Introduction

STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Human undergoes different stages of development. It a series of developments of the

physical, social, psychological, intellectual, emotional and other attributes of man.

There are different stages of these development; these are the Pre-natal Stage, the
Infancy or Babyhood Stage, the Early Childhood Stage, the Late Childhood Stage, the
Adolescence Stage, the Early Adulthood Stage and the Old age Stage.

Source: http://varron.expertscolumn.com/article/different-stages-human-development

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PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
The Pre-Natal stage starts in the conception wherein the ovum is fertilized by the
spermatozoon. The fertilization will eventually produce a fertilized egg. It will continue to
develop until the time of birth.
Conception occurs and development begins. All of the major structures of the body are
forming and the health of the mother is of primary concern. Understanding nutrition,
teratogens (or environmental factors that can lead to birth defects), and labor and
delivery are primary concerns.

Developmental Tasks
During each prenatal stage, genetic and environmental factors can affect development.
The developing fetus is completely dependent on the mother for life. It is important that
the mother takes good care of herself and receives prenatal care, which is medical care
during pregnancy that monitors the health of both the mother and the fetus. According
to the National Institutes of Health ([NIH], 2013), routine prenatal care is important
because it can reduce the risk of complications to the mother and fetus during
pregnancy. In fact, women who are trying to become pregnant or who may become
pregnant should discuss pregnancy planning with their doctor. They may be advised, for
example, to take a vitamin containing folic acid, which helps prevent certain birth
defects, or to monitor aspects of their diet or exercise routines.
Developmental Hazards
A teratogen is any environmental agent—biological, chemical, or physical—that causes
damage to the developing embryo or fetus. There are different types of teratogens.
Alcohol and most drugs cross the placenta and affect the fetus. Alcohol is not safe to
drink in any amount during pregnancy. Alcohol use during pregnancy has been found to
be the leading preventable cause of mental retardation in children in the United States
(Maier & West, 2001). Excessive maternal drinking while pregnant can cause fatal
alcohol spectrum disorders with life-long consequences for the child ranging in severity
from minor to major. Fatal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) are a collection of birth

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defects associated with heavy consumption of alcohol during pregnancy. Physically,
children with FASD may have a small head size and abnormal facial features.
Cognitively, these children may have poor judgment, poor impulse control, higher rates
of ADHD, learning issues, and lower IQ scores. These developmental problems and
delays persist into adulthood (Streissguth et al., 2004). Based on studies conducted on
animals, it also has been suggested that a mother’s alcohol consumption during
pregnancy may predispose her child to like alcohol (Youngentob et al., 2007).

Smoking is also considered a teratogen because nicotine travels through the placenta
to the fetus. When the mother smokes, the developing baby experiences a reduction in
blood oxygen levels. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(2013), smoking while pregnant can result in premature birth, low-birth-weight infants,
stillbirth, and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).

Heroin, cocaine, methamphetamine, almost all prescription medicines, and most over-
the counter medications are also considered teratogens. Babies born with a heroin
addiction need heroin just like an adult addict. The child will need to be gradually
weaned from the heroin under medical supervision; otherwise, the child could have
seizures and die. Other teratogens include radiation, viruses such as HIV and herpes,
and rubella (German measles). Women in the United States are much less likely to be
afflicted with rubella because most women received childhood immunizations or
vaccinations that protect the body from disease.

Each organ of the fetus develops during a specific period in the pregnancy, called
the critical or sensitive period. For example, research with primate models of FASD has
demonstrated that the time during which a developing fetus is exposed to alcohol can
dramatically affect the appearance of facial characteristics associated with fatal alcohol
syndrome. Specifically, this research suggests that alcohol exposure that is limited to
day 19 or 20 of gestation can lead to significant facial abnormalities in the offspring
(Ashley, Magnuson, Omnell, & Clarren, 1999). Given regions of the brain also show
sensitive periods during which they are most susceptible to the teratogenic effects of
alcohol (Tran & Kelly, 2003).

