adjust attitude and hold, keep straight on
reference point
• At safe height accelerate to best RoC (VY) or normal
recommended climb speed. Check balance
• Before raising flap,
-- safe height,
-- safe airspeed, and
-- a positive rate of climb
• When these conditions have been met, raise flap and
counter the pitch change. Allow acceleration to continue,
and upon reaching the climb speed required (best rate or
normal), trim to maintain the appropriate attitude
choose aim point
• Slightly delay turn onto base to ensure some power must
be used throughout approach
• Monitor approach path by reference to the aiming point and
adjust power to maintain a steady rate of descent – power
controls RoD
• Established on final, select full flap and decrease airspeed
by adjusting attitude
• Achieve nominated VTT by 200 ft agl
• It is important to carry some power into the flare
• If the aeroplane is not properly configured by 200 ft agl –
go around!
• The round-out and the hold-off are combined into the flare
• Aim to reduce the rate of sink to zero at the same time as
the main wheels touch the ground and the throttle is closed
• Lower the nosewheel, brake immediately, keep weight off
the nosewheel with elevator backpressure
• Raise flap on completion of the landing roll
Low Flying Introduction Advanced Manoeuvres

Objectives 3. Aeroplane Management 4. Human Factors

To compensate for the effects of visual illusions, inertia, and stress when operating the aeroplane close to the ground. • Carb heat use • Obstructions difficult to detect at low level
• Fuel management • Flying close to the ground is stressful, can
• Use of power during turns with flap lowered lead to narrowing focus
1. Considerations • Poor Vis Config used to give more time
• Avoid bad wx
Inertia
• Inertia and sensation of speed seen clearly at low level • At cruise speeds need lots of anticipation
and airspace to turn aeroplane 5. Air Exercise
Visual Effects Low Flying Zone Boundaries
• Effect of wind can lead to visual illusions • Across the wind, drift is most noticeable. Track on reference • Complete the HASELLL checks and at 1000 ft agl fly around the edge of the LFZ
• Flying into wind, groundspeed is low g lowering the nose point. Avoid crossed controls • Using a powered descent, enter the LFZ
or h power • Apparent slip or skid when turning
• Downwind, groundspeed high g nose attitude being Do not correct with rudder. Cross-reference balance Visual Illusions
raised / power i indicator • Superimpose horizon over the terrain
• Look at effect wind has on turning, and how to track over the ground with a crosswind
Poor Visibility Configuration • Note effects of flying upwind and downwind on the groundspeed
• Airspeed kts, Flap setting Power
Reduced Airspeed • Carb heat cycled not on continuously, Effects of Inertia
• Less inertia and lower groundspeed = more time to Ts & Ps should remain within normal range • Maintain straight and level – note the reaction time needed to initiate a manoeuvre
think and react to obstacles + reducing turn radius • Prolonged use may lead to h oil T • Medium level turns noting the reaction times required and the radius of turn
Flap • Also i stall speed and provides slipstream
• h lift and drag and adversely affects the L/D ratio • Increase power in turns 3-D Effect
• h lift g i stall speed • Terrain/obstacles – wires, sun, shadow, mechanical turbulence
• Poorer L/D ratio means higher power setting
needed to maintain straight and level Poor Visibility Configuration
• Reduce power to rpm, maintain straight and level flight, lower the flap to degrees
Low Flying Zone • As airspeed i to configuration speed, h power (about rpm )to maintain straight
• Inspect low flying zone and prep aeroplane before entering and level. Trim
• Stay within the boundaries, do not descend below ft • Note the reduced speed
• If low-level over water, wear lifejackets
• On entering, broadcast EET in the zone – when leaving, ake a vacating report Visual Illusions

2. Airmanship
• Poor visibility configuration used H Height > 200 ft agl
A Airframe Config stated
S Security Loose articles & harnesses secure
E Engine Fullest tank, pump ON, mixt RICH, SADIE, carb heat
L Locality Boundaries identified
L Lookout Wind indications, obstructions, birds, forced landing sites
L Lights All external lights ON
Low Flying Consolidation Advanced Manoeuvres

