Optical Fiber

Fig. An optical fiber

An optical fiber is a flexible, transparent conduit made by drawing glass (silica) or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker
than that of a human hair. It works on a principle of total internal reflection. It is designed for long distance, high-
performance data networking and telecommunications.

An optical fiber consists mainly of three regions:

1. Core: It is the innermost part of a fiber, through which light is propagated. It is made up of doped silica and its
refractive is made maximum. The diameter of core is 50μm in average.
2. Cladding: The core is covered with a cladding made up of pure silica that have lower refractive index than that of
the core. The basic purpose of cladding is to confine light in core. It’s diameter is about 125μm.
3. Sheath: It is the outermost covering of a fiber. It protects core and cladding from external agents like moisture,
dust, aberration etc. It also provides mechanical support to the fiber. Sheath has average diameter of about
150μm.

Sheath
Core
Cladding

Fig. Cross- section of a fiber

Modes of Propagation in a Fiber:

Two allowed modes of propagation of light through a fiber are: zigzag mode and axial mode

In zigzag mode, light propagates with repeated reflection in the core – cladding interface. However, in axial mode light
propagates straight through the axis of the fiber.
Core
Cladding Zigzag mode

Axial mode

Fig. Modes of propagation in a fiber

Some common terms:

1. Fractional refractive index change(∆): It is the ratio of difference in refractive index of core (n1) and that of
cladding(n2) to the refractive index of core (n1).
 n 1 −n 2
i.e. ∆ = n1
2. Acceptance angle (θ0): It is the maximum value of angle of incidence for which the light propagates through
the fiber with total internal reflection.
𝑛 1 2 −𝑛 2 2
It is given by, θ0 = Sin-1( 𝑛0
) Here 𝑛0 , 𝑛1 & 𝑛2 are refractive indices of outer surface, core and cladding
respectively.
For air outside the fiber, 𝑛0 = 1 so, θ0 = Sin-1( 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 ) Cladding (n2)
Proof for the acceptance angle: Core (n1)
Consider, a ray of light is incident on a fiber B
from left side at an angle of θi with the axis ɸ ɸ
A θr
of the fiber. It is refracted with angle θr in θi C
core from air ( outside). Air(n0)
Using Snell’s law for this refraction,
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑖 𝑛1
Fig. Principle of propagation of light in fiber
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑟
= 𝑛0
…(i)
In ⊿𝐴𝐶𝐵, θr = 900 - ɸ
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑖 𝑛1 𝑛1
Equation (i) becomes, 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (90−ɸ)
= 𝑛0
⇨𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 = 𝑛0
𝐶𝑜𝑠ɸ … . (𝑖𝑖)
For any value of angle of incidence (θi), ray AB refracts in core – cladding interface and emerges out from point
B. When θi is increased, the angle of refraction in point B is increased. For a maximum value of θi, the angle ɸ
becomes critical angle (ɸc) and total internal reflection just starts to begin. For this, angle of refraction in core –
cladding interface becomes 900.
𝑛1
Equation (ii) then, becomes, sin 𝜃𝑖 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑛0
=𝐶𝑜𝑠ɸ𝑐 …(iii)
𝑆𝑖𝑛 ɸ 𝑛 𝑛2
Using Snell’s law in core – cladding interface, 𝑆𝑖𝑛 90𝑐 = 𝑛 2 ⇨ 𝑆𝑖𝑛ɸ𝑐 = 𝑛1
(∵ 𝑆𝑖𝑛90 = 1)
1

𝑛 2
⇨ 𝐶𝑜𝑠ɸ𝑐 = 1 − 𝑛22
1

Using the value of 𝐶𝑜𝑠ɸ𝑐 in equation (iii), we get

𝑛1 𝑛 2 𝑛 1 2 −𝑛 2 2
sin 𝜃𝑖 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛0
1 − 𝑛22 = 𝑛0
1