Sources: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-lifespandevelopment2/chapter/periods-of-
development/; http://varron.expertscolumn.com/article/different-stages-human-
development;https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wsu-sandbox/chapter/stages-of-development/

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INFANCY THROUGH CHILDHOOD

Infancy (0 -2)
The first year and a half to two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and change. A
newborn, with a keen sense of hearing but very poor vision is transformed into a
walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of time. Caregivers are also
transformed from someone who manages feeding and sleep schedules to a constantly
moving guide and safety inspector for a mobile, energetic child.
Developmental Tasks
Begins to communicate verbally, can casually speak in 3 to 4 word sentences, famous
for negative behaviour, with temper tantrums, will play side by side other children but
does not actively play with them, and they are great imitators.

Early Childhood (3-5 years old)

Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years consisting of the years which
follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling. As a three to five-year-old, the child is
busy learning language, is gaining a sense of self and greater independence, and is
beginning to learn the workings of the physical world. This knowledge does not come
quickly, however, and preschoolers may have initially have interesting conceptions of
size, time, space and distance such as fearing that they may go down the drain if they
sit at the front of the bathtub or by demonstrating how long something will take by
holding out their two index fingers several inches apart. A toddler’s fierce determination
to do something may give way to a four-year-old’s sense of guilt for doing something
that brings the disapproval of others.

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Developmental Tasks
They want to be just like their parents, vocabulary and pronunciation continue to
expand, climbs stairs with alternation feet, can briefly stand on one foot, their sentences
are more complex, speaks well enough for strangers to understand, imagination is vivid;
line between what is real and imaginary is often indistinct, develops fears such as fear
of dark, fear of animals, and fear of death, can accurately copy figures, may begin to
read and socialize with other children their age.
Developmental Hazards
Illness – Young children are highly susceptible to all kinds of illness, through respiratory
illness is the most common.
Accidents – Most young children experience cuts, infections, burns, broken bones,
strained muscles, or similar minor disturbances resulting from accidents.
Unattractiveness – Children become increasingly unattractive, reaching low point as
they emerge into late childhood.
Speech Hazards – Because speech is a tool for communication is essential to social
belonging, children who, unlike their age-mates, cannot communicate with others will be
socially handicapped, and this will lead to feelings of inadequacy and inferiority.
Emotional Hazards – The major emotional hazard on early childhood is the dominance
of the unpleasant emotions, especially anger. If young children experience too many of
the unpleasant and too few of the pleasant ones, it will distort their outlook on life and
encourage the development of an unpleasant disposition
Social Hazards – Social development of young children is parental encouragement to
spend proportionally too much time with other children and proportionally too much time
with other children and proportionally too little time alone.
Moral Hazards – Too much emphasis on punishment for misbehaviour and too little
emphasis on rewards for good behaviour can lead to unfavourable attitude toward those
in authority.
Family-Relationship Hazards – Deterioration in any human relationship is hazardous to
good personal and social adjustments.

Middle Childhood
The ages of six through eleven comprise middle childhood and much of what children
experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of
school. Now the world becomes one of learning and testing new academic skills and by
assessing one’s abilities and accomplishments by making comparisons between self
and others. Schools compare students and make these comparisons public through
team sports, test scores, and other forms of recognition. Growth rates slow down and
children are able to refine their motor skills at this point in life. And children begin to
learn about social relationships beyond the family through interaction with friends and
fellow students.

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Developmental Tasks

Sreevani (2007:33) indicates that it is typical for children in the middle childhood phase
to looking beyond the family and interact with their social system; they also need to
acquire social skills, incorporate social values and patterns and interact with peers.
Louw, van Ede and Ferns (1998:326) elaborate by mentioning that children‘s
development in this phase, especially their expansion of experience, prepares them for
the challenges of the adolescent years that follow. Balanced development during middle
childhood thus serves as the foundation for later development. Newman and Newman
(2009:279) state that new developmental tasks emerge as children become focused on
friendship formation, concrete mental operations, skill learning, selfevaluation and team
play. The developmental tasks relevant in this study, which need to be mastered during
middle childhood, are: self-image, relationships, cognitive and language development,
emotional development, gender role identification and moral judgment and behaviour.

