SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

•PREPARED BY PHYSICS STAFF, DESH,VISHWAKARMA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, PUNE

APPLIED PHYSICS (ES104THL) AND
ENGINEERING PHYSICS (ES156THL)

Unit 6: Superconductivity and Magnetic

Materials
Superconductivity
Syllabus:-

Properties (Zero Resistance, Meissner Effect, Critical

Fields, Persistent Currents, Critical Current Density,
London Penetration Depth, Isotope Effect), Type I and II
Superconductors, BCS Theory, High Tc Superconductors
and it’s preparation, DC and AC Josephson Effect,
Applications: Superconducting Quantum Interference
Devices (SQUID), Superconducting Computer,
Transmission Lines, Superconducting Magnets, Maglev
Trains etc.
Superconductivity
Discovery of Superconductivity
Superconductivity was first discovered in
1911 by the Dutch Physicist, Heike
Kammerlingh Onnes

• 1908 - liquefied helium

(~4 K = - 452°
452°F )
• 1911
1911-- investigated low
temperature resistance of
mercury
• 1913 - Nobel Prize in physics
 What is Superconductivity ?
• The sudden disappearance of electrical resistance
in a material below a certain critical temperature
is called as Superconductivity

• The materials which exhibit superconductivity

and which are in the superconducting state are
called superconductors
 Continued…..
• The temperature at which a normal material turns
into a superconductor is called as Transition
temperature or Critical temperature (Tc)
• T of Some Superconductors
c

• Aluminium - 1.1 K
• Tin - 3.72 K
• Mercury - 4.2 K
• Lead - 7.2 K
 Continued…..
• The superconducting state is influenced by
temperature, magnetic field and current

• A superconducting material exhibits zero

electrical resistivity and complete diamagnetism

• Superconducting state is influenced by the

interaction between electrons and lattice
vibrations
 Effect of Low temperature on resistivity
Normal conductors R= R0 at T=0
Tc  critical temperature
Superconductors  R=0 at T<Tc
Sudden drop in resistance

Resistance ceases

Superconducting Sudden drop in resistance

state
 Continued…..

• In general the electrical resistance of metal

decreases gradually as temperature is lowered

• However, on account of impurities

impurities,, crystal
defects,, in normal metals there is some value of
defects
resistivity is shown even at absolute zero i.e.
resistance ceases
 Cause of resistivity
• Thermal vibrations of atoms i.e. lattice
vibrations, presence of impurities or imperfection
in lattice scatters the conduction electrons
• This scattering of conduction electrons causes
the resistance/resistivity in metals
1
• Generally, according to free electron theory,  
where  is resistivity and  is relaxation
time;; which is the time spent between two
time
successive collisions by electrons
 Cause of resistivity
• As the temperature is decreased the relaxation
time increases and hence resistance decreases
decreases..
• Also, at very low temperature the lattice
vibrations freeze completely
• This means that, lattice contribution to resistance
decreases while the impurity contribution remains
approximately const so, at T=
T=00K R = Const
 Properties of Superconductors

• Zero electrical resistance

• Isotope effect
• Magnetic flux expulsion or Meissner effect
• Effect of external magnetic field
• Critical current density
• London penetration depth
 1. Zero Resistance
• A superconductor is characterized by Zero resistance
• If there is voltage drop across the material then it is a
conductor and if no voltage drop then a
superconductor..
superconductor
 2. Isotope effect
• This effect was independently discovered
by Maxwell and Reynolds

• Tc  M-1/2 or Tc•M1/2 = constant.

constant.

• Superconducting state is influenced by the

interaction between electrons and lattice
vibrations
 2. Isotope effect
• Critical temperature decreases with increase
in isotopic mass.

Isotopic Mass Critical

(Mercury) Temperature
199.5 4.185 K
203 4.16 K
 3. Meissner effect
• 1933 – Walther Meissner and Robert
Ochsenfeld found striking behavior of
Superconducting material
• When a superconductor below its Tc when
placed in external magnetic field then
magnetic flux are perfectly expelled from the
interior of a superconductor
superconductor.. This
phenomenon is called as Meissner Effect
• Note :-
:- Strong external magnetic fields can
destroy superconductivity
 3. Continued….

