FAMILY – social institution found in all societies that unite people in cooperative groups to oversee the bearing and

raising of
children.
KINSHIP – family ties, a social bond based on blood, marriage, or adoption.
FAMILY UNIT ( United States) – a social group of two or more people related by blood, marriage or adoption , live together.
FAMILY ORIENTATION – people are born into a family composed of parents and siblings ; vital to socialization
FAMILY PROCREATION (adulthood) – inorder to have or adopt children of their own
FAMILY FORMS or BASED ON THE NUMBER OF GENERATIONS THAT LIVE WITHIN A HOUSEHOLD
1.Nuclear Family ( conjugal family—based on marriage)– composed of one or two parents and their dependent children, all of whom
live apart from other relatives ; very simple economic system ( hunting and gathering) requires geographical mobility and individual
initiative ; typical of industrial societies (career advancement – workers geographical mobile)
2.Extended Family – composed of relatives in addition to parents and children who live in the same household ( grandparents,
uncles, aunts, other relatives who live close to the parents and children ; family members share resources ; functional in economic
system which additional person is an asset in a collective enterprise ( fishing or agricultural socities)
MARRIAGE --- families form ; legally sanctioned relationship involving economic cooperation and sexual activity , childbearing that
people expect in enduring. Right setting for procreation explains the historical use of the term illegitimate for children born out of
wedlock.Lifelong commitment that ends only with death of spouse.
FAMILIES AFFINITY – people with or without legal or Blood ties who feel that they belong together and want to define themselves
as a family
SOCIAL INFLUENCE ON MATE SELECTION
 The regulation of sexual behavior is the primary function of the family in all cultures , the family exerts some influence on
the choice of a mate.
1.Endogamy – marriage within certain defined groups and categories. Specifies the groups within which a spouse must be found
and prohibits marriage with others. Marry to a member of same group ( ethnic, religious, and educational background).Rules of
endogamy help to ensure the continued existence of a group.People married random , group membership will decline as people
leave their own group for those of their spouses. Why people marry within their group .
2.Exogamy – dictates marriage between people of different social categories . Requires mate selection outside certain groups ,
usually one’s own family or certain kinfolk. Select a partner from another group ( outside the group) . Found in every society.
INCEST TABOO – social norm common to virtually all societies , prohibits sexual relationships between certain culturally specified
relatives . Philippines – people must marry outside of the nuclear family. Filipinos cannot marry their siblings and cousins.
3. Incest prohibition – forbids marriage or sexual relations between persons believed to have a close biological relationship .
However , marriage between brothers and sisters was not band ( royal family of ancient Egypt)
Note : In India and Pakistan – people are expected to marry someone of the same caste ( endogamy) but from a different village (
exogamy)
HOMOGAMY – selection of spouses with similar social characteristics ; similar with endogamy ; why people choose marry persons
with similar characteristics and social status
HETEROGAMOUS – different social backgrounds and geographic areas ( race, religious, ethnicity and social class) . Benefit – exposes
partners to other ways of doing and thinking , adding an element of variety and challenges to the relationship.
MARRIAGE FORMS
 Certain amount of illicit sexual behavior is tolerated by most societies , rarely receives explicit approval. Several codes of
rules and forms are followed by societies.
1.Monogamy -- marriage between two partners ( woman and man).Rule in most societies.
SERIAL MONOGAMY – through a pattern of marriage, divorce , and remarriage ; succession of marriages which an individual has
several spouses over a lifetime but is legally married to only one person at a time.
2.Polygamy ( Africa and southern Asia) --- marriage that unites three or more people.
a. Polygyny – marriage that unites one male and two or more females ( sisters -similar values, sharing a household ) . Few men
have many wives. Most men live in monogamous. Multiple wives – mark of status
b. Polyandry – marriage that unites one female and two or more males. Vertical rare.Men greatly outnumber women because
of high rates of female infanticide or marriages are arranged between two brother and one woman ( fraternal polyandry)
3.Group Marriage – marriage of several men to several women
RESIDENCE PATTERNS
 Different views regarding where newly married couple are expected to live . United States – newly weds set up neolocal
residence -- physically separate from both the husband and wifes family.
1.Patrilocal residence – married couples settle in or near the household of the husbands father. Most common. Bride leaves her
family to live with thee husband in or near his parents home. Women join her husband’s family and often under the authority of
her spouses mother. Example : Contemporary patrilocal residence – Jordanian City . Multifamily households ( older married couple
, unmarried children, married sons, their sons wives and children.
2. Matrilocal residence – marriage partners settle in or near the household of the wife’s father. Newly married couple lives with or
near the bride’s family.Women held title to the land.
Note : Neolocal residence is linked with monogamy, individualism, and equal economic roles for men and women.Predominant
practice .Married couples establish a new residence separate from the kind of other spouse. Impossible neolocal ( economic
conditions, availability of housing)
DESCENT AND INHERITANCE
 Systems for tracing descent and handling down property
1.Patrilineal descent -- only father’s relative’s are important in terms of property, inheritance, and emotional ties. Most common.
Kinship is traced through the male line. Key ties are between father, son and grandson. Although wife keep some ties with her family
and contributes some of her genes to her offspring her children become members of the husbands family.
2.Matrilineal descent – only mother’s relatives are significant. Kinship is traced through the female line. Wealth and daily support
flow through the female line. Mother’s possessions become the property of her daughter and a family receives much of its support
from the wife’s brother.
3.Bilateral descent – descent is reckoned more or less equally through both male and female lines. Both sides of the person’s family
are regarded as equally important. Kinship is traced through the biological relatives of both the father and mother .Size of the kinship
group and number of obligations to relatives can become burdensome.This system may create a problem.
AUTHORITY PATTERNS
1.Patriarchal family – family structure which authority is held by the eldest male ( usually father) .Male authority figure acts ( head
of the household and hold power and authority over the women and children as well as over other males). Iran – the eldest male
wields the greatest power ; women treated with respect and kindness ; authority is vested in the father, grandfather, and some men
in the family.
