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2. BACKGROUND
Cracking in fire-tube boilers at welded joints is a frequent, costly and potentially dangerous
occurrence. The shortest recorded time for serious cracking to leak is 3 years, representing less than
20,000 cycles, and occurred on a laundry boiler subjected to frequent and rapid firing.
A number of cracked boilers have exploded resulting in major damage and fatalities. Fortunately,
recent improvements in materials, welding and non-destructive testing (NDT) together with a greater
awareness of the potential for cracking have greatly reduced the incidence of failures. As current
boilers age, more cracking is likely to occur.
3. FIRE-TUBE BOILERS
This Note covers cracking in “economic” type fire-tube boilers, where the “dry back” or “water back”
boilers represent the largest use in Australia. The information presented is applicable to virtually all
fire-tube boilers made of carbon-manganese steels with diameters up to 3 metres, operating
pressures generally up to 1 MPa and operating temperature up to 180°C. AS 1228 provides further
details on these boilers. Fig. 1 shows typical details.
Figure 1 shows a schematic representation of the side and end elevation of a fire-tube boiler. The
front and rear closure plates and reversal chambers have been omitted for clarity.
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Crack Location Crack Description
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The failure mode is corrosion fatigue. Slight corrosion occurs as a result of contact with the water.
Fatigue arises from thermal cycling and pressure cycling. The primary causes of furnace tube
cracking are a combination of:
• High thermal stress generated by large temperature or material thickness differences;
• Bending stresses due to pressure;
• Poor weld shape, particularly at the weld root in the lower part of the furnace;
• High number (over 10,000) of pressure and temperature cycles;
• Fracture of the protective magnetite layer due to cyclic stresses. Magnetite forms on the furnace
tubes and acts as a protective layer but it is brittle and subject to spalling under cyclic stresses.
Its fracture exposes unprotected surfaces to further corrosion;
• Un-removed slag from furnace tube to tube plate welds providing corrosion initiation sites.
For short cracks, the most common type, the resulting failure has generally been leakage. For longer
cracks, the result can be large scale fracture with a dangerous explosion.
Depending on the age and fracture toughness of the tube plate, material crack extension can occur
suddenly by brittle fracture when the boiler cools down to ambient temperature. High local residual
stresses can trigger brittle fracture in heavily cold worked and aged steel. This occurred with a unique
case at location 5 from a 6 mm deep fatigue crack.
5. CRACK DETECTION
Good access is required to visually detect cracks and surfaces should be clean for 50 mm each side
of the weld where cracking initiates.
Visual examination with the aid of lights can detect cracks over 5 mm in length and over 1 mm deep
depending on adequate surface cleanliness. Endoscopes and digital cameras can be used to aid
detection (particularly with low slung boilers), with computers to record information.
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Magnetic particle testing (MT) and penetrant testing (PT) are more sensitive than visual inspection if
the suspected crack area is accessible for examination. Ultrasonic testing (UT) is probably the best
method to detect serious cracking.
Ultrasonic testing should be carried out within 10 years from the construction date in normal
circumstances or more frequently under harsh conditions. Similarly if there are significant changes in
operating temperature or pressure, ultrasonic testing should be carried out more frequently e.g. after
initial 10,000 cycles. The ultrasonic testing program should include a reasonable length of weld at
both ends of the furnace and at the top, bottom and sides of the weld circumference at locations 1
and 2. Extra care should be taken with tubes near to stay tubes or near the shell.
Increased inspection frequency should also be implemented if the furnace was manufactured from
steel with Rm>460 MPa, or if the design strength value used is above 110 MPa.
Only personnel with proven expertise and experience should undertake a fracture mechanics
assessment.
Experience with early ductile, low strength steels indicates that furnace tube cracking can be tolerated
up to the lower of 2 mm and 30% of the furnace tube wall thickness. Operation changes should be
implemented to eliminate some of the primary or secondary causes of cracking and de-rating the
boiler output may be required. If crack depths are 50% or more through the furnace wall, the boiler
should be isolated for repair or replacement.
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• Preparedness, time and available resources to carry out the repair;
• Feasibility of crack repair;
• Results of any fracture mechanics analysis;
• Residual stress and risk of brittle fracture;
• The measures taken to avoid gas explosions and low water failures. Both can result in severe
plastic straining across the crack leading to furnace tube rupture. These measures are essential
where cracks over 2 mm deep have been detected.
• Outcomes of a risk assessment
• Management responsibility in the event of a failure leading to an explosion.
Given that the crack growth mechanism is corrosion fatigue, the number and extent of thermal cycles
to which the boiler will experience is the primary issue in determining the length of time the boiler can
be operated. In assessing the consequences of failure, it must be determined if the failure mechanism
is likely to be a through wall leak of a boiler tube or a catastrophic rupture of the furnace or tube plate,
potentially leading to an explosion.
Successful repairs rely on competent welders, good weld shape, low hardness, negligible defects and
competent NDT technicians and importantly, proof by tests or previous work that the inside root profile
is as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Local repair technique for furnace tube cracks located at toe of original installation weld
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8.2 Replacement of One End of Furnace Tube
This option should be considered where there is extensive cracking at one end and there is good
access from inside the furnace. The repair will involve using procedures, inspection and testing
practices similar to the original construction.
Documenting the number of operating cycles the boiler undergoes together with the severity of those
cycles provides the baseline that will ultimately dictate the frequency of inspection and remaining life
of the boiler.
DISCLAIMER: While every effort has been made and all reasonable care taken to ensure the accuracy of the material contained herein, the authors, editors and publishers of this publication shall not be held to be liable or responsible in any
way whatsoever and expressly disclaim any liability or responsibility for any injury or loss of life, any loss or damage costs or expenses, howsoever incurred by any person whether the reader of this work or otherwise including but without in
any way limiting any loss or damage costs or expenses incurred as a result of or in connection with the reliance whether whole or partial by any person as aforesaid upon any part of the contents of this publication. Should expert assistance be
required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought.
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As a valued technology expert in this area we would like you to be part of the Technology Expert Group to
review this note. Please complete this questionnaire so that we can gauge the success of meeting this need.
Objective 1: Identify the need to understand, control and remedy shell cracking
As the Australian fire-tube boilers become increasingly older, there is an increasing need to understand and
control the degradation mechanisms that can lead to failures of such equipment. This guidance note is intended
to provide the Pressure Equipment Industry understanding of fire-tube boiler cracking so an informed decision
can be made on inspection frequencies and repair strategies. How well does the document explain inspection
and repair of shell cracking?
Comments:
yes no
Objective 3: Identify current best practice for inspection and repair of shell boilers
The document was written to reflect current best for service practice for inspection, operation and repair of fire-
tube boilers. Do you envisage opportunities for the use of this practice in the industry?
yes no
If not, why?
Other format?
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Objective 6: Continuous Improvement
Please Identify areas where the document can be improved or return the document with your recommended
additions/amendments. Alternatively, please use the area below to provide any additional comments.
Please Fax (02 8748 0181) or E-mail (info@wtia.com.au) your feedback. Thank you.
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