MODULE 2

Electrical Properties of Materials

 Drift velocity (vd):
th

The average velocity of occupied by the electrons in the steady state in an applied electric field is
called drift velocity.

The drift velocity vd = 𝑒𝐸𝑐

𝑚

Thermal velocity(Vth ):

The velocity of electrons in random motion due to thermal agitation called thermal velocity.

Mean free path ():

The average distance travelled by the conduction electrons between any two successive collisions
with lattice ions.

Expression for electrical conductivity of conductor according to classical free electron theory

According to classical free electron theory the expression for electrical conductivity is given by
2
ne τ
σCFET = m

Where σ - Electrical conductivity

n- Electron density
τ − mean collision time
m- mass of electron concentration

1
 Quantum free electron theory:

Assumptions of quantum free electron theory:

 The energy values of the conduction electrons are quantized. The allowed energy values are
realized in terms of a set of energy values.
 The distribution of electrons in the various allowed energy levels occur as per Pauli‟s exclusion
principle.
 The electrons travel with a constant potential inside the metal but confined within its boundaries.
 The attraction between the electrons and the lattice ions and the repulsion between the electrons
themselves are ignored.

Fermi energy and Fermi level:

The energy of electrons corresponding to the highest occupied energy level at absolute 0°K is
called Fermi energy and the energy level is called Fermi level.

2
Fermi factor:

Fermi factor is the probability of occupation of a given energy state by the electrons in a material
at thermal equilibrium.

The probability f(E) that a given energy state with energy E is occupied by the electrons at a steady
temperature T is given by

1
f (E)  ( EEF )

e kT
1
f(E) is called the Fermi factor.

Dependence of Fermi factor with temperature and energy:

The dependence of Fermi factor on temperature and energy is as shown in the figure.

i) Probability of occupation for E<EF at T=0K:

When T=0K and E<EF

1 1
f(E) = = =1
e−∞+1 0+1

The probability of occupation of energy state is 100%

f(E)=1 for E<EF.

f(E)=1 means the energy level is certainly occupied and E<EF applies to all energy levels below
EF. Therefore at T=0K all the energy levels below the Fermi level are occupied.

ii) Probability of occupation for E>EF at T=0K:

When T=0K and E>EF

1 1
f(E) = = =0
e∞+1 ∞

The probability of occupation of energy state is 0%

f(E)=0 for E>EF

... At T=0K, all the energy levels above Fermi levels are unoccupied. Hence at T=0K the variation
of f(E) for different energy values, becomes a step function as shown in the above figure.

3
iii) The probability of occupation at ordinary temperature( for E≈EF at T>0K)

At ordinary temperatures though the value of probability remains 1, for E<EF it starts reducing
from 1 for values of E close to but lesser than EF as in the figure.

The values of f(E)becomes ½ at E=E F

This is because for E=EF

e(E−E𝐹)⁄kT = e0 = 1
1
.. . f(E) = = 1
=1
e(E−E𝐹)⁄kT+1 1+1 2

4
The probability of occupation of energy state is 50%

Further for E>EF the probability value falls off to zero rapidly.

Hence, the Fermi energy is the most probable or the average energy of the electrons across which
the energy transitions occur at temperature above zero degree absolute.

Super Conductivity:

Super conductivity is the phenomenon observed in some metals and materials. Kammerlingh
Onnes in 1911 observed that the electrical resistivity of pure mercury drops abruptly to zero at
about 4.2K .This state is called super conducting state. The material is called superconductor .The
temperature at which they attain superconductivity is called critical temperature Tc.
Temperature dependence of resistivity of a metal:

All metals are good conductors of electricity. The electrical conductivity of metal varies with the
temperature. The electrical resistance of a metal, to the flow of current, is due to scattering of
conduction electrons by lattice vibrations. When the temperature increases the amplitude of lattice
vibrations also increases, thereby increasing the resistance. The dependence of resistance of metal
(non-superconducting state) is shown in figure. The resistance decreases with temperature and
reaches a minimum value at T = 0K. The residual resistance at T = 0K is due to impurities in the
metal.