-1 𝑛 1 2 −𝑛 2 2
⇨ (θi)max = sin [ 𝑛0
]
This maximum value of angle of incidence, for which the total internal refraction just starts to begin is called
acceptance angle, θ0. And, the light starts propagating through the fiber with multiple reflections.
𝑛 1 2 −𝑛 2 2
i.e. θ0 = (θi)max = sin-1[ 𝑛0
] This is the principle of propagation of light through a fiber.
4. Numerical aperture(N.A.):
The numerical aperture measures the amount of light that can be accepted by a fiber. A fiber is superior if it
accepts more amount of light to propagate through it.
Mathematically, it is defined as the sine of the acceptance angle θ0.
N.A. = Sinθ0 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 ( as n0 = 1 for air)
simplifying, it can be found that, N.A. = 𝑛1 2∆
The value of N.A. ranges from 0.13 to 0.50.
Larger the value of N.A., greater the chance a fiber accepts more amount of light and vice versa.

5. Normalized frequency (V – number): The V- number determines the no. of modes that can be propagated
through the fiber.
 Mathematically, it is given by,
2𝜋𝑎
V= 𝜆
𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 Where, ‘a’ is the radius of the core, λ is the free space wave length.
For V > 2.405, the fiber allows multimode (both axial and zigzag modes)
And, for 𝑉 < 2.405, it allows single mode i.e. axial mode only.

Types of Fibers:
On the basis of refractive index of core and cladding, there are two types of fibers : step index fiber and graded
index fiber.
On the basis of modes of propagation, two types of fibers are single mode fiber and multimode fiber.
Combining the two bases above, we classify the fibers as:
1. Single mode step index fiber:
Refractive index

n1=1.52 Core

n1= 1.48 Cladding

n0 =1 Air

Distance from axis

a. In this type of fiber, only axial mode of propagation is allowed.
b. Core has higher constant refractive index, n1 = 1.52 and cladding has lower constant refractive index, n2 =
1.48. So, refractive index abruptly changes in core- cladding interface.
c. It has smaller core diameter about 4μm
d. It has V- number less than 2.405 as it is single mode fiber.
e. It has low value of fractional index change, ∆.
f. N.A. is small
g. The value of acceptance angle is small.
h. It has high transmission loss because of abrupt change in refractive index.
i. It is difficult to manufacture and handle, so it is costly.

2. Multimode step index fiber:

Refractive index

n1=1.52 Core

n1= 1.42 Cladding

n0 =1 Air

Distance from axis

a. In this type of fiber, core has higher constant refractive index, n1 = 1.52 and cladding has lower refractive
index, , n2 = 1.42.
b. It has large core diameter of 100 μm.
c. It has V- number greater than 2.405, so supports multi-mode propagation.
d. It has high value of fractional index change, ∆.
e. N.A. is high (0.3).
 f. the value of acceptance angle is large.
g. It has high transmission loss because of abrupt change in refractive index.
h. It is easy to manufacture and handle, so it is cheaper.

3. Multimode graded index fiber:

Refractive index
Core

n2 Cladding

n0 =1 Air

Distance from axis

a. In this type of fiber, multimode propagation of light is allowed.

b. The refractive index of core decreases with increasing the radial distance from the axis.
c. It has large core diameter of 100 μm.
d. It has V- number greater than 2.405, so supports multimode propagation.
e. Numerical aperture decreases with increasing radial distance from the axis.
f. The acceptance angle also decreases with radial distance.
g. It has low transmission loss because of gradual change in refractive index, causing bending of light toward
the center.
h. Its manufacturing is more complex then step index fiber.

Applications of optical fiber:

1. medical application:
It is employed for endoscopy, to join detached retina, and to recover other eye defects. It is also used to remove
the blocking of artery in heart. Fibers are also used in treatment of cancer.
2. In communication: In Fiber communication, laser light is used to carry wave to transmit messages.
3. optical fiber sensors: As a sensor, fibers are use to measure temperature, pressure, current, voltage etc. It can
be used as smoke and pollution detector. And many more applications.
4. Military application: Fiber guided missiles, communication devices and other control devices are used in wars.
Advantages of optical fiber communication over co axial cables:
1. Optical fibers are light in weight and flexible.
2. There is less interference of wave in fiber. So, cross talk is negligible than in coaxial cable communication.
3. Optical fibers have longer life time.
4. There is no corrosion and tolerable over high temperature.
5. They are far safer, as light is used rather than electric current to transmit data.