Optical Fibers

B.E I SEM

Dr. G. Ramadevudu
Assistant Professor (Sr)
Department of Physics
Vasavi College of Engineering (A)
Hyderabad, Telangana State
 Optical fiber
Optical Fiber is a flexible thin conduit (or channel) made by
dielectric material such as glass or polymer that carry light
information over long or short distances by the principle of Total
Internal Reflection (TIR).
Parts of an Optical fiber
Core: This is the physical medium that
transports optical signals from an
attached light source to a receiving device.
The core is a single continuous strand of
high-purity glass or plastic whose
diameter is measured in microns (less
than the diameter of a human hair). The
larger the core, the more light the cable
can carry, which correlates to a higher
data transfer rate. The refractive index of
core is higher.
Cladding: This is a thin layer that is extruded over the core and serves as the
boundary that contains the light waves, enabling data to travel through the
length of the fiber. The refractive index of cladding is lower than core.
Coating: This is a plastic coating over the
cladding to reinforce the fiber core, help absorb
shocks, and provide extra protection against
excessive cable bends. It does not have any effect
on the optical waveguide properties.

Strengthening fibers: These components help protect the core against crushing
forces and excessive tension during installation. The materials can range from
Kevlar. This reduces cross-talk between the fibers.

Cable jacket: This is the outer layer, or sheathing, of the cable. Its purpose is to
protect the cable from environmental hazards, moisture, radiation,
contaminations, as construction work etc.
 FIBER OPTIC CABLE CORE SIZES
Fiber specifications list the core and cladding diameters as a ratio. Multimode fiber is
commonly 62.5/125 or 50/125 micron, single mode fiber is commonly 9/125 micron.
 Propagation of Light through an optical Fiber
The propagation of light in fibers uses the concept of total internal reflection. If
light wave enters one end of fiber, under proper conditions, then most of it will be
propagated through the length of the fiber. Total internal reflection in the fiber
can occur if the following conditions are satisfied.
1. Core material should have higher refractive index than the material cladding.
2. The light should be incident in such a way that the ray strikes the core-cladding
interface at an angle greater than critical angle. As a result, the ray suffers total
internal reflection.
 Propagation of Light through an optical Fiber
i- angle of incidence with the
Q
Launching axis.
Zone (no)   r -refracted ray make an angle
r
i with the axis.
P R
- Angle made by the light ray at
core-cladding interface
C- critical angle
Core (n1)
Fibre axis Cladding (n2)
According snell’s law
no sin i = n1sin r
sin i = [n1 /no] sinr (1)
If angle of incidence is increased beyond certain limit, then  falls beow critical
angle, ray escapes out of core. To make light ray within the core, at least = C. The
ray undergoes TIR at the core-cladding interface only when the angle of incidence 
is greater than critical angle.
 Propagation of Light through an optical Fiber
sin i = [n1 /no] sinr (1) 𝒏𝟐𝟏 −𝒏𝟐𝟐
Cos c =
𝒏𝟏
When the angle of incidence is greater than
critical angle then the ray suffers total internal 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐𝟏 −𝒏𝟐𝟐
sin max =
𝒏𝒐 𝒏𝟏
reflection.
𝒏𝟐𝟏 −𝒏𝟐𝟐
From the Triangle PQR sin max = 𝒏𝒐

Sin r = Sin (90- )= cos  (2) For air medium no= 1

sin i = [n1 /no] cos  sin max = 𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐

When  = c, then i= max

sin max = [n1 /no] cos c
From the definition of critical angle
Sin c = n2 / n1
max = sin-1( 𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐 )
Acceptance angle is the maximum angle
subtended by the incident light ray with the
axis of the fibre that makes the light ray to
undergo TIR and propagate through the length
of the fibre.
 NUMERICAL APERTURE (NA)

Numerical aperture, which is also called the figure of merit for

optical fiber is defined as the ‘sin’ of maximum angle of
incidence.

sin max =NA= 𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐

numerical aperture (NA) of an optical system is a dimensionless
number that characterizes the range of angles over which the
system can accept light.
Numerical Aperture is the measure of the ability of an optical
fiber to collect or gather or confine the incident light ray inside
it. It is among the most basic property of optical fiber.
 Acceptance cone

The incident light rays confined within the cone of

full angle 2max suffer TIR are accepted and are
propagated through the fiber. This cone is called
Acceptance cone
Fractional Index Change ()
Fractional Index Change () is the fractional difference
between the refractive indices of core and cladding

 = (n 1 - n2)/n1

(NA)2 = (n21 -n22)

= [(n1 + n2) (n1 - n2)]
= [(n1+n2)/2n1](n1-n2)(2n1)
= 2n21
NA = n1(2)1/2
 Modes of Propagation
The allowed pathways for light rays offered by an
optical fiber are always finite and are called modes
of propagation. The pathways along which light
ways undergo constructive interference are
sustained and those paths for which destructive
interference condition is satisfied are forbidden.

Optical mode describes specific solution of the wave equation in accordance

with the appropriate boundary conditions and whose spatial distribution does
not change with propagation.

The number of modes in a fiber optic fiber depends upon the dimensions of the
fiber and the variation of the indices of refraction of both core and cladding
across the cross section.
PCS
 Fiber Materials

• Possible to make long, thin and flexible fibers from

the materials
• Physically compatible materials that have slightly
different refractive indices for core and cladding must
be available.
• Material must be transparent at a particular
wavelength in order for the fiber to guide light
efficiently.
 Glass Fibers
In glass fibers, both the core and cladding are made by glassy materials
of slightly different refractive indices.