By Matthiessen‟s rule

ρ = ρo + ρ(T)

5
 Where „ρ‟ is the resistivity of the given material, „ρo‟is the residual resistivity and „ρ (T)‟ is the
temperature dependent part of resistivity.
“The total resistivity of a metal is the sum of the resistivity due to phonon scattering which is
temperature dependent and the resistivity due to scattering by impurities which is

Temperature dependence of resistivity of a superconductor:

One of the most interesting properties of solid at low temperature is that electrical resistivity of
metals and alloys vanish entirely below a certain temperature. This zero resistivity or infinite
conductivity is known as superconductivity. Temperature at which transition takes place is known
as transition temperature or critical temperature (Tc). Above the transition temperature, the
substance is in the normal state and below it will be in superconducting state. Tc value is different
for different materials.

“The resistance offered by certain materials to the flow of electric current abruptly drop to zero below a
threshold temperature. This phenomenon is called superconductivity and threshold temperature is called
“critical temperature”

6
Meissner effect:
A superconducting material kept in a magnetic field expels the magnetic flux out of its body when
it is cooled below the critical temperature and thus becomes perfect diamagnet. This effect is called
Meissner effect.

Fig: Superconductor sample subjected to an applied magnetic field with temperature (i) above
and (ii) below TC. The flux expulsion below Tc is called Meissner effect
When the temperature is lowered to Tc, the flux is suddenly and completely expelled, as the
specimen becomes superconducting. The Meissner effect is reversible. When the temperature is
raised the flux penetrates the material, after it reaches Tc. Then the substance will be in the normal
state.
The magnetic induction inside the specimen CBCS-2022 Scheme

B = µo (H + M)

Where 'H' is the intensity of the magnetizing field and „M‟ is the magnetization produced within the material

For T < Tc, B=0

µ0 (H + M) = 0

M = -H

M/H = -1= χ

Susceptibility is -1 i.e. it is perfect diamagnetism.

Hence superconducting material do not allow the magnetic flux to exist inside the material

7
Effect of magnetic field on superconductors:

Superconductivity can be destroyed by applying magnetic field. The strength of the magnetic field
required to destroy the superconductivity below the Tc is called critical field. It is denoted by Hc(T).

If „T‟ is the temperature of the superconducting material, „T c‟ is the critical temperature, „Hc‟ is
the critical field and „Ho‟ is the critical field at 0oK.
They are related by

Hc = Ho[1-(T/Tc)2]

By applying magnetic field greater than Ho, the material can never become superconductor
whatever may be the low temperature. The critical field need not be external but large current
flowing in superconducting ring produce critical field and destroys superconductivity.

Types of superconductors:

There are two types of superconductors. They are type-I superconductors and type-II
superconductors.

8
i) Type-I superconductors:

Type-I superconductors exhibit complete Meissner effect. Below the critical field it behaves as
perfect diamagnetic. If the external magnetic field increases beyond H c the superconducting
specimen gets converted to normal state. The magnetic flux penetrates and resistance increase
from zero to some value. As the critical field is very low for type-I superconductors, they are not
used in construction of solenoids and superconducting magnets.

ii) Type-II superconductors

Type-II superconductors are hard superconductors. They exist in three states

i) Superconducting state

ii) Mixed state

iii) Normal state

They are having two critical fields H c1 and Hc2. For the field less then Hc1, it expels the magnetic
field completely and becomes a perfect diamagnetic. Between Hc1 and Hc2 the flux starts
penetrating throughout the specimen. This state is called vortex state. Hc2 is 100 times higher than

9
Hc1. At Hc2 the flux penetrates completely and becomes normal conductor. Type-II
superconductors are used in the manufacturing of the superconducting magnets of high magnetic
fields above 10 Tesla.

BCS theory superconductivity:

 Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer (BCS) in 1957 explained the phenomenon of superconductivity
based on the formation of cooper pairs. It is called BCS theory. It is a quantum mechanical
concept.
 When a current flow in a superconductor, electrons come near a positive ion core of lattice, due
to attractive force. The ion core also gets displaced from its position, which is called lattice
distortion. The lattice vibrations are quantized in a term called Phonons.
 Now an electron which comes near that place will interact with the distorted lattice. This tends
to reduce the energy of the electron. It is equivalent to interaction between the two electrons
through the lattice. This leads to the formation of cooper pairs.
 “Cooper pairs are a bound pair of electrons formed by the interaction between the electrons with
opposite spin and momentum in a phonon field”.
 When the electrons flow in the form of cooper pairs in materials, they do not encounter any
scattering and the resistance factor vanishes or in other words conductivity becomes infinity
which is called as superconductivity.
 In superconducting state electron-phonon interaction is stronger than the coulomb force of
attraction of electrons. Cooper pairs are not scattered by the lattice points. They travel freely
without slow down as their energy is not transferred. Due to this they do not possess any
electrical resistivity.