Objectives 5. Air Exercise

To compensate for the effects of inertia, visual illusions and stress when operating Medium Turn
the aeroplane in close proximity to the ground.
To carry out various level turns in the poor visibility configuration in response
to deteriorating weather.
1. Considerations
Perspective
• Ground features look different – plan view to profile view
• Need to estimate horizon – cross-reference instruments
Sloping Terrain
• Height above ground estimated visually – altimeter secondary reference
• Gently rising terrain – cross-reference airspeed indicator and altimeter
Turbulence
• Turbulence more pronounced, updraughts and downdraughts more significant
• Avoid flying in the lee of hills or the centre of valleys
• Fly on the upwind side of hilly terrain, or updraught side of valleys
• In poor visibility configuration, do need a small increase in power to maintain the airspeed
Steep Turn
• In poor visibility configuration steep turns limited to 45° because
1. drag and stall speed increase exponentially beyond 45° AoB, and as power is limited, may not be able to maintain
the airspeed
2. The G-load limit is lower with flap extended
• No decrease in airspeed is acceptable so power is increased substantially at the roll in
• Monitor attitude, angle of bank, speed, and balance
• If altitude is being lost, reduce the angle of bank, increase power if necessary
• Anticipate roll out and coordinate power reduction
Obstacle Avoidance
• Simulate the worst case scenario
• Following a line feature in poor visibility an obstacle appears ahead
• Drift downwind at 45° to line feature to turn back into wind,
completing the turn with feature back on the left

Crossing Obstacles
• Cross power lines at the pylons Coastal Reversal Turn
• Cross ridges at an oblique angle • Need to turn back, no horizon out to sea, high ground along the coast
• Must keep the coast in sight throughout the turn seaward
and then track back along the coast
• Wind direction and strength determines heading needed
to track away from the coast to provide enough space to
complete the turn
• Headwind or tailwind – turn 45° away from coast. Compensate
for crosswind by increasing or decreasing the 45° – do not lose
2. Airmanship sight of the coastline
• Revise boundaries of LFA and minimum height • Angle of bank used depends on ability to keep coast in sight
• Solo flights must be authorised, and only 1 aircraft in LFA • Continue away from shore until enough distance available
• Make careful inspection of LFA, and HASELLL checks to turn back
• Broadcast on entry and exit • Start turn with 45° AoB and reduce if not needed

Constant Radius Turn

3. Aeroplane Management • Adjust AoB to compensate for drift to maintain constant distance

• Poor visibility configuration

from object on surface
• Identify 4 points equidistant for reference to overfly
• Prolonged use of the poor visibility configuration may affect fuel reserves and engine operating
• As turn down wind, groundspeed increases, so increase AoB
temperatures
• Turning crosswind again, groundspeed decreases, so decrease AoB
• Use SADIE more frequently
• Turning into wind, groundspeed decreases, so decrease AoB
• Turning crosswind again, groundspeed increases, so increase AoB
4. Human Factors
• Visual illusions created by drift
• Maintain a regular crosscheck of instruments, especially the balance indicator
Precautionary Landing Advanced Manoeuvres

Objective 3. Aeroplane Management 4. Human Factors

To learn the procedure to adopt in the event of an off-aerodrome landing. • Consider poor visibility configuration • Disorientation due low level
• Fuel–avoid exhaustion before landing achieved • Stress
• Overlearn the procedure