Self-image:

Zembar and Blume (2009:234) point out that many related terms are used by
developmental, clinical and personality psychologists to describe individuals‘
understanding and evaluation of 59 themselves. Self-image, self-concept, self-worth
and self-esteem are used interchangeably by authors to describe the phenomenon of a
person‘s estimation of what he/she is presenting to others. The researcher hence views

6
the acquisition of a positive self-image in this regard as the developmental task of
middle childhood and the other factors as means or indicators of the self image that a
child has obtained, whether positive or negative. According to Harter (2006:375-377),
children experience some degree of discrepancy between what they like to be (or think
they ought to be) and what they think they are. When that discrepancy is high, the
child's self-esteem will be low, and vice versa. She further indicates that self-esteem of
children manifests in their behaviour. Dombeck and Oswalt (2010) agree and elucidate
that children‘s picture of who they are and what they are capable of become more
complex in middle childhood. They start to compare themselves to others, across a
wide variety of traits and characteristics such as appearance, intelligence, physical
abilities or artistic abilities. Children consequently start to view themselves as more or
less capable within different domains of accomplishment (academic, social, athletics,
appearance, etc.). Their self-esteem reflects their feelings of personal worthiness with
the result that children may see themselves as very capable in some areas but not in
others. A boy might for example determine that he is a promising artist but a much
worse athlete than his friend is. Geldard and Geldard (2002:115) observe that a
negative self-concept develops ―when children interpret their participation in past and
subsequent experiences as sneaky, incompetent, inept, disloyal, secretive, naughty,
nasty or stupid‖. Children's overall self-esteem may fluctuate or decrease as they start
this process of social comparison in earnest. However, with proper caregiver support
and guidance, children's selfesteem will generally rise again during this period as
children find and focus on their strengths, address their weaknesses, and recognize that
their general acceptability to those they depend upon does not depend on their
becoming perfect people. Of course, this process of self-esteem regulation does not
happen for everyone and some children will go on to develop quite negative self-images
at this time (Dombeck & Oswalt, 2010). 60 This discussion indicated that self-image and
the development thereof stand related to the relationships in the child‘s life and their
comparison of their own abilities to the abilities of their friends. Acquiring and managing
positive relationships is thus a further developmental task of middle childhood.

Relationships:

A positive experience of the self (self-image, self-worth, self-esteem, self-concept)

develops from children‘s belief that they belong, have worth and are successful.
Relationships with parents, siblings, and peers become of greater importance and social
participation expands during middle childhood. Smith and Hart (2011:328) indicate that
―by middle childhood peers has greater salience in children‘s lives, with them
developing and maintaining friendship, functioning in stable groups of peers and
spending a considerable amount of time with peers‖. How their peers treat them places
them into a certain category of social status. Newman and Newman (2009:279) view
peer relationships as ―the forming of meaningful dyadic and group relationships,
participating in larger peer networks and experiencing peer acceptance or rejection‖.
Charlesworth et al. (2011:192) point to the acquisition of positive group identity or
identities as a developmental task widely associated with middle childhood. This
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requires an increased attention to social rules and an increased ability to consider other
peoples point of view. Social status also becomes important and children compete for
this. Fisher and Lerner (2005:817) agree in their statement that peer relationships
become increasingly more significant during middle childhood as reliance on parents for
social needs is replaced with a need for companionship, intimacy and enhancement of
worth from peers and friends. Huston and Ripke (2006:11) elaborate in this regard that
deviant peers can lead children astray and prosocial peers can support positive
direction which further highlights the fact that friendship and social skills are crucial
influences on children‘s well-being and future relationships.