Non SC material

a. Material (Tin) Sample at Normal state (T >Tc) Flux

penetration in external magnetic field
b. Material (Tin) Sample is cooled in magnetic field (T<T
(T<Tc)
c. No flux penetration rather magnetic flux expulsion
When external magnetic field is removed.
removed. No magnetic
field is trapped inside SC. (PERFECT DIAMAGNETIC
B=0)
 3. Continued….
• H – externally applied magnetic field.
• B – magnetic induction inside the specimen.
• M – magnetization produced within the sample.
• T > Tc  normal state B = 0 (H + M).
• T < Tc
– resistance = zero
– magnetic field is expelled out of superconductor
(i.e. induction=0)
– B = 0  0 (H + M) = 0  H = - M
– Magnetic susceptibility =  = M / H = -1
• This is the property of perfect diamagnetic material
• Hence, SC are PERFECT DIAMAGNETIC
 3. Continued….
• Magnetic susceptibility =  = M / H = -1
• Superconducting state is characterized by
PERFECT DIAMAGNETISM

• Thus, in Superconductors its not just zero

resistivity but also perfect diamagnetism
 4. Effect of external Magnetic Field
• The minimum applied magnetic field necessary to
destroy the superconductivity and restore the
normal resistivity is called as Critical Field (Hc)
Hc)

Hc(0) : Critical magnetic

field at 0 K
4. Effect of external Magnetic Field
• Superconducting state remains 
Not only if T<Tc But also H<
H<H Hc

• T<Tc  materials remains SC below

a certain value of magnetic field i.e.
Critical Field (Hc
(Hc))

>Hc Superconducting state gets

• H >H
destroyed and transition to normal
state
 4. Effect of external Magnetic Field
• This means that if a sample in superconducting state
(T<Tc) and if applied field (H
(H >H
>Hc ) then the sample
goes to normal state loose superconducting property

• This Critical Field (Hc) is a function of Temperature

• The required Critical field (Hc) to destroy the

superconducting state at absolute zero will be the
highest hence, Hc (0) > Hc (T)
5. Persistent current
 5. Continued …
• SC ring is placed in a magnetic field
• T < Tc  superconducting state
• External magnetic field induces a current in the
sample which circulates on the surface of the
specimen
– If external field switched off  current
continues to flow
• Current can persists for more than 105 years
• Does not need external power to maintain
circulating current
• No I2R losses
losses.. Hence, called as Persistent
Current
 5. Continued …
• Persistent Current circulating in SC ring creates
magnetic field everywhere around it and which
is equal and opposite to external magnetic field
in which it has placed .

• This equal and opposite magnetic field do not

allow external magnetic field to enter into SC

• Hence, Magnetic Flux are repelled and we get

B=00 and thus observes Meissner Effect
B=
 6. Critical current density (Jc)

• If external magnetic is applied to a SC

SC,, an induced
current flows in the SC ring

• As a result of this current flow,

flow, a magnetic field is
produced in SC ring

• If this magnetic field inside the SC ring exceeds

Hc, superconductivity is destroyed.
destroyed.
 6. Critical current density (Jc)
• Critical current density (Jc
(Jc):
):-- It is maximum
current density at which SC vanishes

• J = Jc  SC vanishes J <J
<Jc  current can
sustains

• SC not only depend upon T and H but also on J

• For SC state it is mandatory :- :-
T<Tc , H<Hc
H<Hc and J<Jc J<Jc
Critical current density is a limit for maximum
current which a SC can sustain
 6. Critical current density (Jc)
• Critical Current (Ic
(Ic):
):-- The current through SC
which destroys superconducting properties

• Expression for critical current  Ic=2RHc

=2
• For Maintaining SC State I < Ic

• Note :-
:- The current circulating inside the wire I is
also responsible to produce the magnetic field H

• Hence when H=Hc

H=Hc then I=Ic
I=Ic so SC is lost
 7. London Penetration Depth ()

λL- London λL- As function of temperature

Penetration depth
 7. London Penetration Depth ()
• During superconducting state ,the applied
magnetic field in the superconductor does not
suddenly drop to zero at the surface but decays
exponentially as

Ba:- Magnetic field at the surface

Ba:-
B inside :-
:- Magnetic field inside the specimen
 7. London Penetration Depth ()
• London Penetration Depth (λ ( L):
):--
It is the distance, inside the superconductor at
which magnetic field falls to (1/e) times the
magnetic field at the surface
London Penetration Depth (λ ( L) depends on the
temperature (T)
 Type –I and Type
Type--II
Superconductor
• Superconductors are divided into two
categories depending on the way in which
the transition from superconducting to
normal state proceeds when the externally
applied magnetic field exceeds Hc
Type –I Superconductor

