Superconducting Materials

Temperature dependence of resistance in metals:

All metals are good conductors of electricity since they have loosely bound electrons
(free) called valence electrons. These free electrons can readily move under the influence of
electric field. When an atom looses an electron, the atom becomes positive ion core. Due to
the thermal excitation, the positive ions will be oscillating about their mean position, which
is termed as Lattice vibration. Resistance (R) offered by a metal to the flow of current is
due to the scattering of conduction electrons by lattice vibrations.
The temperature dependence of resistivity (ρ) of a metal is shown in Figure. Electrical
resistivity (or resistance) of a metal decreases with the decrease in temperature of a metal
and reaches a minimum value at T = 0. As the temperature of the metal is decreased,
the lattice vibration also decreases thereby decreasing the resistivity in the metal. It can
be observed from the figure that, the resistivity has a minimum value at T = 0 K, called
Residual resistivity, which is due to the presence of impurities in the metal.

Superconductivity
The resistance offered by certain materials to the flow of electric current abruptly drops
to zero below a threshold temperature. This phenomenon is called Superconductivity and
the threshold temperature is called Critical temperature (Tc ). The materials that exhibit
superconductivity and which are in the superconducting state are called Superconductors.
Superconductivity was discovered by Kamarlingh Onnes in the year 1911.

Temperature dependence of resistivity in superconducting materials

Up to a particular temperature Tc , the critical temperature, resistance of the supercon-
ductor in the non superconducting state decreases with decrease in temperature as in the
case of normal metal. At Tc , the resistance abruptly drops to zero as shown in Figure. At
critical temperature, the normal state transforms into the superconducting state. Differ-
ent superconducting materials have different critical temperatures. For example, critical
temperature of pure mercury is 4.2 K.

Critical magnetic field

The minimum magnetic field required to just switch a material from superconducting state
to normal state is called critical field.

1
 For superconducting material in the superconducting state, the critical field will be
higher when the temperature is lower. If T is the temperature of the superconducting ma-
terial (T < Tc ), Hc is the critical field and Ho the field required to turn the superconductor
to a normal conductor at 0o K, then the relation for critical field is given by,

T2
 
Hc = Ho 1 − 2
Tc

Effect of magnetic field - Meissner effect

Consider a superconductor in its normal state. Suppose the magnetic field is applied to
it, then the magnetic field lines pass through the material when the temperature is above
critical temperature Tc (Figure 5.6b). As the temperature of the material is cooled below
Tc , all the magnetic field lines are suddenly expelled out of the material (Figure 5.6c) for
all temperatures T < Tc . The material becomes a perfect diamagnet.

The expulsion of magnetic flux from the interior of the superconductor when it is cooled

2
below the critical temperature is called Meissner effect. [Or The expulsion of magnetic flux
during the transition from normal to the superconducting state is called Meissner effect.]
This effect is reversible, when the temperature is raised above Tc , the flux suddenly starts
penetrating the specimen as a result of which the material returns to normal state. The
magnetic induction inside the specimen (normal state) is given by,

B = µ0 (H + M )
Where H is the external applied field and M is the magnetization produced within the
specimen.
At T < Tc , B = 0 and µ0 (H + M ) = 0 (Superconducting state)
Or M = −H
Hence the susceptibility of the material,

M
χ=
H
Thus, superconducting state is characterized by perfect diamagnetism. This conclusion
cannot be derived from the simple definition of superconductivity as a state of zero re-
sistivity. Two mutually independent properties, viz. Zero resistivity (ρ = 0) and Perfect
diamagnetism (B = 0; χ = −1) are the essential properties that characterize the supercon-
ducting state.

Types of Superconductors
Based on the magnetic behavior, superconductors are classified into two categories, viz. (a)
Type I superconductors and (b) Type II superconductors.
Type I superconductors:
Type I superconductors also known as soft superconductors exhibit complete Meissner
effect. In this type of materials, the transition from superconducting state to normal state
in the presence of magnetic field occurs sharply at the critical value Hc .