1. Considerations 5. Air Exercise

• In low flying area • Start search for suitable site
Cause Avoidance • Low flying area pre-entry checks and radio calls • Declare emergency
• Descend to 500 ft, adopt poor visibility configuration • Secure pax and cabin
Weather • Avoid by setting personal meteorological minima well above
• Decision to land simulated
the legal minimum
• Have a careful consideration of the weather before any flight
Pattern
and always have an escape plan
1. Search and approach to cross centre at right angles 5. Descend to 200’
Lost • Avoid by maintaining situational awareness and careful 2. Observe drift – confirm wind assessment • check S’s and C
pre-flight planning • Establish left/right hand circuit at 500 ft – or 100 ft • assess length of paddock by timing or by
below cloud base superimposing known image
Fuel • May result from becoming lost or trying to get around weather,
• Position so that the site can be seen and evaluated • note heading or set DI to North
rather than diverting early • Check approach/overshoot while height available • aim point
• This situation will heighten any existing stress levels
• Consider gradient cues • overshoot options
• Avoid by careful pre-flight planning and in-flight fuel monitoring
3. Radio call if not already completed 6. Climb
Daylight • This organisation requires all aeroplanes to be on the ground, • Pax brief 7. Confirm:
or in the circuit, 30 minutes before Evening Civil Twilight (ECT) • Checks • radio call
• Start early, finish early 4. Check: • pax brief
• approach • checks
• obstacles • normal circuit spacing
• wind 8. Establish short-field approach
• If these situations arise, adopt poor visibility configuration and carry out
• go around point
an off-aerodrome landing • alignment
• This can take 15–20 minutes to complete – don’t leave it too late
• Choose landmarks, if available,
particularly one at end of downwind

Landing
• Use short field technique
• Use maximum braking
• Avoid obstacles
• Keep cabin intact
• After landing, shutdown checklist

2. Airmanship
• Make early decisions – time to plan
• Wind awareness
• Passenger briefing and security checks
• PAN call and squawk 7700. Possibly MAYAY call
• SADIE checks
• Minimum descent altitude
Terrain and Weather Awareness Advanced Manoeuvres

Objectives 3. Aeroplane Management 4. Human Factors

To establish a useable horizon reference when the actual horizon is not available. • Clean and poor visibility configuration • Disorientation
• VA, VS, operating speed range • Visual illusions
To operate in a confined area.
• Carb heat as required • Motion sickness
To develop further awareness of space and inertia when confined by terrain. • Engine leaning
To safely cross ridges, saddles, passes or spurs. • Smooth control movements
• Aeroplane position near terrain

1. Considerations 5. Air Exercise

Superimposed Horizon Conditions
• Horizon is where the sea meets the sky • Clean configuration
• Imaginary or superimposed horizon used • Poor visibility configuration
when real horizon can’t be seen • Calm conditions
• Visualise where sea meets sky • With wind
• No precipitation
• Some precipitation
• Left turns
• Right turns
• 180° turns
• 360° turns

Operating in a Confined Area

Operating in a confined space
• Fly boundaries with minimum angle of bank
• Select a clear area 500m x 500m
• Use all available space
• Select another area the same size, where there is no horizon available
• Control speed with power
• Identify imaginary horizon, as if terrain were transparent, use it to reference nose attitude
• Note wind direction and speed
• Wind cues and drift estimation
• Position for 360° and 180° turns
• Use all available space by varying bank angle, power to maintain safe speed
• Develop awareness of the significance of wind velocity relative to the terrain Confined Area with no Horizon
• Same exercise and conditions as above
Crossing Ridges, Saddles or Passes
• Use saddle crossing technique
• Consider the approach, the actual crossing, and after the crossing
• Ensure approach angles take wind and terrain into account, allow escape options
Crossing Ridges, Saddles, Passes or Spurs
that minimise period of commitment – 45° is best • Determine lift/sink side
• Attitude for crossing – level, speed under control, no climb or descent • Approach at 45° for best escape options
• Use parallax to judge height above saddle • Left to right best for visibility and escapes
• How much clearance is required? • Look at different saddles
• Types of saddles and merits • Approach level and below VA
• Escape options must always be available • Use parallax to assess sink and relative height
• Have escape route available at all times – other than during period of commitment

2. Airmanship
• Think ahead, decision making critical
• Situational awareness
• Position reports
• SADIE
• Minimum altitude
Basic Mountain Flying Advanced Manoeuvres

Objectives 3. Aeroplane Management 4. Human Factors

To consistently identify a useable horizon and to superimpose it on a variable background. • Poor visibility configuration • Illusions – whiteout, brightout
• VA, VS, operating speed range • Workload, stress, fatigue – effect on performance
To appropriately position an aircraft in a valley and to conduct level, climbing and descending turns.
• Use of power • Hypoxia
To safely approach, cross, and position after crossing ridges, saddles, passes or spurs. • •
Carburettor heat Dehydration
Experience real or simulated circumstances of disorientation and the strategies for reorienting • Engine leaning • Further reading
in place and time. • Control coordination
To practice emergencies where options may be limited. • Aeroplane position