Sharp transition from SC state to normal state

 Type –I and Type
Type--II
Superconductor

Sharp transition from SC state to normal state

 Type –I Superconductor
• Magnetic field is applied externally and
increased continuously.
• H < Hc  perfectly diamagnetic
• H is increased  magnetization of the
material increases proportionally
 Type –I Superconductor
• H = Hc
– Magnetic field penetrates completely
– Sharp transition from SC state to Normal
conducting state
– Leads to normal conducting state
– Shows complete Meissner effect hence
Perfect diamagnetic
• They have only one critical field and at the
critical field magnetization drops to zero
• Highest value of Hc is of the order of 0.1
Wb/m
Wb /m2
 Type –I Superconductor
• Also known as “soft
“soft superconductors.”
superconductors.”
• There is no mixed state or intermediate
state
• Generally, pure elements (Lead, Tin,
Mercury )
• Can not carry large currents hence are not
of much use in producing high magnetic
fields
Type –I Superconductor
(Examples)

Element Tc (K)

Mercury 4.153
Lead 7.193
Aluminum 1.196
Tin 3.722
Zinc 0.85
Titanium 0.39
 Type –II Superconductor

Between Hc1 and Hc2 there is a mixed state also called Vortex state
 Type –II Superconductor
• Magnetic field is applied externally
and increased continuously
• H < Hc1
– superconducting state ,perfect diamagnetic,
Complete Meissner effect
– M  with  in H
• Hc1 > H < Hc2
– Do not show complete Meissner effect
– Partial flux penetration
– Forms intermediate state known as Vortex state
– Electrically  SC
– Hc2 > 100 times Hc(
Hc( required for Type –I SC)
• H > Hc2
– Magnetization vanishes completely
– External field penetrates
– Normal state of conductor
 Type –II Superconductor

They have two critical fields , Hc1 and Hc2

Below lower critical field Hc1 the material is perfect

diamagnetic and Meissner effect is complete

Above upper critical field, Hc2 magnetic flux enters in

the specimen

Magnetization vanishes gradually

 Type –II Superconductor
Also known as Hard Superconductors

Generally alloys :- Nbn, lead indium alloys

Large Hc values and they produce very high magnetic

field

Between Hc1-Hc2 they can carry large current

Have , large industrial applications

When superconductivity became
clear: BCS THEORY

Cooper Bardeen Schrieffer

 BCS Theory

Bardeen Cooper Schrieffer

• Microscopic Theory of Superconductivity
• Electrical resistance due to collision of electrons with
vibrating ions of lattice
• In normal state the force between the electrons is
repulsive .
• In SC state the force between electrons become
attractive due to formation of Cooper Pairs
 BCS Theory

Bardeen Cooper Schrieffer

• Prime features of BCS Theory
• 1. Electrons form pairs called as Cooper pairs which
propagate throughout the lattice
• 2. It must be noted that Cooper Pair formation is
energetically favored at very low temperature.
• 3. Such ordered Cooper pairs with high density drift
cooperatively,, with small velocity through the
cooperatively
material minimizing collisions thereby leading for
zero resistance.
resistance.
BCS Theory
• Key concept:
concept: Electron – lattice – Electron interaction
• Electron (-(- charge) approaches an ion in the lattice (+ charge)
Coulomb attraction between electron (e1) and lattice ion and electron
experiences attractive force
– The interaction produces distortion in lattice and which travels as a
mechanical wave – known as Phonon
– This causes increase in the density of ions in the region of
distortion of the lattice
– Slight increase in positive charges around electron (e1)
– This increased positive charge ( caused by electron and
surrounding lattice ions ) attract another electron (e2)
– (e1)-lattice -(e2) forms a bound pair is known as Cooper pair which is
energetically possible very low temperature as the energy of this
bound pair is less than that of two unpaired electrons
BCS Theory
• Actually , when another electron comes near the distorted lattice the
phonon interacts with the second electron there is force of attraction
between second electron and phonon
• Thus, through the lattice vibration (phonon) the first (e1) is coupled the
second -(e2) with attractive force
BCS Theory
• Flow of Cooper pair
– leading electron causes increase of charge
– trailing electron is attracted by it
– They moves on without suffering any
deviation either by impurities or thermal
vibration
– No energy exchange with the lattice
– Hence they won’t get slowed down
– So there is no resistivity and the
conduction is large
BCS Theory
• The motion of all Cooper pairs is correlated.
• The superconducting state is an ordered state
with the least energy.
• This causes an energy gap (Eg
(Eg)) between
superconducting state and the first excited
state
• The energy gap represents the energy required
to break up a Cooper Pair.
• Hence, larger the energy gap more stable is
the superconductor.
BCS Theory
BCS Theory
 High Tc Superconductors
• SC whose Tc value is > 77K are called as High Tc
SC
• First high-Tc superconductor was discovered in 1986
by IBM researchers Karl Müller and Johannes
Bednorz
• Several new oxides superconductors have Tc have
90K.In general, High Tc SC are ceramic materials
• They are prepared from oxides of Barium, Copper,
Yettrium.. They are different types of Copper
Yettrium
 High Tc Superconductors
• All high Tc SC bear a particular type of crystal
structure called as Perovskite structure
• It has found that addition of extra copper oxygen
layers into the structure of SC copper oxide
complexes pushes Tc to Higher values
• Eg :YBa2Cu3O7
• Unit cell of (YBCO) SC

