FIBRE OPTICS

Reference Book: Engineering Physics, Malik & Singh

Principle of Optical Fiber

Optical Fiber is an optical transmission device which works on the principle of

total internal reflection.

When a light signal is directed at one end of the fiber at a suitable angle, it undergoes
repeated total internal reflection along the length of the fiber.

glass or plastic plastic jacket

fiber core cladding
 Reference Book: Engineering Physics, Malik & Singh
Parts Of Optical Fiber

❑ Core
• Glass or plastic with a higher index of
refraction than the cladding
• Carries the signal
❑ Cladding
Glass or plastic with a lower index of refraction
than the core
❑ Buffer
Protects the fiber from damage and moisture
❑ Jacket
Holds one or more fibers in a cable
Thickness: less than human hair
Material: glass or plastic

Glass optical fiber: core of SiO2, GeO2

cladding P2O5
Plastic optical fiber: core of polystyrene or PMMA
cladding Silicon resins
Reference Book: Engineering Physics, Malik & Singh
 Light propagation through optical fiber
Concept of “Acceptance Angle”

Cladding (  2 )
Air ( o )  Core ( 1 )

i Axis

Cladding (  2 ) ∅ + 𝜃 = 900
≫ 𝜃 = 900 − ∅

At air - core interface applying Snell’s law

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝜇1
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∅ 𝜇𝑜

Reference Book: Engineering Physics, Malik & Singh

Reference Book: Engineering Physics, Malik & Singh
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝜇1
0
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (90 − 𝜃) 𝜇𝑜

Cladding (  2 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝜇1
Air ( o )  =
Core ( 1 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝜇𝑜

i Axis
𝜇𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
c𝑜𝑠 𝜃 =
𝜇1
Cladding (  2 )

𝜇𝑜 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑖
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 1−
𝜇12

For angle of incidence (@ core cladding

interface) equal to the critical angle 𝜇𝑜 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 imax is the acceptance angle
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑐 = 1−
𝜇12
 Reference Book: Engineering Physics, Malik & Singh
At the core-cladding interface by applying
Snell’s law at critical angle we have
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑐 𝜇2 Cladding (  2 )
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛 90 0 𝜇1 Air ( o )  Core ( 1 )

𝜇2 i Axis
s𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑐 =
𝜇1
Cladding (  2 )
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑐 = 1−
𝜇12

𝜇2 𝜇𝑜 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 imax is the acceptance angle

= 1−
𝜇1 𝜇12

µ12 − µ22
Squaring both sides sin 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
µ0
 Numerical Aperture
It is the measure of the light gathering capacity of the fiber, and is defined as the
product of sine of the acceptance angle and the refractive index of the medium to which
the end faces of the fiber are exposed

𝑁𝐴 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇12 − 𝜇22

Fractional or Relative Refractive Index

𝜇1 − 𝜇2
∆=
𝜇1
(See “Engineering Physics by Malik & Singh” for derivation)

Reference Book: Engineering Physics, Malik & Singh

Optical Fiber Parameters
▪ Acceptance Angle: It is the maximum angle of a ray (against the fiber axis) hitting the fiber core which
allows the incident light to be guided by the core.

▪ Acceptance Cone: The maximum angle, represented in three-dimensional view as a cone, at which an optical
fiber will accept incident light.

▪ Numerical Aperture: The total light gathering capacity of an optical fiber.

▪ Skip Distance: The distance in the core between two successive reflection (Ls in the fig.).

▪ V number: gives a measure about the number of modes which an optical fiber can support
Skip Length

‘d’ is the diameter of the core

No. of reflections in a fiber or core of length L

is given by L/Ls

Reference Book: Engineering Physics, Malik & Singh

RECAP

Fibre Optics

✓Introduction
✓Advantages
✓Acceptance Angle & Numerical Aperture
❑ Relative / Fractional Refractive Index
✓Skip Distance
 Types of Optical Fibers

Single Mode Multimode

(Single Mode Step Index)

Multimode Multimode
Step Index Fibers Graded Index Fibers

Reference Book: Engineering Physics, Malik & Singh

 Single Mode Step Index Fiber

❑ Allows only one light path (mode) to propagate at a time.

❑ Small diameter of the core (~ 10 microns).
❑ Refractive indices of core and cladding remain constant → hence the name ‘step index’.
❑ Lower signal loss (as compared to multimode fibre).
❑ Higher information capacity (as compared to multimode fibre).
❑ Low dispersion.

Index of
Reference Book: Engineering Physics, Malik & Singh refraction
Optical Fiber Modes
(Paths)
 Multi Mode Step Index Fiber

❑ Allows several (~100) light paths / modes to propagate at a time.