1. Considerations 5. Air Exercise

Superimposed Horizon
• Horizon is where the sea meets the sky
• Illusions – most dangerous is slowly rising
terrain in bottom of valley
Operating in a valley
• Check turns
• Select appropriate position in valley
• Use minimum angle of bank
• Poor visibility configuration
Crossing Ridges, Saddles, Passes or Spurs
• Consider all aspects of crossing, effect of
wind and terrain, escape options, parallax,
saddle types
Route Finding
• Good planning and preparation
• Water flow
Emergencies
• No horizon g more difficulties
• Variables:
-- Height
-- Distance to landing site
-- Existence of landing site
-- Wind/turbulence/precipitation
-- Light
2. Airmanship
• Anticipate environment and recognise threats
• Aeroplane performance
• Situational awareness
Superimposed Horizon
• Experience factors affecting contour • Fly constant altitude and constant wingtip distance from terrain
flying at constant altitude • Smooth coordinated control movements
• Awareness of; area and environment, inertia while turning, escape options, right of way rules, lookout
• Fly constant height above descending valley floor
• Fly constant height above climbing valley floor
• Climbing and descending turns for
entry and exit of valleys Operating in a Valley
• Valley gradients • Check turns
• Sun and shade • Level, climbing and descending turns
• Cruise configuration, using full width
• Poor visibility configuration, using full width
• Increased wind • Position in the valley dependent on space available
• Approach path should be planned well ahead • Steep descending turn into valley
• Escape options • Climbing turn out of valley or for saddle crossing
• Right of way
• Lookout principles
• Valley alignment
• Sun’s position Crossing Ridges, Saddles, Passes or Spurs
• All factors of approach, crossing, after crossing and escape options throughout
• Wind >15 kts
• Confined space • Saddle crossing, taking all effects into account
• Wind, lift/sink • Show sound decision making
• Valley gradient
• Illusions and mindsets Route Finding
• Early MAYDAY • Simulate or use actual opportunity to experience/practise
• Habitation
• Survival kit – contents and use Emergencies
• FLWOP and precautionary landing where no real horizon
• Apply sound decision making
• Adapt standard pattern
• Identify and mitigate threats
• Position reports
• SADIE
• Always have escape options
Compass Use Instrument Flying

Objective 3. Aeroplane Management 4. Human Factors

To turn accurately onto and maintain compass headings, compensating for known errors • Compass system checked for serviceability before flight • Helpful to have a 3-D picture of compass in your head
in the magnetic compass. • Deviation card is valid • In-flight mental calculations should be kept to a minimum
• Keep metal items as far away from the compass as possible. • Cover failed instruments to avoid confusion
• Suction gauge should be checked during engine run-up
1. Considerations (4.5–5.2”)
Variation
• Difference between true North and magnetic North
• Bar magnet will align itself with lines of flux
5. Air Exercise
• Demonstration of acceleration and deceleration errors
• Demonstration of turning errors

Making a Turn
• Always turn in shortest direction
Deviation • Check present heading against desired heading – use shortest arc
• Aircraft magnet acted upon by things other • Compensated for by a compass swing – • Decide on amount of overturn or underturn – ONUS
than the lines of flux, ie, metal objects, done by an engineer • Lookout and roll in using Rate 1 turn – balance
aircraft, etc • Anticipate roll out
• Select reference point
Dip • Level wings – hold for compass to settle
• At magnetic equator flux lines are parallel • Check heading and make correction if required
with surface
• As they approach the poles they dip down towards
the earth’s surface
• A bar magnet tries to align with the lines of flux dip
towards the earth’s surface
• To compensate, the bar magnet is set on a pivot,
but some residual dip remains
• The pivot arrangement is fairly unstable, so compass
card and magnets are immersed in fluid that damps
out oscillations – also providing lubrication