• Also called as 1-
1-2-3 SC
Preparation of High Tc Superconductors
• The simplest method to prepare ceramic SC is called
as ‘Shake and Bake’ method which involves 4-4-step
process:
• Mixing the chemicals
• Calcination (Initial Firing)
• The intermediate firing(s) (Oxygen Annealing)
• The final oxygen Annealing
The more the duration of intermediate firing
and oxygen annealing the better the SC
Preparation of High Tc Superconductors
• Step-
Step-1 Mixing the chemicals
• The starting mix is a gray powder made by
thoroughly mixing Yttrium Oxide ,Barium
Carbonate and Cupric oxide in the ratio 1:2:3
• Hence this SC is also called as 1-2-3 SC
Preparation of High Tc Superconductors
• Step-
Step-2 Calcination (Initial firing)
925--9500 C for 18-
• The mixture is heated at 925 18-24
hrs by keeping it in an alumina evaporating dish
• This forms the basic crystal structure of
YBa2Cu3O6.5 and get rid of CO2 from Barium
oxide
• This firing results into porous black or very
dark gray clump and the material seem to
shrink
 Preparation of High Tc Superconductors
• Step-
Step-3 Intermediate firing (oxygen annealing)
• The porous black clump is ground to fine powder
and placed in in furnace in alumina dish
• A slow flow of Oxygen is introduced into the
furnace after its temp reaches to 500 0 C and this
continues till the temp of furnace reaches in
925--9500 C for 18 hrs called Oxygen
between 925
annealing
• Cooling done at rate >1000 C <2000 C per hr
• Oxygen flow is maintained till temp of the furnace
drops below 400 0 C
•
 Preparation of High Tc Superconductors
• Step-
Step-4 Final oxygen annealing
• The sample after step 3 is ground to fine black
powder and placed back in furnace in alumina
dish and packed densely
• The sample is heated in between 9500-10000 C for
18 hrs. Won’t allow to go the temp >10000 C
• Cooling done at rate >1000 C per hr
• Plenty Oxygen flow is maintained through out the
cooling
• The superconducting disk sample can be obtained
from the alumina dish
•
 Josephson Effect
• In 1962, Brian Josephson predicted about Tunneling
of cooper pairs through an insulating layer, separating
the two superconductors is known as Josephson
Effect
• The superconductor-
superconductor-insulator
insulator--superconductor
junction thus formed is known as Josephson junction
• The insulator layer is of 10 nm thick.
• Types:
Types:-- 1) dc 2) ac Josephson effects
• Cooper pairs are represented by a wave function,
which is same for all pairs
Josephson Effect
Josephson Effect
Josephson Effect
Josephson Effect
 DC Josephson Effect
• Across the Josephson junction applied voltage is
zero. (V=0V)
• The insulating layer introduces a phase difference
between the wave functions of Cooper pairs from
one and the other side of the layer .
• Due to phase difference, a super current constant
in time appears across the junction even though
applied voltage is zero.
• This is known as D.C. Josephson effect.
D.C. Josephson Effect
 AC Josephson Effect
• Across the Josephson junction a dc voltage is
applied (V >0V)
• Application of voltage (V) introduces additional
phase on cooper pairs during tunneling. Cooper
pairs get accelerated
• This cause Cooper pairs
pairs to gain of energy 2eV)
• As the Cooper pairs are not allowed to alter their
energy while tunneling, a photon of the frequency
f = 2eV/h is emitted which leads to flow of an ac
current across the junction..
• This is known as A.C. Josephson effect.
A.C. Josephson Effect
 Applications of Superconductors