❑ Large core diameter of 50 -100 microns.
❑ Dispersion is significant: some modes take longer to pass through the fiber than others because
they travel a longer distance.
❑ Higher numerical aperture.
❑ Refractive indices of core and cladding remain constant → hence the name ‘step index’.

Index of
refraction

Reference Book: Engineering Physics, Malik & Singh

 Multi Mode Graded Index Fiber
❑Allows several (~100) light paths / modes to propagate at a time.
❑ Large core diameter of 50 -100 microns.
❑ The index of refraction gradually changes across the core → hence the name ‘graded index’.
❑ Refractive index of the core is the highest at the center, decreases with increasing radial distance from
the fiber axis.
❑ Light waves in the outer zones of the core travel faster than those in the center of the core →
dispersion of the modes is compensated → reduced dispersion (as compared to multimode step index).
❑ Higher numerical aperture.

Reference Book: Engineering Physics, Malik & Singh

V number in an optical fiber
Also termed as cut-off parameter or normalized frequency (dimensionless quantity)

The number of modes of multimode fiber cable depends on the wavelength of light, core diameter
and material composition.

The V number gives an indication of the number of modes that an optical fiber can support.

Given by
𝜋𝑑
𝑉= 𝑁𝐴
𝜆
V number in an optical fiber

Maximum number of modes supported by multimode step index fiber ~ V2/2

Maximum number of modes supported by multimode graded index fiber ~ V2/4

For single mode fiber V < 2.405

For multimode fiber V > 2.405

The wavelength corresponding to the value of V = 2.405 is known as the cut-off

wavelength of the fiber
2r
c =  −
2
1
2
2
2.405
 ATTENUATION

loss of optical power as light travels down a fiber

Attenuation controls the distance that an optical signal can travel.

Causes of Signal/Power Loss

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
Attenuation (in dB) 10 𝐿𝑜𝑔10
• Absorption Losses 𝑃𝑖𝑛

• Scattering Losses Attenuation coefficient (in dB/km)

10 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝛼= 𝐿𝑜𝑔10
• Bending Losses 𝐿 𝑃𝑖𝑛

• Dispersion Losses
RECAP Fibre Optics

✓Introduction
✓Advantages
✓Acceptance Angle & Numerical Aperture
❑ Relative / Fractional Refractive Index
✓Skip Distance
✓Types of Optical Fibres
❑ Single mode – step index
❑ Multi mode – step index, graded index
✓V number
✓Attenuation
 Dispersion
Dispersion, expressed in terms of the symbol ∆t, is defined as pulse spreading in an
optical fibre.

As a pulse of light propagates through a fibre, elements such as numerical aperture, core
diameter, refractive index profile, wavelength, and laser line width cause the pulse to
broaden. This poses a limitation on the overall bandwidth of the fibre.
Dispersion is of two types:

(i) Modal dispersion (Internal dispersion)

(ii) Intramodal dispersion

❖ Modal Dispersion
• Spreading of a pulse because different modes (paths) through the
fiber take different times
• Only happens in multimode fiber
• Reduced, but not eliminated, with graded-index fiber
❖ Intramodal dispersion
It takes place even if only one mode is allowed to propagate in the optical fibre and
takes place due to following effects:
(1) Material dispersion
Due to the different time taken by different wavelengths to cross the optical fibre if the
source is not monochromatic.
(2) Waveguide dispersion
A small portion of light reaches to the output end of fibre through cladding. As
refractive index of cladding is less than core, so light through cladding will travel faster.
At output end make the pulse broaden at output end.
Coupling Losses
 Fiber Optic Specifications
❖Attenuation
• Loss of signal, measured in dB
❖Dispersion
• Blurring of a signal, affects bandwidth
❖Bandwidth
• The number of bits per second that can be sent through a data link
❖Acceptance angle
• Measures the largest angle of light that can be accepted into the core
The General Communication System
 The Optical Fibre Communication System
Reference Book: Engineering Physics, Malik & Singh

Input signal in analog or digital form is impressed onto the carrier wave by using a
transmitter/modulator. The carrier wave is generated from the optical source which may either be
LED or laser.
should be V2/4
A step-index fibre has a core refractive index of 1.52, core diameter 29 µm and fractional
refractive index 0.0007. If the operating wavelength is 1.3 µm, determine the (i) v number,
and (ii) number of modes supported by the fibre.

𝜋𝑑
𝑉= 𝑁𝐴
𝜆