High temperature superconductors:

The term high-temperature superconductor was first used to designate the new family of cuprate-
perovskite ceramic materials discovered by Bednorz and Müller in 1986. The first high-
temperature superconductor, LaBaCuO, with a transition temperature of 30 K and in the same year
LSCO (La2-xSrxCuO4) discovered with TC of 40K. In 1987 it was shown that superconductors
with Tc greater than 77K could be prepared, this temperature is greater than the liquid helium
temperature. YBa2Cu3O7 was discovered to have a Tc of 92 K. Bismuth/lead strontium Calcium
Copper (Bi Pb)2Sr2 Ca2Cu3Ox (x<0.1) with Tc=105K. Thallium barium Calcium copper oxide (Tl
Ba2Ca2Cu3O4) of Tc=115K. Mercury barium calcium copper oxide (Hg Ba2Ca2Cu3O4) with
Tc=135K.

All high temperature superconductors are different types of oxides of copper, and bear a particular
type of crystal structure called Perovskite crystal structure. The number of copper layers increases
the Tc value increases. The current in the high T C materials is direction dependent. It is strong in
parallel to copper-oxygen planes and weak in perpendicular to copper-oxygen planes.

10
High Tc materials are Type-II superconductors and they are brittle and don‟t carry enough current.
The formation of electron pairs is not due to interaction of electron lattice as in the BCS theory.
Still it is not clear what does cause the formation of pairs. Research is being conducting in this
direction. The high temperature superconductors are useful in high field applications. It can carry
high currents of 105 to 106 amps in moderate magnetic fields. They are used in military
applications, Josephson junction in SQUIDS, under sea communication, submarines.

Note:

Quantum Tunneling:

Consider two superconductors separated by insulating barrier of thickness less than 10-20 Å, then
the cooper pairs tunneling through the insulating barrier is known as Josephson superconducting
quantum tunneling. The junction between the two superconductors with insulating barrier is
known as Josephson junction.

Josephson junction is an arrangement of two superconductors separated by an insulating barrier.

When the barrier is thin enough, cooper pairs from one superconductor can tunnel through the
barrier and reach the other superconductor.

Josephson proposed that this kind of tunneling leads to three kinds of effect, namely

1. dc Josephson effect
2. ac Josephson effect
3. quantum interference

11
 SQUID

 SQUID is an acronym for Superconducting Quantum Interference Device.

 It is an Ultra-sensitive measuring instrument used for the detection of very weak magnetic fields
of the order of 10-14 T.
 A SQUID is formed by incorporating two Josephson’s junction in the loop of a superconducting
material.
 When a magnetic field is applied to this superconducting circuit, it induces a circulating current
which produces just that much opposing magnetic field so as to exclude the flux from the loop.

Applications of SQUID:
1. SQUID are used to study tiny magnetic signals from the brain and heart
2. SQUID s acts as storage devices for magnetic fields
3. Squid magnetometers can detect the paramagnetic response in the liver and give the amount of
iron held in the liver of the body accurately.
Application of superconductors;

1.Magnetically Levitated Vehicles (Maglev vehicles):

12
Magnetically levitated vehicles are called Maglev vehicles. It works on the principle of Meissner
effect. The magnetic levitation produced by repulsive force between two magnetic fields. One of the
magnetic field produced due to superconducting magnet is kept inside the vehicle and other
magnetic field due to the electric current in the Aluminum guide way. The vehicle is on the
Aluminum guide way. The aluminium guide way is formulated into number of segments provided
with the coils. During the motion of the vehicle, it is enough if that part the guide way over which
the vehicle is located, is activated. The current in the guide way not only levitate the vehicle but also
help to propelling the vehicle forward. The vehicle is provided with retractable wheels. The vehicle
runs on the guide way, once it is levitated in air the wheels are retracted into the body. The height to
which the vehicle is levitatedabove guide way is about 10 to 15cm. While stopping,the wheels are
drawn out and the vehicle slowly settles on the guide way by running a distance.

DIELECTRIC MATERIALS

Dielectric materials do not conduct electricity since they do not have free electrons.

Examples: Glass, rubber, plastic, mica, ceramics, wood.

Dielectric materials are nothing but insulators. They are used as insulatingmaterials.