• SC Wires
• Power Generation
• Superconducting Magnets
• Transportation – Maglev trains
• Medical
• Computers & Electronics
• SQUID
• Particle Acceleration
 Superconducting wires

• R=0  no I2R losses

• No energy dissipation.
dissipation Transmits 3 to 5 times more energy than
copper wire
• Current persists
• Useful for power transmission
 Power Generation

Electrical Generators
– Above 99% efficient
– Half size of conventional
generators
– 2 times overload capacity
without insulation damage
and environmentally friendly
due to lack of oil used in
operation.
Distributed Superconducting
Magnetic Energy Storage System (D-(D-
SMES)
– Reserves of over 3 million watts
– To stabilize line voltage during
grid disturbance
 Superconducting Magnets
• Conventional magnetic material iron can
produce field of only up to 2 Tesla but
causes losses
A 5000- • SC MAGNETS-
MAGNETS- Zero Resistivity
• High magnetic field (>105 Gauss or 10
horsepower
motor made with Tesla OR even up to 50 Tesla)
superconducting • Light weight, high intensity, compact
wire by magnets
American • Replacing gigantic water-
water-cooled copper
Superconductor conductor magnets dissipating several
megawatts of electricity as heat dissipation
• Uses in electrical power industry, motor
winding, electromagnetic pumps
• Medicine – NMR (Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance)
• High energy physics experiments
 Transportation - MagLev
• When SC magnet is brought near a permanent
magnet there is strong repulsive force between
them. This force causes the lighter one to float
over the other . This is Magnetic Levitation

The Yamanashi MLX01 MagLev train The German Transrapid

MagLev train
Japan's maglev train breaks world speed record
with 600km/h in test run
 Transportation - MagLev
• SC magnets on board
– Magnetic field induces current in the coils on
track
– Attraction/repulsion between coils and
magnets
– Magnetic field is used for levitation and
lateral guidance
• Careful and timed interactions propel train
forward
• Train floats without contacting the railway
track resulting zero friction between them
Transportation - MagLev
 Transportation - MagLev

• Advantages
• 1) Faster mode of transport 2) Pollution free Eco
friendly 3) Friction less so less maintenance 4)
Less energy consumption 5) precisely controlled
5) economical
 SQUID
• Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices
• Detect magnetic flux even below 2pT, Famto tesla.
tesla.
• Most sensitive magnetic field detector
• Uses of SQUID
– Non
Non--destructive corrosion testing
– Magnetoencephalography (MEG) – observing neural
activities inside the brain
– Foetal examination
– Study of magnetic properties of material.
– Oil prospecting, mineral exploration, earthquake
prediction, geothermal energy survey, etc.
SQUID
SQUID
 SQUID
Josephson predicted that a superconducting current can be
sustained in the loop, even if its path is interrupted by an
insulating barrier.

The SQUID has two such barriers or ‘Josephson junctions’.

Presence of magnetic field causes to change quantum
mechanical phase difference

Both junctions introduce the same phase difference when the

magnetic flux through the loop is 0, Φ0, 2Φ0 and so on, which
results in constructive interference

and they introduce opposite phase difference when the flux is

Φ0/2, 3Φ0/2 and so on, which leads to destructive interference.
 SQUID
This interference causes the current density, which is the
maximum current that the device can carry without
dissipation, to vary.

The current is so sensitive to the magnetic flux through the

superconducting loop that even tiny magnetic moments can be
measured.

Commercial SQUIDs transform the modulation in the

current to a voltage modulation, which is much easier to
measure.
Detecting neural activities inside the brain
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is a physical
phenomenon in which nuclei in a magnetic field absorb and re-
emit electromagnetic radiation.
This energy is at a specific resonance frequency which depends
on the strength of the magnetic field and the magnetic
properties of the isotope of the atoms

All isotopes that contain an odd number of protons and/or of

neutrons have an intrinsic magnetic moment and nuclides with
even numbers of both have a total spin of zeroangular
momentum, in other words a nonzero spin, while all . The most
commonly studied nuclei are 1H and 13C, although nuclei from
isotopes of many other elements (e.g. 2H, 6Li, )
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
The principle of NMR usually involves two sequential
steps:
The alignment (polarization) of the magnetic nuclear
spins in an applied, constant magnetic field H0.

The perturbation of this alignment of the nuclear

spins by employing an electro-magnetic, usually radio
frequency (RF) pulse.

The required perturbing frequency is dependent upon

the static magnetic field (H0) and the nuclei of
observation.
A 900 MHz NMR SYSTEM
(Oxford Instruments )