The magnetic curve for type I superconductor is as shown in Figure. In the presence
of an external magnetic field H < Hc , the material in superconducting stage is a perfect
diamagnet. As soon as the applied field H exceeds Hc , the entire material becomes normal
by losing its diamagnetic property completely and the magnetic flux penetrates through out

3
the body. Since superconductors are perfect diamagnet, it possesses a negative magnetic
moment (−M ). Aluminum, Lead, Indium, Tin and Mercury are the examples for type I
superconductors. The critical field Hc is relatively low for soft superconductors (≈ 0 − 1T ).
As such they are not of much use for production of high magnetic fields.
Type II Superconductors:
Type II superconductor or Hard superconductors are characterized by 2 critical magnetic
fields Hc1 (lower critical field) and Hc2 (upper critical field).
For applied field (H) below Hc1 , the material expels magnetic flux completely and be-
haves as a perfect diamagnet, as shown in Figure. When H exceeds Hc1 , the flux begins to
penetrate and the penetration of flux increases until Hc2 is reached. At Hc2 , the supercon-
ductivity vanishes and the specimen returns to normal state.

Type II superconductors are inhomogeneous. When the applied field strength is between
Hc1 and Hc2 , the material is in a mixed state called Vortex state and in this state, the flux
penetration occurs through channelized parts of the body called filaments. In this state,
though there is no flux penetration, the material retains its zero resistance property and
hence it is still a superconductor in this magnetic field interval. The flux penetration occurs
through small channelized parts of the body, called filaments.
The most distinguishing characteristic of type II superconductors is that the value of
upper critical field is very high. Thus they are very useful in the buildup of devices which
work in high magnetic fields such as superconducting magnets. Transition metals and alloys
consisting of niobium, aluminum, silicon and vanadium exhibit type II superconductivity.
Ceramic superconductors also belong to this category.

BCS Theory
A fundamental understanding of electronic structure of the superconductor was given in
1957 by the American physicists, John Bardeen, Leon N. Cooper and Robert Schrieffer.
The theory is based on the purely quantum mechanical concept of Cooper pairs.
According to BCS theory, during the flow of current in the superconductor, when an
electron approaches a positive ion in the lattice, there is a coulomb attraction between the
electron and the lattice ion. This produces a distortion in the lattice. This interaction
causes an increase in the density of ions in the region of distortion. The higher density of

4
ions in the distorted region attracts, in turn, another electron. Thus, a free electron exerts
a small attractive force on another electron through phonons which are quanta of lattice
vibrations. This process is called electron - electron interaction via phonon field.
At lower temperature i.e., below the critical temperature, the attraction force reaches a
maximum value for any two electrons of equal and opposite spin and opposite momentum.
This force of attraction exceeds the force of repulsion between two electrons and thus a
pair of free electrons couple through a phonon, called cooper pair. Cooper pair is a bound
pair of electrons formed by the interaction between the electrons with opposite spin and
momenta in a phonon field.
At normal temperatures, the attractive force is too small and pairing of electrons does
not take place. At lower temperatures (T < Tc ), the attractive electron-electron interaction
exceeds coulomb repulsion. According to quantum mechanics, a wave function could be
associated with a cooper pair. As a result, the wave function of one cooper pair overlaps
with that of other cooper pairs. Therefore the entire cooper pairs move as a single unit.
Thus, the superconducting state is an ordered state of electrons. Since the density of
Cooper pairs is quite high, even large currents require only a small velocity. As a result,
the extremely rare collision of Cooper pairs with the lattice combined with precise ordering
leads to vanishing resistivity. Therefore the conductivity becomes infinite.

Applications of Superconductors
Superconducting magnets:
The electromagnets which use superconducting coils to produce magnetic field are called
Superconducting magnets. Once a superconducting magnet is energized, the field remains
forever as there is no power loss.