2.Matriarchal family – family structure which authority is held by the eldest female ( often mother) . Very rare. Emerge onlybin
nations where men are absent for long period of time. Authority is vested in the wife and mother.
3.Egalitarian family – family structure which both partners share power and authority equally. Wives may hold authority in some
spheres and husbands in others. Evident where women have sought changes in their legal status and increased educational and
employment opportunities.
FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE – functions that families perform at the macro level . Six dominant functions:
1.Reproduction – society to continue, replace dying members; contributes to human survival
2.Protection – human infants need constant care and economic security ; assumes responsibility for the protection and upbringing of children
3.Socialization – parents and other relatives transmit he norms, values, and language of a culture to the child.
4.Regulation of sexual behavior – structure of society influences the standard; Male-dominated societies, norms generally permit
men to express and enjoy their physical attraction more freely than woman.
5.Affection and companionship – provides members with warm and intimate relationship and make them feel secure and satisfied.
Expect our relatives to understand us , to care for us, to be there for is when we need them
6.Provision of social status – newborn child with ascribed status of race and ethnicity that helps determine the place in the societies
stratification system. Family resources affect children’s ability to pursue certain opportunities such as higher education and
specialized lesson.
CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE—Family not as contributor to social stability , but as reflection of the inequality in wealth and power found
within the larger society. Consistent with the values and benefits of the dominant groups. Patriarchy is the most common type which
enables to be dominant.Families can contribute to the perpetuation of social and eco inequality and inheritance makes it possible.
INTERACTIONS PERSPECTIVE -- micro- level of family and other intimate relationships. How individuals interact with one another
whether a cohabiting partner or long time married couples. Role of step parent. Increased number of single parents who remarry.
ALTERNATIVE FAMILY FORMS
1.Singlehood – growing number of people choose to remain single ( reason is to postpone marriage) . Couples taking their vows, on
average , two years . Majority of single adults will eventually marry or remarry. Those don’t want children marriage is not a
prerequisite for sexual experience.
2.Cohabitation / Living Together – sharing of household by unmarried couples. Practice is common in colleges and university
campuses.Most cohabitation does not lead to marriage. Gaining popularity as a way to test a serious relationship.Partners have
considerable affection, commitment and sexual relationship is exclusive. Wary of making the formal commitment of marriage.
“Going Steady “ modern . “ Trial Marriage “ – partners explicitly decided to test their compatibility before taking the plunge into
marriage life. Elderly couples living together without marriage. Most non—marital pairing produce no off-spring . Challenge over
intimate adult bonds. Married and non-married couples have similar goals, attitudes and values.Non-maritsl couples tend to score
lower in religiousity and attend church less than married couple. Legal of special concern ( nonlaw governing them).
3.One – Parent Families – most common alternative to the nuclear family. Unmarried women are now sexually active and most do
not practice birth control. Those who have elligitimate babies keep and raise them alone.General concern ( most one-parent are
poor and are headed by women) . Women are either divorced or unwed mother’s. Divorced women – earned less ; Unwed mother’s
– little education and few marketable skills . View from the lens of poverty ( understand the typical one-parent family) . Children
from single parent most likely to drop out of school, become delinquent, emotional problems, get pregnant in teens, best children
outside marriage, poor as adults, get divorced.
4.Families without children – Marriage unstable. Relationship cannot withstand the strains a child would bring and that it may break
up before the child is grown. Child too expensive. Child bind them to the home and that they will suffer boredom, loneliness, and
lost career opportunities. More education, more career opportunities, effective contraception , abortions cost of rearing children,
changing attitudes toward children and goals in life ( contribute to this trend)
5.Blended Families – significant type of family formation in United States. Members once we’re part of other families m Two
divorced people marry and bring their children into a new family unit. More complicated family relationships. One has serves sets
of siblings, grandparents and other relatives. Occasions for jealousy and rivalry increased.
6.Gay Male and Lesbian Couples – Denmark – first country to recognize homosexual marriages.Danish law does not allow
homosexual couples to adopt children. United States (San Francisco) – legal benefits of marriage on gay. Changing attitude made
these acceptable. Some homosexual couples also raise children usually from previous heterosexual relationship.
EDUCATION – social institution responsible for the systematic transmission of knowledge, skills, and cultural values within a formally
organized structure. Total process that prepares people for life in their society .We can study the role of education through culture,
society and individual.
CULTURAL FUNCTION
 Education mains function is to transmit culture. Because cultural goals and values differ widely among societies. Today,
education tends to focus on the sciences rather than arts. Emphasis on personal growth.
 Accept customs and institutions in the society such as religion, the family and law.Helps maintain social order. Education
fosters change.
 Education provides the line between conservation and innovation. Preserve culture values and passed them from one
generation to next. Contributes to social change by inventing new technologies and questioning traditional values.
SOCIAL FUNCTIONS
 Social structure which is the set of patterned relationship among the basic parts of social system.
Education as a mean of Social Control
 Schools exist to teach children the dominant values of the society, . Education is compulsory. They are supervised
inside and outside the classroom
 Their behavior is shaped by school. Children accept daily routine, schedule, attitude toward the authority , the value
of success .
 Education along with religion , family and law is part of the set of institutions that help maintain the stability and
unity of society.
 Education as a Source of Status
 Process that places the student into a certain kind of job and assign him or her in a status society.
 Education has a practical and symbolic value.
 Degree mark a prestige
Education and the Individual
 Affects the level of individual. School maintain custodial care cover over children.
PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION ( HAUIGHURST AND LAVINE)
1.Inappropriate curriculum and instruction

SCHOOLING – formal instruction under the direction of specially trained teachers.

INFROMAL EDUCATION IN PRELITERATE SOCIETIES
 No separate social institution called education ; no special buildings called school; no people who earned their living as
teachers ; people acquire knowledge and skills through informal education.
 Children learned what was required to get along with life. (hunting and cooking) ; center on the struggle to survive against
natural forces , forms of education are survival oriented.