Gender Role Identification:

Ghosh (2009) defines gender identity as ―a personal conception of oneself as male or

female which intimately relates to the concept of gender role; which is defined as ‗the
outward manifested personality that reflects the gender identity‘‖. Schor (1999:89)
postulates on the gender theme in his indication that gender identification continues to
become more firmly established in middle childhood, not only in children‘s interest in
playing more exclusively with youngsters of their own sex, but also in their interest in
acting like, looking like and having things like their same-sex peers. During this time of
life, children express their gender identity through gender-specific role behaviour

Cognitive and Language Development:

Cognitive and language skills are a further important developmental task in this phase.
Cognitive development in middle childhood, happens "beneath the surface", so to speak
according to Oswalt (2010). She bases this statement on the fact that it is difficult, for
instance, to track the development of children's cognitive operations or the expansion of
their information processing abilities across time without observing what children do
when confronted with specially designed problems and tasks or to having them sit
through formal tests of attention and memory. While most children master the basics of
language in preschool and early childhood, the middle childhood period continues to be
important to the mastery of language. Cohan (2001:74) collaborate that memory
improve in middle childhood and that language plays a role here because information
that can be encoded verbally is more likely to be remembered.

Moral Judgment and Behaviour:

Moral values and its eminence in the lives of children are further developed in the
middle childhood years. Lawrence Kohlberg, inspired by the work of Piaget, made an
important contribution to our understanding of the moral development of children.
Geldard and Geldard (2002:33) note that Kohlberg‘s outlook links the relationship
between Piaget‘s concepts of cognitive development and gaining moral values. Oswalt
(2010) indicates that, according to Kohlberg, children in their middle childhood stage of
development typically display "pre-conventional" moral reasoning. They thus display
8
internalized, basic, culturally prescribed rules, governing right and wrong behaviour.
They will, for example, recognize that it is considered immoral to steal from others.
Children will tend to live in accordance with these rules but primarily for selfish reasons,
as a way of avoiding punishment and obtaining praise for themselves. Carpendale
(2000:193) points out that in the later years of middle childhood, children realize that
morally good behaviours get attention and derive praise and positive regard from peers
and adults, while morally bad choices bring about unpleasant and harmful
consequences.

Emotional Development:

Emotional development is an imperative developmental task in middle childhood and

seeing as it is the focus of this study, it is a vital issue to deal with in this context.
Tokuhama-Espinosa (2011:54) points to the fact that one of the first links between
emotions and learning was introduced as the affective filter hypothesis, suggesting that
how we feel influences what we are able to learn. Thus indicating that emotions affect
how, what and why we learn. The next chapter is solely focussed on emotions and its
setting within the study. Emotional development as a developmental task within middle
childhood will thus be highlighted in broad terms in chapter 4. Crawford [as] indicates
that children need to develop emotional abilities in different areas in middle childhood,
namely. Self-conscious emotions: Pride and guilt become self-governed by
accomplishments and awareness of transgressions. Pride motivates children to try new
things, guilt prompts them to make amends and try harder. Shaming on the other hand,
based on negative judgments of the child‘s qualities or personality, is destructive and
will kill motivation. Emotional understanding: Children need to learn to appreciate mixed
emotions, for example something good may also hold something disappointing. They
also need to realize that people do not always show what they feel. Emotional self-
regulation: If the anxiety-producing event is controllable (e.g. a test), the child can work
towards success and engage support. If the event is not controllable, they can distract
themselves or redefine the situation (e.g. sour grapes). If they can manage the situation
well, they 65 develop a sense of emotional self-efficacy (feeling in control of their
emotional experience). These children tend to be happier, more empathic, helpful and
better liked by peers. Less emotionally controlled children have peer problems and less
empathy.

Developmental Hazards

Illness:

It upsets the body’s homeostasis which in turn makes children irritable, demanding and
difficult to live with.

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Accidents:

Older children tent to be more cautious after an accident. This may lead to timidity
concerning all physical activities and even spread to other areas of behaviour.

Obesity:

This may due to glandular condition but more often due to overeating. Obese children
are more prone to diabetes. Obese children lose out in active play and so essential to
social success.