Acceleration Errors
SAND
• Apparent turn South when Accelerating, apparent
turn North when Decelerating

Turning Errors
ONUS
• To compensate must Overturn on North and Underturn on South
• Use Rate one turn, maximum error on N or S = 30°

2. Airmanship
• Compass checked during taxi for correct sense and runway heading
• Turn coordinator checked for serviceability
• Lookout
Introduction Instrument Flying

Objectives 4. Human Factors

To experience the sensory illusions that occur when deprived of visual references. Balance organs
To maintain straight and level flight by sole reference to the aeroplane’s instruments. • Sense angular acceleration and change of direction in 3 planes, and body tilt
• Can’t detect change when it’s very slow or constant

1. Considerations Muscular pressure sensors

• Affected by gravity
• Power + Attitude = Performance
• Know if standing or sitting with eyes closed
Control Instruments • Can’t distinguish between causes of increased G
• Attitude Indicator
Vision
• Tachometer
• Most powerful system
Performance Instruments • Usually resolves ambiguous information from other senses
• But in IF conditions visual references not available
• Airspeed Indicator ASI AI ALT RPM
Airspeed Pitch+Bank Altitude Engine revs • Leans
• Altimeter Pitch Airspeed Pitch Power+Pitch •
• Directional Indicator Trust the instruments
• Turn Coordinator Pitot static Vacuum Static Cable

• Balance Indicator
• Vertical Speed Indicator 5. Air Exercise
TC DI VSI • Demonstration of limitations of vestibular and muscular system
Rate of turn Heading RoC+RoD
Bank+Balance Bank Pitch
Selective Radial Scan
Electric Vacuum Static

Instrument Layout
• Basic T plus TC, VSI and RPM

Instrument Lag
• All instruments have lag (delay in indicating correct information)
• Only VSI lag is significant, must be checked against other information

Maintain straight and level

• Set attitude, check altitude, heading and airspeed being maintained
• Check in balance and VSI showing level

2. Airmanship 3. Aeroplane Management Attain straight and level from a climb or descent
• Instrument check while taxiing • Pitot static system operation • APT and PAT
• Can’t use peripheral vision • Set AI symbol before flight, don’t change
• Need to consciously counteract inertia Turns
• Change – check – hold – adjust – trim • All turns at Rate 1
• Lookout “clear left”….
Limited Panel Instrument Flying

Objectives 3. Aeroplane Management 4. Human Factors

To maintain straight and level flight by sole reference to a limited flight instrument panel. • Electrical system failure may affect other instruments • Develop systematic instrument scan
• Static system often has backup system • Trust the instruments
To carry out rate one level turns onto compass headings.
• Pitot head heated • Will cover failed instruments
• Vacuum gauge checked regularly
• Regularly checking DI is aligned to compass
1. Considerations
Turn Coordinator
• Electrically driven 5. Air Exercise
• Failure shown by warning flag • Simulate vacuum system failure
• Estimate angle of bank from AI – 15° • AI and DI unserviceable
• Balance indicator OK
• Checked during taxi and SADIE checks Pitch ASI, ALT, VSI, RPM
VSI and Altimeter Bank TC, Compass
• Rely on static pressure
Yaw Balance
• If fails need to use AI and RPM
• Inspect static vent during preflight

Selective Radial Scan

Airspeed Indicator
• Requires pitot and static pressure
• Most common blockage by ice over pitot head
• Will indicate wrong airspeed, or zero
• If fails need to use AI and RPM
• Inspect pitot head and static vents during preflight

Heading Indicator
• DI, DG, HSI
• Gyro stabilized, powered by engine-driven vacuum pump
• If fails will slowly run down, card will spin
• If fails will need to use magnetic compass
• Checked during taxi and SADIE checks

Attitude Indicator
• AH
• Driven by engine-driven pump
• May have failure flag
• If fails will have to use indirect information • Airspeed will require only a small amount of attention so long as attitude and power are set correctly
from performance instruments • During turns the compass’ importance will increase as approach heading
• Checked during taxi and SADIE checks