 Turkey – highly basket makers without formal training ; learned skills mere in observation ; no written language ; basic
technology and simple division of labor.
 Informal Education – learning in spontaneous , unplanned way. Direct informal education, parents and other members
provide information about how to gather food, find shelter, make weapons and tools and get along with others. Acquire
the beliefs and values informally by listening to story and myths .
EDUCATION IN PREINDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES
 Agricultural socities, educational institutions began to emerge ; Received institutionalized training in art and writing.
 A wealthy elite emerged that could afford to withdraw their children from work and send them to school or hire teachers
to educate them at home. Confucius taught a few pupils.Greece ( Aristotle, Plato , Socrates ) – taught science and philosophy
to upper class boys.
 Elite education ( philosophical, religious, or moral training ) for society’s future ruling class than with practical skills.
 Renaissance – focus of education shifted to importance of developing well – rounded and liberally educated people. Son of
the privileged classes were able to attend school
INDUSTRIALIZATION AND UNIVERSAL EDUCATION
 Rapid growth of industrial capitalism during Industrial revolution, it is necessary for workers to have basic skills in reading,
writing, arithmetic, the need for formal education increased.
 Free public school movement. Propose common schools supported through taxes.Provide free public education.
 U.S. ( Mandatory Education laws – acquiring children to attend school ); Drop outs – did not complete grade school
FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVES – view education as one of the most important components of society. Manifest functions –
consequences of social life that are explicit, intended , and recognized. Latent functions – unintended and often remain
unrecognized . The manifest functions are :
1.Education as socialization – continue the socialization begins with family ; introduce children to set of values, attitudes and norms
different from those learned in the family ; teach children to take new roles and learn proper behavior in interacting with peers and
teachers ; equip people with capabilities ; teaching young people with reading, writing, arithmetic ; developing their ability to reason
and solve problems ; provide general and specific information ; transmit cultural values and norms ; provide students with explicit
instruction in ways of life ; rituals such as saluting the flag and singing the national anthem. Spelling bees and classroom drills develop
competitive individualism, respect for authority, and sense a fair play.
2.Education as social control – schools are responsible for teaching values such as discipline, respect, obedience, punctuality, and
perseverance. Schools teach conformity by encouraging young people to be good, conscientious future workers and law-abiding.
3.Education as innovation – provide students with attitude and skills to adapt to changing world. Boys taught home economics, girls
take shop, and both learn sex education ; stimulate intellectual inquiry and critical thinking lead to development of new ideas ;
engage in research , discoveries, and innovations.
4.Social placement – major institution that functions to nurture talent and achievement in children; preparing them for future roles
in society ; talent is not wasted ; competence is rewarded; students are motivated to achieve at highest level; rewards student with
grades for academic work and with athletic ability. Ranked by grades . Responsible for identifying the most qualified people to fill
the positions available in the society.
Latent Functions :
1.Child care – number of one-parent families and dual career marriages increases, schools have become important in relieving
parents of some child care education
2.Restricting some activities – schools keep off the street and out of the full-time job market for a number of years. Help keep
unemployment within reasonable bounds.
3.Matchmaking and production of social networks – high schools and colleges bring together people of similar age, social class, race
and ethnicity ; young people meet future marriage partners and develop social networks .
4.Creation of a generation gap – students learn information in Scholl that contradicts the beliefs held by their parents or religion.
Education conflicts with parental attitudes and beliefs , a generation gap is created if students acquired new perspectives.
CONFLICT PERSPECTIVES – schools often perpetuate class, racial – ethnic , and gender inequalities but some groups seeks to
maintain their privileged position at the expense of others.Acces to quality education is closely related to social class. Students from
varied class backgrounds come to school with differing amounts of cultural capital – social assets includes values, beliefs , attitudes
and competencies in language and culture. Involves proper attitudes toward education, socially approved dress and manners and
knowledge about books , art and etc.and other forms of high and popular culture.Cultural cap is costly in acquiring an education,
children with less cultural capital have fewer opportunities to succeed in school. Standardized test to assign measure cultural capital.
Tracking – assignment of students to specific courses and educational programs based on their test scores, previous grades or both.
Used to give students the kind of schooling appropriate to their individual aptitude. Sort out children. Most students from affluent
families do well on standardized tests ; less privileged end up in tracks that teach only technical trades.Reserve best teachers for
students in top tracks. Higher track ( bright and able) while lower tracks ( less ambition and low self-esteem). Credentialism –
increase in the lowest level of education needed to enter a field ( college diploma) . The trend toward educational attainment (
number of years of school completed has an effect known as “ degree inflation “ . Credentials may reinforce social inequality .
Applicants from poor and minority are likely to suffer from escalation of qualifications because they don’t have financial needs to
obtain a degree. Focus on education and inequality.
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVES – classroom communication pattern and educational practices ( labeling, that affects
students self concept and aspirations. Labeling plays an important role in the way children define themselves at school .
Consequence of tracking , children labeled having less ability ( negative label) .
RELIGION – system of beliefs and practices ( rituals) based on some sacred or supernatural realm that guides human behavior , gives
meaning to life, and unites believers into a single moral community . Composed of four basic elements religious beliefs, rituals,
religious experience, community of believers.
1.Religious beliefs – statements which member of a particular religion adhere. Organize an individual’s perception of the world and
serve as guide for behavior. Example: animist religions hold that the world is populated by spirits with motives and emotions like
our own. Influence their behaviour through magical rites. Animist belief in spirits explains the occurrence of illness or accidents and
prescribes a course of action ; seek to bridge the gap between the known and the unknown , the seen and unseen, the sacred and
the secular . The Adam and Eve creation ( Genesis) – first book of Old Testament is a religious belief
2.People often act out their religious beliefs in the form of rituals – regularly repeated and carefully prescribed forms of behaviors
that symbolize a cherished value or belief. Rituals range from songs and prayers to processions and chants to offerings and sacrifices.