Core Cladding
✓ GeO2-SiO2 SiO2
✓ P2O5-SiO2 SiO2
✓ SiO2 B2O3-SiO2
✓ GeO2-B2O3-SiO2 B2O3-SiO2
 Glass Fibers
Advantages
• higher information transmission capacity with lower loss.
• They are ideal in corrosive environments or extreme temperatures.
• Good chemical durability
• High transparency
• Low loss glass fibers used for long haul applications
• Have a larger numerical aperture, allowing more light into the system (0.25-
1.00)
• Able to transmit a much wider spectrum ranging from UV, visible, and
infrared light (200-2200 nm)
• Typically exhibit less losses through the system
Disadvantages
• More limited on diameter size - Only have diameters of 0.05 mm – 0.15,
typically come in bundles
• More fragile and prone to breakage if not handled correctly
 Plastic optical fibers
Plastic fibers typically made from polymers and co-polymers as core and
cladding materials .
Core Cladding
✓ PMMA co-polymer of PMMA, silicone resin
✓ Polysterene PMMA,

❖ Plastic optical fibers have great flexibility and are lighter in

weight.
❖ They can withstand vibration and unstable environments.
❖ High mechanical strength.
❖ Low cost

❖ Losses are more compared to glass fibers

❖ Temperature sensitive
❖ Used for short distance communication applications
 Refractive Index Profile
Increasing R.I

Increasing R.I n1
n1
n2
n2

Core Core

Cladding Cladding
Step Index Fiber
GRIN Fiber
step index Single
Mode fiber
 Step Index Single Mode Fibers (SI-SMF)

Axial Ray
Fibre axis Core (n1) Cladding (n2)

• A single mode step index fiber allows the propagation of only one mode
(axial) or TE mode
• The core diameter is in the order of 5 to 10µm (Cladding ~125 µm).
• It has high information carrying capacity.
• The single mode step index fiber has of low intermodal dispersion
• It can be used for long distance communication
• It requires LASER light source because of small core diameter, hence
operation cost is higher than multimode step index fiber.
• At higher data rates chromatic dispersion can limit the performance
 Step Index Multi Mode Fibers (SI-MMF)

Axial Ray
Fibre axis Core (n1) Cladding (n2)

• Multimode step index fiber allows propagation of a finite number of

guided modes. The core diameter is around 50µm or more.
• Simple to fabricate than single mode fiber
• In SI-MMF mode step index fiber dispersion is high due to the
different modes have different group velocities
• Due to high dispersion the information carrying capacity is less.
• It cannot be used for long distance communication as dispersion
high.
• Since core size is large LED can be used as light source.
 Multi Mode GRIN Fibers (GRIN-MMF)

Axial Ray
Fibre axis Core (n1)
Cladding (n2)

• GRIN Multimode fiber allows a finite number of guided modes. The core
diameter is around 50-62.5-100µm.
• The core refractive index decreases parabolically from the core center
toward the cladding.
• instead of total internal reflection, light rays bends back toward the fiber
axis as they pass through layers with lower R.I
• Lower order modes experiences a higher index than higher order modes.
Hence higher-order modes travel faster than the lower-order modes
• This reduces modal dispersion and increases the bandwidth of the fiber.
• Multimode graded-index fibers show bandwidths ~3 GHz·km
 Optical Fibers Colour Code

Color Code
Fiber Type
Non-military Military Suggested Print Nomenclature
Multimode (50/125) (OM2) Orange Orange OM2, 50/125
Multimode (50/125) (850 nm OM3 or OM4
Aqua Undefined
Laser-optimized) (OM3, OM4) 850 LO 50 /125
Multimode (50/125) (850 nm
Lime Green OM5
Laser-optimized) (OM5)
Multimode (62.5/125) (OM1) Orange Slate OM1, 62.5/125
Multimode (100/140) Orange Green 100/140
Single-mode (OS1, OS1a, OS2) Yellow Yellow OS1, OS1a, OS2, SM/NZDS, SM
Polarization Maintaining Single-
Blue Undefined Undefined (2)
mode
 Number of Modes Supported by a Fibre

The number of modes supported by a fiber is given by Normalized

Frequency Parameter of a fiber.
This parameter is also called the V number.
It is a dimensionless parameter that determines the number of
modes a fiber can support.
Depending on the physical dimensions of the core/cladding regions,
refractive index, and wavelength, V-Number is given by

where d (=2a) is the diameter of the core,  is the wavelength of light used
 Number of Modes Supported by a Fibre
If V ≤ 2.405, then the fibre is single mode fibre (SMF)
If V > 2.405, then the fibre is multimode fibre (MMF)

The total number of mode traveling in a fibre depends are given by

For Step Index Fibre: For Graded Index Fibre:

• The cutoff wavelength is the minimum wavelength in which a particular

fiber acts as a single mode fiber. Above the cutoff wavelength, fiber becomes
a single mode fiber Below the cutoff wavelength, higher order modes, will
be able to propagate and fiber becomes a multimode fiber
• A single mode step index fiber allows the propagation of
only one mode (axial) or TE mode

• Multimode step index fiber allows propagation of a finite number of

guided modes. The core diameter is around 50µm or more.

• GRIN Multimode fiber allows a finite number of guided modes. The core
diameter is around 50-62.5-100µm.

The number of modes supported by a fiber