Module IV: Optical Fiber

Dispersion
Dispersion within the fiber causes broadening of the transmitted light pulses
as they travel along the channel. It may be observed that each pulse broadens
and overlaps with its neighbors, eventually becoming indistinguishable at the
receiver end. This effect is known as Intersymbol Interfernece(ISI).

Distiguishable Pulses
1 0 1 1
Composite Pattern
Amplitude
1 0 1 1
Amplitude

Time Time

Indistinguishable pulses
Amplitude

No Zero Level
Composite Pattern

Time

Intersymbol Interference

Basically there are three types of dispersion

1. Intermodal dispersion

2. Intramodal or Chromatic dispersion

3. Polarization mode dispersion

Intermodal dispersion
It is also referred as modal or mode dispersion. Pulse broadening due to in-
termodal dispersion results from propagation delay differences between modes
within a multimode fiber. The pulse width at the output is dependent upon the
transmission times of the slowest and fastest modes.
The multimode step index fibers exhibit a large amount of intermodal disper-
sion which gives the greatest pulse broadening. Their is no intermodal disper-
sion, under purely single mode operation. Intermodal dispersion in multimode
fibers may be reduced by adoption of an optimum refractive index profile which
is provided by the near parabolic profile of most graded index fibers.

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Intramodal or Chromatic dispersion
It may occur in all types of optical fiber and results from the finite spectral
linewidth of the optical source.The propagation delay between the different spec-
tral components of the transmitted signal causes broadening of each transmitted
mode and hence intramodal dispersion.
The delay differences may be caused by the dispersive properties of the
waveguides material - Material dispersion
Guidance effects within the fiber structure - Waveguide dispersion.

Material dispersion
Due to the variation of refractive index with wavelength or frequency of light,
this dispersion arises. Light waves of different wavelength travel at different
speeds in a medium. Consequently, narrow pulses of light tend to broaden as
they travel down the optical fiber. Pulses at different wavelength travel with
different velocities in material dispersion.

Waveguide dispersion
Considering the ray theory approach, it is equivalent to the angle between the
ray and the fiber axis varying with wavelength which subsequently leads to
variation in the transmission times for the rays. In waveguide dispersion, pulses
at different wavelength propagating through in the same mode, travel at slightly
different angles. It is present in both single mode and multimode fibers.

Polarization mode dispersion(PMD)

It is a result from birefringence and it can become a limiting factor for optical
fiber communication at high rates. Two different polarization states of light
travel at slightly different velocities. This is caused by imperfections and asym-
metries in the glass fiber core itself and results in random spreading of optical
signal. Single mode optical fiber consists of one propagation mode, which in
turn is comprised of two orthogonal polarization modes. Asymmetrical differ-
ences due to both intrinsic and extrinsic factors which is induced at the time
of fiber manufacture, introduce a small refractive index variations between the
two states. This is known as birefringence or double refraction.

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 Module - III : Ultrasonics
Waves of frequencies beyond the upper audible limit i.e., f > 20 kHz are called
ultrasonic waves. Human ear cannot sense ultrasonic sounds but some animals
do. The wavelength of ultrasonic waves are very small and this smallness in
wavelength makes them useful in many of their applications. They travel in
straight lines and can be concentrated at a given location. In fluids they are
propagated as longitudinal waves whereas in solids they travel as both longitu-
dinal as well as transverse waves.

Piezoelectric effect
The french physicist Pierre Curie and Paul Jean discovered the piezoelectric
effect in 1880.
Crystals that exhibit piezoelectric effect are called Piezoelectric crystal. Ex-
ample Quartz, Ammonium Phosphate, PZT (Lead Zirconate Titanate) etc.
When one pair of opposite faces of certain asymmetric crystal such as piezo-
electric material is compressed, opposite electric charges appear on the other
pair of opposite faces of the crystal. If the crystals are subjected to tension, the
polarities of the charges are reversed. Due to the application of lateral pres-
sure or tension on the crystal, a potential difference is created, but potential
difference developed in the both cases is of opposite polarity. This results in
mechanical deformation and the effect is known as direct piezoelectric effect.
Here we are converting mechanical energy to electrical energy.
The converse effect can also occur. Between to lateral plates if we place
quartz crystal and apply electric field. The crystal gets deformed along the
direction of the opposite pair of faces. If an alternating voltage is applied,
the polarities keeps on changing, the crystal will either expand and compress
performing vertical vibration. This effect is known as Inverse piezoelectric effect.
The vibrations are mechanical vibrations, which is nothing but ultrasonic waves.
The mechanical vibrations are taking place due to the change in polarities and
we are converting electrical energy to mechanical vibrational energy.

Piezoelectric ultrasonic generator

It is basically a Hartley oscillator. It consists of a layer of piezoelectric material
with thin metal electrodes on both its sides. If an alternating electrical voltage
is applied to these electrodes,the thickness of the layer will vary according to
the variations of the electrical field. Because of high frequency electrical signal
applied to it the piezoelectric crystal produces ultrasonic waves. The frequency
of these ultrasonic waves can be varied by varying the value of the components
of the tuning circuit.

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 Tunable Piezo
Electric
Oscillator
Crystal

Ultrasonic Interferometer
It is used to determine the velocity of ultrasonic waves in liquid. The wavelength
and the frequency of ultrasonic waves can be determined with a high degree of
accuracy using this interferometer.
The interferometer consists of an ultrasonic generator with a vertical cylin-
drical tube filled with the liquid medium under test. A Piezoelectric crystal is
mounted at the bottom of the cylinder and a metallic plate reflector is mounted
exactly parallel to crystal, which can be moved with the help of micrometer
screw. Ultrasonic waves of known frequency are produced by quartz plate fixed
at the bottom of measuring cell. These waves are reflected by a movable metal-
lic plate. If the separation between these two plates is an integral multiple of
the half the wavelength, stationary ultrasonics waves are formed in the liquid
medium. This leads to acoustic resonance. The micrometer is moved slowly
until the anode current becomes maximum. Now reading on the micrometer is
noted. The procedure is repeated for successive maximum readings of anode
current . Knowing the frequency and wavelength , velocity of the ultrasonic
waves can be calculated. Velocity of ultrasonic waves in liquid is given as

V elocity = f requency × wavelength

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 Micrometer

Movable Metal
Reflector

Liquid

l
2

RF
Quartz
GENERATOR
Crystal