Religious rituals differ from everyday action’s in that believers attach a symbolic meaning to them. Example : Lighting of Candle
commemorates Festival of Light ; involve very strictly determined behavior ; involved in praying or in observing communion are
carefully orchestrated and must be followed with precision ; it is the form that counts.
3. Religious experience – feeling or perception of being in direct contact with the ultimate reality , such as divine being, or being
overcome with religious emotion ; subjective experiences grow out of beliefs and rituals ; religious experience range out from the
quiet sense of peace that comes from the belief that one’s life is in the hands of a divine power to the intense mystical experiences
that inspire terror and awe ; people feel transported from everyday reality or experience being outside their own bodies or in the
presence of supernatural beings ; Some Protestant use the term born again to describe people who have undergone a life
transforming religious experience. They have sinned and Jesus died for it. They look forward in Resurrection and new life in heaven.
4.Belonging to a community believers – a central part of religious experience. Shared beliefs, rituals and subjective experiences
heighten group identification .
Emile Durkheim – pioneer of sociology in religion. 1912 – published the book The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life – which he
attempted to identify the elements common to all religions. He discovered no specific belief or practice that they all shared. He
found that all religions regardless of their name or teaching , separate the sacred from propane.Sacred includes elements beyond
everyday life that inspire awe, respect, and even fear. People become part of the sacred realm only by completing some rituals such
as prayer or sacrifice. Believers have faith in the sacred ; this faith allows them to accept what they cannot understand . Profane –
anything that is regarded as part of the ordinary rather than the supernatural world. Profane may symbolize by rock, the moon, a
king or a symbol, Something becomes sacred or profane when it is socially defined as such by a community of believers . Ordinary
dining room table is profane bit becomes sacred to Christians if it bears the elements of a communion.
BASIC TYPES OF RELIGION ( central belief, simple supernaturalism, animism,theism, transcendental idealism )
1.Simple supernaturalism – type of religion that does not recognize gods or spirits but assumes that supernatural forces influence
human events for better or worse. Common in PREINDUSTRIAL societies.
2.Animism – type of religion that recognizes active , animate spirits operating in the world. Spirits may be found in people as well
as natural phenomena such as rivers, mountains , and the weather. Spirits may be benevolent or evil, or they may even be indifferent
to human beings , but they are not gods , they are not worshipped. People must take account of these spirits and may try to influence
them by the use of magic or rituals intended to harness supernatural power for human ends ; associated with early hunting and
gathering socities and with many native American societies in which everyday life is not separated from the elements of the natural
world.
3.Theism – type of religion that centers on a belief in gods ; postulate the existence of one or more gods not of human origin that
are believed to play a role in the creation and maintenance of the universe and take an interest in human affairs ; most common
theism is polytheism – a belief in a number of God’s.Second form is monotheism -- belief in a single supreme being . Supreme God
is ultimately responsible for the universe. Three great religions emerged in Middle East ( Judaism, Christianity, and Islam – are
monotheistic , worshipping Yaweh , God and Allah , respectively); often include supernatural beings or spirits such as angels or
devils, who are subordinate and possess considerably fewer powers.
4. Transcendental idealism – type of religion that centers on sacred principles of thought and conducts. Religions of transcendent
idealism are characterized by reverence for such principles of life, truth and tolerance of other beliefs ; found mostly in Asia; example
is Buddhism – concerned with the attempt to become at one with the universe , through many years of meditation.
FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE – religion is important in the maintenance of the society ( Emile Durkheim) . He suggested that
religion was a cultural universal found in all socities because it met basic human needs and served important societal functions.
1.Questions about ultimate meaning – religions provide answers to puzzling questions about ultimate meaning – such as the purpose
of life, why people suffer, and existence of an afterlife. Those answers give a sense of purpose. Rather than seeing themselves
pounded by random events in an aimless existence , religious believers see their lives as fitting into a divine plan.
2.Emotional comfort – answers given comfort people by assuring them that there is a purpose to life, even to suffering. Religious
rituals that cover critical events ( illness and death ) provide emotional comfort. Individual knows that others care and can find
consolation in following rituals.
3. Social solidarity – religious teachings and practices unite believers into a community that shares values and perspectives . Religious
rituals that surrounds marriage .Celebrate birth and mourn death.
4.Guidelines for everyday life – teachings of religion apply also to people’s everyday life. Four of the Ten Commandments ( concern
by God) other six contain instructions on how to live everyday life, from how to get along with parents , employers , and neighbors
to warnings about lying, stealing and adultery.
5.Social control – religion controls people behavior; norms of religious groups apply only to its members but some set limits to the
non-members . Ex. Law that prohibits sales of alcohol before noon on Sundays apply to all ; even those religion does not require
them to go to church on Sundays.
6.Adaptation – Religion help adapt new environments. It is difficult for immigrants to adjust to the customs of a new land. By keeping
their native language alive and preserving familiar rituals, teachings, religion provides continuity with the immigrants cultural past.
7. Support for the government – religions provide support for the government. U.S flag is displayed in churches.
8. Social change – occasions when religion spearheads change. Churches also served as places where demonstrators were trained
and rallies were organized.
CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE – Karl Marx who argued that religion could serve as a mechanism for perpetuating patterns of dominance
and subordination. Use concept of alienation – feelings of separation, isolation , and powerlessness. People become alienated from
religion by viewing it separate from and independent human creations. They come to believe that spirits , totem or deities – instead
of human beings – control the social world. It is the gods , people believe that ordain what political, economic, and familial
institutions should be like, and human beings are powerless to change these social arrangements.
 Once alienation happens it protects the status quo because people feel helpless in the face of powerful spiritual forces that
presumably shaped society. Karl Marx said , it would seem arrogant for human beings to change what they believe some
deity has ordained. Hindu religion justifies an elaborate caste system which some people are born into high positions
whereas others are relegated at birth to a highly stigmatized outcaste position.Hindu belief in reincarnation encourages
people to accept their fate rather than attempt to change society.
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE –all religions use symbols to provide identity and social solidarity for their members.