Awkwardness:

Prevent them from doing what their playmates do or from keeping pace with them in
play. They start to think of themselves as being inferior to their playmates.

Physical Disabilities:

Most of these are the after effects of accidents. The seriousness depends on the
disability and on the way others treat the child. Most disabled children become incited
and ill at ease in social situation.

Homeliness:

It is a hazard if other people react unfavourably and communicate their feeling by the
way they treat homely children. The interpretation of rejection can have a harmful effect
on their developing self-concepts.

Sex- Inappropriate Body Builds:

Girls with masculine body builds and boys with girlish physiques are like to be ridiculed
by their peers and pitied by adults. This leads to personal and social maladjustments.

ADOLESCENCE STAGE
Adolescence is a socially constructed concept. In pre-industrial society, children were
considered adults when they reached physical maturity, but today we have an extended
time between childhood and adulthood called adolescence. Adolescence is the period
of development that begins at puberty and ends at emerging adulthood, which is
discussed later. In the United States, adolescence is seen as a time to develop
independence from parents while remaining connected to them. The typical age range
of adolescence is from 12 to 18 years, and this stage of development also has some
predictable physical, cognitive, and psychosocial milestones.

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Developmental Tasks

Physical Development:

Adolescence begins with puberty. While the sequence of physical changes in puberty is
predictable, the onset and pace of puberty vary widely. Several physical changes occur
during puberty, such as adrenarche and gonadarche, the maturing of the adrenal glands
and sex glands, respectively. Also during this time, primary and secondary sexual
characteristics develop and mature. Primary sexual characteristics are organs
specifically needed for reproduction, like the uterus and ovaries in females and testes in
males. Secondary sexual characteristics are physical signs of sexual maturation that do
not directly involve sex organs, such as development of breasts and hips in girls, and
development of facial hair and a deepened voice in boys. Girls experience menarche,
the beginning of menstrual periods, usually around 12–13 years old, and boys
experience spermarche, the first ejaculation, around 13–14 years old.
During puberty, both sexes experience a rapid increase in height (i.e., growth spurt). For
girls this begins between 8 and 13 years old, with adult height reached between 10 and
16 years old. Boys begin their growth spurt slightly later, usually between 10 and 16
years old, and reach their adult height between 13 and 17 years old. Both nature (i.e.,
genes) and nurture (e.g., nutrition, medications, and medical conditions) can influence
height.
The adolescent brain also remains under development. Up until puberty, brain cells
continue to bloom in the frontal region. Adolescents engage in increased risk-taking
behaviors and emotional outbursts possibly because the frontal lobes of their brains are
still developing. Recall that this area is responsible for judgment, impulse control, and
planning, and it is still maturing into early adulthood (Casey, Tottenham, Liston, &
Durston, 2005).

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Cognitive Development:

More complex thinking abilities emerge during adolescence. Some researchers suggest
this is due to increases in processing speed and efficiency rather than as the result of
an increase in mental capacity—in other words, due to improvements in existing skills
rather than development of new ones (Bjorkland, 1987; Case, 1985). During
adolescence, teenagers move beyond concrete thinking and become capable of
abstract thought. Recall that Piaget refers to this stage as formal operational thought.
Teen thinking is also characterized by the ability to consider multiple points of view,
imagine hypothetical situations, debate ideas and opinions (e.g., politics, religion, and
justice), and form new ideas

Cognitive empathy, also known as theory-of-mind (which we discussed earlier with

regard to egocentrism), relates to the ability to take the perspective of others and feel
concern for others (Shamay-Tsoory, Tomer, & Aharon-Peretz, 2005). Cognitive
empathy begins to increase in adolescence and is an important component of social
problem solving and conflict avoidance. According to one longitudinal study, levels of
cognitive empathy begin rising in girls around 13 years old, and around 15 years old in
boys (Van der Graaff et al., 2013). Teens who reported having supportive fathers with
whom they could discuss their worries were found to be better able to take the
perspective of others

Adolescents continue to refine their sense of self as they relate to others. Erikson
referred to the task of the adolescent as one of identity versus role confusion. Thus, in
Erikson’s view, an adolescent’s main questions are “Who am I?” and “Who do I want to
be?” Some adolescents adopt the values and roles that their parents expect for them.
Other teens develop identities that are in opposition to their parents but align with a peer
group. This is common as peer relationships become a central focus in adolescents’
lives.