All capacitors have dielectric materials which will increase the capacitance of acapacitor.

But dielectrics have the ability to get electrically polarized with the application ofexternal
electric field.

Hence dielectric materials are those which have the ability to getelectrically polarized
and in which electric field can exist.

Electric dipole:

Two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance is called dipole. The product of

one of the charge and distance of separation between them is called

dipole moment (µ).
 

µ=ql

Polarization: The displacement of charges in the atoms or molecules of a dielectric under the
action of an applied electric field leads to the development of dipole moment is called
polarization.
Consider an atom which is free such as the one in a gas.

When there is no Electric field, the effective center of negative charge distribution coincides
with the point where the nucleus with positive charge is present. Hence dipole moment is zero.

when E=0 when E≠0,

←E
but when it is subjected to an Electric Field E, the nucleus and the electrons are displaced in
opposite directions and hence the atom acquires a dipole moment.

Polar molecules: Polar molecules has permanent dipoles even in the absence of electric field

ex: H2O, HCl

Non polar molecules: no permanent dipoles. ex: H2, CO2

Types of dielectric materials:

Polar dielectrics: In some dielectric materials, the effective centers of the negativeand positive
charges in the molecules do not coincide with each other and exhibit permanent dipoles in the
absence of electric field are called polar dielectrics.
Example: H2O, HCl.
Non polar dielectrics: In some dielectric materials, the effective centers of the negative and
positive charges in the molecules do not coincide with each other anddo not exhibit permanent
dipoles in the absence of electric field are called non polar dielectrics. Examples: H2, CO2,
methane(CH4),Benzene, wood, glass.
In the case of polar dielectrics, since the dipoles are randomly oriented it results ina net zero
dipole moment when it is not subjected to an Electric field.

when the dielectrics are subjected to an Electric field

a) Case of non polar dielectrics: In an Electric field:

Consider a rectangular slab of a dielectric material, placed between two electrodes
between which a uniform electric field E is set up.
The positive and negative charges of the various molecules experience pulling forces in
opposite directions.
The effective charge centers of the molecules get separated and develops a dipole
moment in the direction of the field E.
Now, inside the body of the slab the opposite charges in the neighboring molecules
neutralizes each other.But the Charges at the end surfaces do not find opposite kind of
charges and causes the appearance of net charges.
 b) Case of polar dielectrics:

Permanent dipoles align themselves along the direction of the field. Andcharges appear at
the end surfaces.

Polarizability (α):

We know that dipole moment µ is directly proportional to the electric field E.µ α E

µ =αE where α is known as polarizability.

Polarization, P= Nµ= NαE where N is the number of atoms / unit volume ofthe
material.

TYPES OF POLARIZATION MECHANISMS:

Electronic Polarization: The electronic polarization occurs due to displacement of the positive
and negative charges in a dielectric material with the application of external electric field, which
leads to development of dipole moment. The electronic polarizabilityis given by,
Electronic polarizability Pe= αeNE ---(1)
and Pe= Є0 (Єr – 1) ----------(2)
Therefore αe = Є0 (Єr – 1) / N .
  Ionic Polarization: This is kind of polarization occurs in some dielectric materials which
have ionic bonds like NaCl. When ionic solids are subjected to an external electric field,
the adjacent ions of opposite sign undergo displacement. The distance of separation
between the ion pair depends on the location of atoms in the lattice results in the
development of dipole moment

 Oriental Polarization: This type of polarization occurs in polar dielectric material.

(Permanent dipoles). Ex: H2O

The orientation of molecules is random in the absence of electric field; therefore net dipole
moment in the material is zero. But under the influence of an applied electric field each dipole
reorient along the field direction. Thus the material develops an electrical polarization. This type
of polarization is temperature dependent. In polar dielectrics the orientation polarizability α0 is
given by α0 = µ2 / 3KT
Relation between Polarization and Dielectric constant:

For the dielectric materials the applied electric field (E), flux density (D) are related by

D = Є0 Є r E

Є0 → dielectric constant of vacuum =8.854×10-12 F/m

Єr→ relative dielectric constant of the material/ relative permittivity of

the material.

Єr=1 for vacuum

Єr=1.0006 for air

Єr=5.6 for pyrex glass

Permittivity: It is the measure of the ability of a material to resist the formation of an electric
field in it.