Muslims ( crescent moon and stars) ; Jews ( star of David) ; Christians ( the cross) . Rituals, ceremonies or repetitive practices are
also symbols that help unite people into moral community. Rituals ( bar mitzvah of Jewish boys and Holy Communion for Christians
) are designed to create in the devout a feeling of closeness with God and unity with one another.
WORLDS MAJOR RELIGION
1.Judaism – marked a fundamental change in religion for it was the first religion based on monotheism, belief that here is only one
God. Before Judaism , religions were based on polytheism . In Greek religion ( Zeus – God of heaven and earth, Poseidon -- God of
the sea, Athena – goddess of wisdom); has three main denominations. Orthodox Jews strictly follow traditional beliefs and practices
, wear traditional dress, aggregate men and women during religious services , and eat only kosher foods. Reform Jews mostly use
vernacular I’m its religious ceremonies and have reduced much of the ritual.Consevative Jews fall somewhere between the other
two.
2.Christianity – developed out of Judaism ; also monotheistic; Christians believe in Jesus Christ the Messiah ; most widespread
religion . Most Christians live in Europe or America. European colonization was responsible for the spread of Christianity throughout
much of the world. Christianity took various forms ( Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church based in Constantinople . End
of Middle Ages Protestant Reformation in Europe created hundreds of new denominations; the Baptist and the Methodist (largest).
3. Islam – world’s largest and fastest growing religion . Islam spread its message through missionary and military means. Muslim
(Islam) , translated as submission , to the will of God or Allah . Muslims accept five pillars of Islam: recognizing Allah as the one, true
God and Muhammad as Gods messenger, ritual prayer, giving alms to the poor, fasting during the month of Ramadan, making a
pilgrimage at least once to the Sacred House of Mecca . Muslims are obligated to defend their faith .
4.Hinduism – world’s oldest religion, originating in the Indus River Valley . Third largest world’s major religions ( India). Hindus are
polytheists . God Brahma, along with Shiva ( the destroyer ) and Vishnu ( the Preserver) , forms a triad. Central belief is karma,
spiritual progress. No final judgement but rather reincarnation – a cycle of life, death and rebirth.
 Death involves only body , and souls comes back in a form that matches moral progress in the previous life..Does not
proselytize ; does not gain adherents through organized efforts to convert others to the religion. Negligible number of
interfaith marriages among Hindu communities steadily increasing their numbers.
4.Buddhism – rich culture of India give rise to Buddhism.Almost are Asians. Buddhist make up more than half of the populations of
Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Japan. Widespread in India and the Peoples Republic in China ; Founded by Siddhartha Gautama
. Buddha ( enlightened one) a term given by Gautama to his disciples. Gautama was the son of the upper-cadre Hindu ruler in North
of Benares , India. Through meditation he discovered the four Noble truths all of which are emphasized through self -denial and
compassion :
a. Existence is suffering
b. The origin of suffering is desire
c. The way to end desire is to follow the noble eightfold path
d. Suffering ceases when desire cease
Noble Eightfold path :
1.right belief. 2.right resolve ( to renounce carnal pleasure and to harm no living creature)
3.right speech. 4.right conduct
5.right occupation of living. 6.right effort
7.right mindedness 7.right ecstasy
 The final goal of Buddhism is to escape from reincarnation into nonexistence or blissful peace
5.Confucianism – based on code of discipline and meditation designed to maintain proper relationships that enhance loyalty ,
respect and morality.
 Confucius was a public official who was distressed by the corruption that he saw in the government. Thus he urged social
reform and developed a system of morality based on peace, justice , and universal order. Basic moral principle is to maintain
Jen, sympathy or concern for others. Key to Jen is to maintain right relationship – being loyal and placing morality above
Self -interest. The Confucian Golden Rule”Treat those who are subordinate to you as you would like to be treated by people
superior to yourself
ECONOMY – a social institution organized around the production , consumption, and distribution of goods and services .
GOODS – tangible objects that are both necessary and desired ( cars, refrigerators, homes, television sets)
SERVICES – tangible activities for which people are willing to pay ( dry cleaning, a movie, or medical care )
 In high income societies many of the services and goods are consumed are information goods. Examples are databases and
survey , the mass media, computer software and internet.
 Goods produced in human labor ( carpenter who fixes the door). Others produced by capital ( internet access available
through an Internet service provider. Labor – group of people who contribute their physical and intellectual services to the
production process in exchange for wages that they are paid by firms. Capital – wealth ( money or property) owned or used
in business by a person or corporation. Money or financial capital is needed to invest in physical capita ( machinery,
equipment, buildings, warehouses, and factories ) used in production.
 Society economy is influenced by other social institutions.
 Sectors of economy :
 a. Primary Sector – part of economy that involved in the direct extraction of natural resources from the environment
( hunting, farming, fishing) – in preindustrial societies.
b. Secondary Sector – consists of manufacturing or turning raw materials into finished products such as plates , steel
rails for locomotives, and airplanes. Dominates in Industrial societies.
c. Tertiary Sector – industry more developed. Consistent of producing and processing information and services (
teachers, taxi drivers, janitors, computer operators, nurses and lawyers are employed).
 Economic System . Hunting and gathering , horticultural and pastoral and agrarian societies are all preindustrial economic
structures. Most workers are engaged in primary sectors.
PREINDUSTRIAL ECONOMIES
 Production of hunting and gathering become small ; most goods are produced by family ; the division of labor is by age and
gender .
 Potential for producing surplus goods increases as peole learn to domesticate animals and grow their own foods.
 In horticultural and pastoral societies , the economy is different from family life. The distribution process becomes more
complex with the accumulation of surplus.
 In agrarian societies , production is chiefly related to producing food. Workers have a greater variety of specialized tasks ,
such as warlord or priest; warriors are necessary to protect the surplus goods from plunder .
 Surplus goods are attributed through a barter – direct exchange of goods and services considered of equal value by the
traders. A limited method of distribution , equivalences are difficult to determine .