Construction: A superconductor wire is made to lie in the form of filament embedded

in a copper matrix (as shown in figure) and this is used in the construction of solenoid. The
solenoid is immersed in a bath of helium (Boiling point of He is 4.2 K). Large currents of
the order of several hundred amperes can be made to flow through the solenoid to produce
high magnetic fields of the order of 15 T .
The type II superconductors, which have high Tc and Hc values, are commonly used
in superconducting magnets. One of the widely used superconductors for superconducting
magnetic coils is niobium-titanium (N b − T i) alloy, which can be easily drawn into wires.
The other materials include niobium-tin (N b3Sn), niobium-aluminum (N b − Al), niobium-
germanium (N b − Ge) and vanadium-gallium (N a3Ga).
Superconducting magnets are used in,

5
 1. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) systems (to generate the images of the body
cross-sections)
2. Magnetically levitated vehicles
3. Magneto-Hydro-Dynamic (MHD) power generation
4. Marine propulsion
5. Different fields of research work such as Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spec-
trometer, etc.
Maglev (Magnetically levitated) vehicles:
A vehicle levitated on a track due to repulsion between magnetic field on the track and
at the bottom of the vehicle are called Magnetically levitated vehicles or Maglevs. The
Magnetic levitation is based on the Meissner effect exhibited by superconductors.

Maglev vehicles consist of superconducting magnets built into its base of the vehicle
(train). The vehicle floats on the aluminium guide-way (special type of track) by magnetic
levitation. The magnetic levitation is produced by enormous magnetic repulsion between
superconducting magnet in the base of the vehicle and electric currents in the aluminium
guide-way. The currents in the aluminium guide-way not only produces magnetic field to
levitate the vehicle but also help propelling the vehicle forward. As there does not exist
mechanical friction (between the wheels and the track), speeds up to 500 km/hr can be
easily achieved. Maglevs are useful in transportation with very low energy consumption.

SQUIDs
SQUID is the acronym for Superconducting Quantum Interference Device. It is an ultra-
sensitive measuring instrument used for the detection of very weak magnetic fields of the
order of 10−14 Tesla.
SQUIDs are usually fabricated from lead or pure niobium. The lead is taken in the form
of an alloy with 10% gold or indium. A thin niobium layer deposited on to it acts as the base
electrode of the SQUID and the tunnel barrier is oxidized onto this niobium surface. The
top electrode is a layer of lead alloy deposited on top of the other two, forming a sandwich
arrangement. The entire device is then cooled to within a few degrees of absolute zero with
liquid helium.

Working
Schematic representation of working of SQUID is as shown in figure. A dc supercurrent
is applied to the SQUID. This current, known as bias current, enters the device through
the arm C. It is divided along two paths a and b and again merge into one and leaves
through the arm D. P and Q are the Josephson junctions and the insulating layers at P

6
and Q are of different thickness. I1 and I2 are the currents tunneling through the junctions
P and Q respectively. In a superconductor, a single wave function describes all the Cooper
pairs. The wave function experiences a phase shift at the junctions P and Q. Let the phase
difference between points C and D taken on a path through junction P be δa and the phase
difference between points C and D taken on a path through junction Q be δb . In the absence
of magnetic field these two phases are equal, that is, δa − δb = 0.

When a magnetic field B is applied perpendicular to the loop, the flux passes through
the loop, and changes the quantum mechanical phase difference across each of the two
junctions. The wave functions at the two Josephson junctions interfere with each other.
In other words, the super-currents flowing along the paths a (PD) and b (QD) interfere.
Hence, the device is named SQUID.

Applications of SQUIDs
ˆ SQUIDs are used to measure very small magnetic fields and they act as a very sensitive
magnetometers.

ˆ SQUIDs are capable of measuring magnetic fluctuations of the order of 10−13 T to

10−14 T .

ˆ Geologists use them for measuring rock magnetism and continental drift.

ˆ SQUIDs can detect even the feeble fields of human heart and brain and hence used
in magnetoencephalography (MEG).

ˆ The SQUIDs are also used in non-destructive testing.