The relation between dielectric constant Є r and polarization P is given by P = Є0(Єr – 1) E

Internal fields in solids: When a dielectric material is subjected to an external electric field,
each atom develops a dipole moment and acts as electric dipole. Hence the field at any given
atom will be the applied electric field and the electric field due to the surrounding dipoles.

“The internal field is the electric field that acts at the site of any atom of a solid subjected to an
external electric field and is the resultant of the applied field and the field due to all the
surrounding dipoles”.

Expression for Internal Field in case of solids and liquids

Consider a dielectric material kept in a Electric field E. Consider an array of atomic dipoles
arranged parallel to the direction of the field, let the distance between the atoms be “a” and
electronic polarizability of the dipoles be 𝛼𝑒.
In one dimension the internal field at the site of an atom „X‟ is given by ,

Ei = Eapplied + Edipoles
𝐸
Ei =
1− 1.2𝛼𝑒
𝜋𝗌0 𝑎3

The dipoles contribute positively to the electric field at X. and Ei >E

For 3-Dimesional dielectric material, the internal field is called Lorentz field and is given by
ϒ
Ei = E + ( )P
Є0

where γ→ internal field constant, P→ polarization

for a cubic lattice , since γ=1/3

𝑷
ELorentz = E +
𝟑Є𝟎

Clausius – Mossotti Equation:

Consider a solid dielectric material with dielectric constant ε r. If „N‟ is the number of atoms/unit
volume and „µ‟ is the dipole moment of the atoms in the material.

Therefore, the dipole moment / unit volume = N µ ………(1)

The field experienced by the atom is an internal field Ei. αe is the electronic polarizability of the
atoms.

The dipole moment µ = αe Ei ………(2)

But Dipole moment / unit volume is nothing but polarization (P), therefore from(1) and(2)

P = N αe Ei
𝑃
Ei = ……….(3)
𝑁𝛼𝑒
we have P = Є0 (Єr -1) E

𝑃
Therefore E= ………(4)
Є0 (Є𝑟 – 1)
 𝑃
The expression for internal field for 3D material is given by Ei = E +
3Є0

Substituting (3) and (4) in the above equation

𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
= +
𝑁𝛼𝑒 Є0(Є𝑟 −1) 3Є0

1 1 1
= +
𝑁𝛼𝑒 Є0(Є𝑟 −1) 3Є0

1 1
= [ + 1]
Є0 (Є𝑟 −1) 3

Є𝒓 −𝟏 𝑵𝑎𝒆
=
Є𝒓 +𝟐 𝟑 Є𝟎

This is called Clausius Mossotti equation.

Solid, Liquid and Gaseous Dielectrics: Use of appropriate dielectric materials suitable
for their working so that they have both long life, reliability and trouble free working abilities,
the dielectrics are broadly classified into:

 Solid insulating materials: Solid dielectrics are available extremely large in number
like, Mica, porcelain, glass, plastic. Paper is hygroscopic, hence it is dried and dipped
with mineral oil, and high density papers are preferred in dc and energy storage
capacitors.
 Liquid insulating materials: Mainly liquid insulating materials are used in transformers
switched and circuit breakers. During the working conditions, the windings in an
electrical device get heated due to eddy heating and joule heating. Liquid insulators allow
the winding to cool faster by conveying heat efficiency to the surroundings. Examples:
transformer oil, silicon fluids, viscous Vaseline, fluro organic fluids etc.
  Gaseous insulating materials: Gases are good insulators and work as heat transforming
media. Example: Air, Nitrogen, inert gases, hydrogen, CO2,. In general, air provides
insulation between the overhead transmission power lines etc.

Application of dielectrics in transformers:

A transformer consist of two insulated conducting coils wound on a core, the core is also
insulated. In high voltage transformers further insulation is required to be provide between
individual windings in the coils and also between the core and the coils. Hence the size of the
transformers increases and also the size increases with operational ac frequency. Normally the
insulation is provided by using paper, mica or cloth.

“If there is air gap between the windings, as the permittivity of air is less, ionization of air occurs
at high voltage leads to excessive heating which damages the insulation. This effect is called
corona”.Generally mica is used to guard against corona, when the operating voltage is up to
3KV. However, if the operating voltage is above 3KV up to 100KV, a kind of oil called
transformer oil is used between individual windings and the core. Apart from guarding against
corona, the oil helps to keep the transformer cool. It remains stable at high temperature. For large
size transformers, water circulation round the body of the transformer is provided to cool the
transformer.