 Money – medium of exchange with a relatively fixed value , came into use in order to aid the distribution of goods and
services
INDUSTRIAL ECONOMIES
 Industrialization brings large scale changes to the system of production and distribution ; drawing on new forms of energy
( steam, gasoline and electricity) and machine technology, factories increases greatly as the primary means of producing
goods.

 Workers are engaged in secondary sector production . (Steel workers process metal; autoworkers convert the ore into
automobiles, trucks , and houses.
 Work become specialized and repetitive , activities become bureaucratically organized and worker work with machines
instead of with one another.Most production results in larger surpluses . Goods and services become more equally
distributed .
POSTINDUSTRIAL ECONOMICS
 Based on tertiary sector production as a primary source of livelihood for workers and profit for owners and corporate
shareholders. Tertiary production – wide range of activities like fast food service, transportation , communication,
education, real estate, advertising, and entertainment.
 Some characteristics are :
a. Information displaces property as the central preoccupation in the economy ( characterized by ideas and computer
software become the infrastructure in the future.)
b. Workplace culture shifts from factories and toward increased diversification of work settings, the workday, the
employee and the manager.( Many are employed but many also are being affected by layoffs and outsourcing.
Many are removed , workers are expected to do additional tasks than previously they are assigned.)
c. The conventional boundaries between work and home are breached. ( Cellphones, fax machines, laptop, computers
, make possible for people to work around the clock from locations around the globe.)
CONTEMPORARY WORLD ECONOMIC SYSTEM TYPES :
1.Capitalism – preindustrial societies ( land worked was a source of virtually all wealth); industrial revolution changed all. Requires
individuals to take risks inorder to finance new inventions, machinery and business enterprises. Bankers, industrialists, and other
holders of large sums of money replaced landowners as the most powerful economic force. People invested their funds in the hope
of realizing greater profit and became owners of property and business company.
 Transition to private ownership was accompanied by the rise of capitalist economic system.
 An economic system which the means of production are held largely in private hands and main incentive for economic
activity is the accumulation of profits. Capitalist system vary in degree to which the government regulates private ownership
and economic activity.
 Industrial Revolution ( the dominant form of capitalism is laissez-faire – let them do). Business retained the right to regulate
itself and operated without dear of government regulation.
 Features extensive government regulation of economic relations . Business companies can mislead consumers, endanger
the safety of workers , and defraud the companies investors.This is the reason why the government of capitalist nation
monitor priced, sets safety , and environmental standards , protects the rights of consumers and regulates collective
bargaining.
 Contemporary capitalism tolerates monopolistic practices. Monopoly – a single business company controls the market.
Domination allows the company to control a commodity by dictating pricing , stands of quality, and availability.Buyers have
little choice ; there is no other place to purchase the product. Monopolistic practices violate the free competition valued by
supporters of laissez-faire .
 Market forces – supply and demand – determine what shall be produced and the prices that will be charged.
2.Socialism – the means of production and distribution are owned by the people.Government as the representative of the people,
plays a major role in socialist countries China, Cuba, and Vietnam. Major function of economy is to produce goods to meet human
needs. Through centralized planning many things are determined ( what gets produced; how much will be produced; what price will
it be sold; for whom will the goods be). Private enterprise is illegal.
 Socialist economies , the government owns the means of production – not only the factories but also lands, railroads, oil
wells, gold mines.
 A central committee decides that the country needs number of toothbrushes, number of toilets and et. This committee
decides how many of each shall be produced ; which factories will produce them; the prices that will be charged , where
they will be distributed.
  Everyone works for the government. Member of the central committee set production goals are government employees,
supervisors – implement goals; factory worker—produce the merchandise; truck drivers – move it ; clerks – sell it.
 Designed to eliminate competition; goods are sold at predetermined prices ; profit is not the objective; nor encouraging
consumption of goods in low demand ( low price) ,nor limiting the consumption of hard to get goods ( raising the price).
The goal is to produce goods for the general welfare and to distribute them according to people’s needs , not their ability
to pay.
 Democratic or warfare socialism – production remains largely in private hands but the distribution of essential services is in
public responsibility ; involves very high rates of taxation . In return citizens receive family allowances, health insurance,
and other benefits.
CRITISM OF CAPITALISM AND SOCIALISM
 In capitalism it leads to social inequalities. Produces tiny top layer consisting of wealthy , powerful people, who exploit a
vast bottom layer of poorly paid worker who are unemployed and underemployed.
 Underemployment – having to work at a job lower than one’s training and abilities or being able to find only part – time
work.
 In socialism , it does not respect individual rights. It also controls people’s lives – making decisions about where they will
work , how much they will be paid , and in the case of China, even how many children they will have.
THE INFORMAL ECONOMY – transfers of money, goods, and services take place without being reported to the
government.Examples: trading services, a haircut for a computer lesson , selling goods on the street, engaging in illegal transactions
such as gambling and drug deals.Participants in this kind of economy avoid taxes and government regulations. Also known as the
underground economy or the off – the -- books economy. Consists of both legal and illegal economic activities that people do not
report to the government . Another part of the informal economy is illegal immigrants who enter in the country. Often called
undocumented workers, they work for employers who either pay no attention Social Security cards or pay them in cash. They do
housework, pick lettuce on farms, see garments in secret sweatshops , clean rooms in hotels, and serve food in restaurants.
 Developing nations, informal economy represents a significant and unmeasured part of total economic activity. Because of
this sector the economy depends to a large extent on the labor of women , work in the information economy is undervalued
or even unrecognized all over the world.
FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE. – economy as vital social institution because it is the means by which needed goods and services are
produced and distributed. As economy run smoothly other parts of the society may function more effectively.if the system is
unbalanced, such as when the demand does not keep up with production, a maladjustment occurs. Problems such as period of
peaks (high points ) and trough (low points) in the business cycle is difficult to resolve. Business cycle – rise and fall of economic
activity relative to long term growth in the economy
CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE—business cycle are the result of capitalist greed. To maximize profits, capitalist suppress the wages of
workers. As the prices of products goes up , workers not able to buy them in the quantities that that have been produced.Resulting
surpluses cause capitalist to r duce production, close factories, and lay – off workers , thus contributing to the growth of
unemployment. Presence of unemployed reduce wages of the remaining workers. Workers are replaced by machines or non-
unionized worker.