2. Airmanship
• Instrument check during taxi very important
• SADIE
Unusual Attitudes Instrument Flying

Objective 3. Aeroplane Management 4. Human Factors

To recognise, and recover to straight and level from a nose-high or nose-low unusual attitude. • Smooth positive control movements • Human orientation system has limitations
• Instrument failure rare
• Trust the instruments

1. Considerations 5. Air Exercise

• Unusual attitude can be entered due high workload, fixation, leans • Smooth control movements whenever speed above VA
• Trust the instruments
• Recover to straight and level first Attitude Recognition Recovery
• Then regain altitude and heading
• Change – check – hold – adjust – trim Nose High • Low or i airspeed • Full power and level wings
• Must identify the position of the horizon • h altitude • Push forward on c/c until airspeed/altimeter stops
• h rate of climb • Check
Limited Panel • i engine RPM • Hold
1. Check airspeed–stop further increase or decrease • At normal cruise speed reduce power
2. Adjust power to compensate • Adjust
3. Roll wings level • Trim
Change If altitude h – i backpressure (push)
Nose Low • High or h airspeed • i power and level wings
If altitude i – h backpressure (pull)
• i altitude • Ease out of dive, check airspeed
Until 100s pointer stops moving
• h rate of descent • When altimeter stops
Check • •
h engine RPM Check
Hold • Set cruise power
Adjust • Hold
• Adjust
Trim (but you shouldn’t need to)
• Trim

Spiral Dive • High or h airspeed • Close throttle and level wings

• i altitude • Ease out of dive, check airspeed
• High angle of bank • When altimeter stops
• High rate of descent • Check
• High or h G-loads • Set cruise power
• h engine RPM • Hold
• Adjust
• Trim

• When straight and level regained, return to original reference altitude and heading

2. Airmanship
• Enough height for recovery
• SRS–A/S, Alt, then the rest
• Limiting speeds–VA, VNO, VNE, and rpm limit
Night Flying Instrument Flying

Objective 3. Aeroplane Management 4. Human Factors

To operate the aircraft safely both on the ground and in the air at night. • More frequent SADIE checks • Instrument flying illusions
• Dew and frost • Night vision factors – adaptation, health, oxygen, colour
• Cockpit layout perception, depth perception, focus, focal length, black
• Trust instruments hole, lights and stars

1. Considerations 5. Air Exercise

• Night is between ECT and MCT
• Legal: Aerodrome /aircraft lighting and minima (controlled /uncontrolled) On the Ground
• Taxy slowly
Prerequisites Familiarity with Aeroplane • Notice runway light in peripheral vision
• 2 hours IF • Know location of controls and switches • Aircraft on approach
• PPL – 2 hrs dual, 2 hrs solo, 5 total • Transfer to instruments as soon as airborne
Familiarity with Aerodrome • When established in climb, can use visual reference
Night Vision • Vol 4 Operational Data
• Rods and Cones • Aerodrome lighting In the Circuit
• Cones – colour • ATC light signals • Famil circuit
• Rods – peripheral vision and movement • Approach lighting • Local landmarks and townships
• Used for night vision • Downwind spacing
Weather
Dark Adaptation • Inadvertent IMC Approach and Landing
• 30 minutes • Diurnal wind effect • Approach perspective with runway edge lights
• Avoid bright lights • Overcast Vs clear sky • Don’t look in to the area lit by landing light
• Temp and dew point • Speed when vacating
Illusions
• Lookout Emergencies
• Speed perception • Radio failure
• Lack of horizon • Runway lighting failure
• IF illusions • Landing or Nav light failure
• Flicker vertigo • Internal light failure
• Auto-kinesis • Electrical failure
• Star light confusion • Engine failure
• Black hole

Equipment
• Torch, and spare batteries
• High Viz
• All lights operational
• Personal equipment – torch, pen, mobile
phone, watch, warm clothing, survival kit,
possibly spare VHF or GPS

2. Airmanship
• Preflight in the light • Illusions
• Use of aeroplane’s lights • Minimum Safe Altitude
• Number of other aircraft in the circuit