 Karl Marx – maximize profits by reducing wages as the falling rate of profit ( inherent contradiction of capitalism)
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE – work is an important piece of self identity
It can help feel positive about themselves , or it can cause alienated. Job Satisfaction – people’s attitudes toward their work based
on : job responsibilities, the organizational structure in which they work, their individual needs and values. Related to intrinsic and
extrinsic factors. Intrinsic factors – the nature of work itself ; Extrinsic factors – vacation and holiday policies , parking privileged, on
site day care centers, and other amenities that contribute to workers overall perception that their employers care about them.
ALIENATION – workers needs for self-identity and meaning are not met and when work is done strictly for material gain, not a sense
of personal satisfaction.
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF WORK
1.Occupations – categories of jobs that involve similar activities at different work sites . Classified as Blue—collar and white – collar.
Blue –collar workers – factory and craft workers who did manual labor; while white – collar workers – office workers and
professionals. Pink –collar workers – women, who are employed in occupations such as preschool teacher, dental assistant,
secretary and clerk. Primary labor market – high paying jobs with good benefits that have some degree of security and the possibility
of future advancement . Secondary labor market – low paying jobs with few benefits and very little job security or possibility for
future advancement . Some are hazardous working conditions and unscrupulous employers.
2.Professions – high status , knowledge based occupation that have four major characteristics :
a. Abstract, specialized knowledge – Professionals have abstract, specialized knowledge of their field based on formal
education and interaction.
b. Autonomy – autonomous because they rely on their own judgment in selecting the relevant knowledge or the appropriate
technique for dealing with a problem.
c. Self – regulation – all professionals have licensing , accreditation, and regulatory associations that set professional standards
and require members to adhere to a code of ethics.
d. Authority – based on mastery of the body of specialized knowledge and on their professions autonomy. Professional do
not expect the client to argue about the professional advice rendered.
3.Managers – wide variety of occupations are classified as ' management' positions. Generic term is manager – executives, managers
and administrators . Executives – those at the upper level of a workplace bureaucracy. Administrators – work for governmental
bureaucracies or organizations ( health, education, or welfare such as hospitals, college’s, and universities and nursing homes ) are
usually appointed. Managers – have responsibility for workers , physical plants, equipment, and the financial aspect of bureaucratic
organization.
4.Lower – Tier Positions – part of the secondary labor market characterized by low wages, little job security, few chances for
advancement, higher unemployment rates, very limited unemployment benefits. Like caretaker, wait staff, sales clerk, typist, fil
clerk, migrant laborer , and textile worker.
5.Contingent Work -- part—time work , temporary work, or subcontracted work that offers advantages to employers but that can
be disadvantageous to the workers welfare. Found in every segment of the work force, including colleges and universities. Employers
benefit in hiring part time workers ( able to cut costs, maximize profits, have workers available only when they need them).
POLITICS – power relations in a society and a reality of everyday life. Process which people gain, use, and lose power .
POWER – Ability to carry out one’s will ,.even over the resistance of others. Political institution or government – determines how
power is obtained or exercised
TYPES OF POWERS:
1.Legitimate power ( influence and authority)
a. Influence – ability to control others behavior through persuasion rather than coercion or authority.
b. Authority – power people grant others because they believe that those in power have the right to command and that they
themselves have the duty to obey.
2.Illigitimate power ( coercion)
a. Coercion – use of physical force or threats to exert control
TYPES OF AUTHORITY
 Max Weber believed that political institution must rest on a stable form of power for it to function and serve. Authority –
stable form of power.Have three forms :
a. Traditional authority – government on the past rely on ; rooted in custom and traditions ; power legitimized through
respect for long established cultural patterns. Kings are appointed by gods or have divine rights. Kings are recognized
by people as sacred. Industrialization diminished the significance of traditional authority yet it still exist. Parents
have the authority over their children because it is the practice.
b. Rational – legal authority – power resides on the legally enacted rules and regulations which are inherent in the
offices rather than in the officials of the government. Those who hold the government are expected to operate on
the specific rules and procedures that define and limit their rights and responsibilities. Authority invested in the
position rather than on the individuals , people lose their authority once they no longer occupy their positions in
power. Individual loses its power whenever he or she abuses it, or exercised it beyond what is authorized by law.
c. Charismatic authority – Weber , power could be transformed into authority through charisma . Arises from the
leaders personal characteristics. Charismatic individual is someone to whom people are drawn because they
believed that person has been touched by God or has been endowed by nature with exceptional qualities. Examples
: Jesus Christ, Mahatma Gandhi, Joan of Arc, and Nelson Mandela.
 Charismatic alone is not stable to provide permanent basis of power because power is linked with the
individual. Poses the threat over governments. Monarchs action is guided by traditions,while president’s
power is sanctioned by law.
 Charismatic leaders rule according to its inclination , they can inspire or disregard traditional or rational -
legal authorities . Example : History of Adolf Hitler.
TYPES OF GOVERNMENT
 Leaders are appointed because it is mandated by law.
1.Monarchy – political system which power resides in the personage of an individual or family and is passed from one generation
to the next through lines of inheritance. Gain legitimacy from traditional authority. Typical in ancient agrarian societies. Primary
form of governance in 12th and 16th century feudal Europe.
a. Absolute Monarchy – hereditary rules claimed a monopoly of power based on divine rights , was being practiced. Formerly
all powerful royal families have been either dethroned or relegated to peripheral roles largely associated with ceremonial
functions or referred to as constitutional monarchies . Except in Saudi Arabia
2.Democracy – political system that gives power to the people as a whole . Concept of democracy originated in 15th century Greece,
which involved all citizens in self-government. ( Direct democracy)
 Today ( representative democracy ) – political system which citizens elect representatives who are supposed to make
decisions that express the wishes of the majority who elect them to office. Leaders are accountable to the people.
Participation is limited to voting; they retain to appoint and replace their public officials through institutionalized mean.
 More economically developed the country is, the more democratic it becomes.
3.Authoritarianism – ordinary members of the society are denied the right to participate in government. The government is
controlled by elected or non-elected rulers who has low limited personal freedom . One form of authoritarianism is dictatorship –
power of the government rests on a single individual.
 Indifferent to people’s needs, lacks legal mechanisms to remove leaders from office and gives people little or no way to
voice their opinions.
4.Totalitarianism – denies popular participation in government ; controls all aspects of people’s public and personal lives. The leader
has absolute power over the people . It has four characteristics : ( single party , typically controlled by one person ; well coordinated
campaign of terror ; total control of all means of communication ; planned economy directed by a state bureaucracy. Example:
Hitler’s Nazi Germany and Korea.
FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE – state is believed to achieve social goals and social order. Looking the roles of government :
a. Pluralism – government achieve social goals by working out the differences that arise between individuals and groups whose
interests conflict with one another. Governments have the responsibility to balance these various interests and public
welfare . Major political decisions are made because of competition of several interest groups. Interest group – group
organized to influence political decision making. Have their own stake in the issues. They may be short – lived ( student
groups wanting to change the school administration) or long lasting ( labor unions and farmers organization ). Have varying
degrees of resources, influence and capabilities.
 Pluralism believes that the power in the society is widely spread among interest groups. Sees politics as a area of negotiation
with limited resources, no organization can expect to achieve all of its goals
CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE – focus on the coercive and divisive aspects of political institutions. State, as the ultimate source of power
in society , is an important source employed by some groups to gain and maintain control over other groups. C.Wright Mills claimed
that people in areas of military, economy, and politics formed a unified group called power elites. Members of power elite share
common interests and similar social and economic backgrounds . He also explained that this elites moved from one section to
another, building power as they go. Power of elite Model , the preference of the power elite is the basis of public policy decisions.
a. Marxist political economy model – analysis that explains politics in terms of the operation of the societies economic system
. He believed that a country’s economic system shaped it’s political system. Power is created by capitalism. Role of
government in capitalist society is to directly serve the interests of the capitalist class or the owners of the large industries,
corporations, and businesses.
POLITICS AND VIOLENCE
 Politics involve decision over society’s goals, resources, and various interest of several groups. Political institution are made
to maintain social order and Tere are instances wherein order breaks down.
a. Revolution – social movements aimed at the violent overthrow of the existing government to establish another. No
type of political system is immune nor does revolution produce any one particular kind of government. American
Revolution – changed the British rule in the U.S. into a representative democracy; French Revolution – overthrow
the monarchy in France ; Russian Revolution – changed the monarchy with socialist government ; Iranian Revolution
– replaced the secular rule of the Shahs with Islamic fundamentalists rule ; 1986 EDSA Revolution – end dictator
rule of Marcos . Characteristics of revolution :
1. Rising expectations – poverty does not produce revolution . Revolutions throughout history happened when
people’s lives are improving . People have been living in poverty for so long, they live in misery and attribute
it to fate. When their lives get better, they may have hope. These rising expectations make revolutions.
2. Weak and unresponsive government – failed to resolve one problem over the other. Gradually loses its
legitimacy. Government tries to initiate reforms but unusually may be too little or too late. Revolution occur
because of the refusal of the government to initiate reforms.
3. Radical leadership by intellectuals – group of intellectual leaders or opinion leaders such as journalist,.
Poets, teachers, clergy, lawyers are extremely dissatisfied with the society , well demand reforms from the
government , criticism it or withdraw support. Discontent may arise from the elites.
4. Establishing a new legitimacy – overthrowing of political system is not easy, but ensuring revolutions long-
term success is harder still. Revolutionaries must also protect the opposition of the counterevolutionsries
led by overthrown leaders.
b. Terrorism – people do not support the revolutionary movement and the go is not vulnerable, violent protests against it.
 Act of violence or the threat of such violence used as a political strategy by an individual or group. Paul Johnson’s
four characteristics of distinguishing terrorism : terrorist try to paint violence as a legitimate political tactic. used
as a strategy to express dissatisfaction on the government . use violence to topple it down. terrorist bypass
established channels or political negotiations. Extrainstitutional means are observed to be a weak organizations
strategy against a stronger enemy.
 Second , terrorism is used by the government against their own people. State terrorism is the use of violence,
without support of law, by government officials. Considered lawful in authoritarian and totalitarian states.
 Third , democratic societies reject terrorism in principle, but are especially vulnerable to terrorist because they give
extensive civil liberties to their people and have less extensive police networks
 Fourth, terrorism is always a matter of definition . Some may define one a terrorist while other a freedom fighter.
c. War – most destructive force on earth. State has a monopoly on violence, and it may direct violence on other states. Defined
as organized , armed conflict among people of various nations, directed by their governments. War is just an option ,
together with revolution and terrorism , groups, choose when dealing with disagreements.According to Nicolas Timasheff
there are three essential conditions for war to occur : First is cultural tradition of war. War has been used to settle
disputesdisputes in the past , and leaders of a nation see it as a viable option in dealing with serious agreements. Second,
an antagonistic situation in which two or more states confront incompatible objectives . Disputes over land territories. Third,
a fuel that heats the antagonistic situation to a boiling point , so that people cross the line from thinking about war to
actually engaging in it.
 Fuels generate antagonistic situations in war. These fuels could be one or more of the following circumstances:
1. Gain revenge
2. Dictate will over a weaker nation
3. Enhance or preserve a nations honor
4. Unite rival groups within a country
5. Protect or exalt their own position
6. Satisfy the national aspirations of ethnic groups, bringing under their rule who are living in another
country
7. Forcibly convert others to religious and ideological beliefs.
 Another cost of war is dehumanization – people no longer see others as worthy of human treatment.