As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their parents, and the
peer group becomes very important (Shanahan, McHale, Osgood, & Crouter, 2007).
Despite spending less time with their parents, most teens report positive feelings toward
them (Moore, Guzman, Hair, Lippman, & Garrett, 2004). Warm and healthy parent-child
relationships have been associated with positive child outcomes, such as better grades
and fewer school behavior problems, in the United States as well as in other countries
(Hair et al., 2005).

It appears that most teens don’t experience adolescent storm and stress to the degree
once famously suggested by G. Stanley Hall, a pioneer in the study of adolescent
development. Only small numbers of teens have major conflicts with their parents
(Steinberg & Morris, 2001), and most disagreements are minor. For example, in a study
of over 1,800 parents of adolescents from various cultural and ethnic groups, Barber
(1994) found that conflicts occurred over day-to-day issues such as homework, money,
curfews, clothing, chores, and friends. These types of arguments tend to decrease as
teens develop (Galambos & Almeida, 1992).

Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wsu-sandbox/chapter/stages-of-
development/#Figure_09_04_Growth

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Developmental Hazards:

Pictures of the brain in action show that adolescents' brains work differently than adults when
they make decisions or solve problems. Their actions are guided more by the emotional and
reactive amygdala and less by the thoughtful, logical frontal cortex. Research has also shown
that exposure to drugs and alcohol during the teen years can change or delay these
developments.

Based on the stage of their brain development, adolescents are more likely to:

 act on impulse
 misread or misinterpret social cues and emotions
 get into accidents of all kinds
 get involved in fights
 engage in dangerous or risky behavior

Adolescents are less likely to:

 think before they act

 pause to consider the consequences of their actions
 change their dangerous or inappropriate behaviors

These brain differences don't mean that young people can't make good decisions or tell the
difference between right and wrong. It also doesn't mean that they shouldn't be held responsible
for their actions. However, an awareness of these differences can help parents, teachers,
advocates, and policy makers understand, anticipate, and manage the behavior of adolescents.

Adolescents today are more vulnerable to health implications due to their nature of
experimenting and exposure to limited information regarding issues affecting their health and
development. Problems in this age are related to their physical and emotional development and
search for identity and risky behaviour.

Physical Changes Sexual Development Emotional and

Changes Psychological Changes
Normal growth - anxiety
and tension Desire to have sex -
Increase in height and unsafe sex, unwanted
weight-malnutrition and pregnancy, RTI/STI,
anaemia HIV/AIDS
Breast development – Ejaculation-fear, guilt,
stooping of shoulders, myths and emotional Development of self-identity-
abnormal posture and problem confusion
back pain Masturbation –myths, Curiosity –risk taking
confusion, inadequate behaviour , eating behaviour
Skin becomes oily – and life style disorders such as
acne knowledge
smoking, alcohol and drugs
Body image – Menstruation–menstrual
disorder, unhygienic Relationships –peer pressure ,
requirement for protein, parental relationships and
energy, prevalence of practices leads to
RTI/STI sexual relationships
malnutrition

Source: http://vikaspedia.in/health/women-health/adolescent-health-1/management-of-
adolescent-health/adolescent-growth-and-development#section-3

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EARLY ADULTHOOD

The twenties and thirties are often thought of as early adulthood. (Students who are in
their mid 30s tend to love to hear that they are a young adult!). It is a time when we are
at our physiological peak but are most at risk for involvement in violent crimes and
substance abuse. It is a time of focusing on the future and putting a lot of energy into
making choices that will help one earn the status of a full adult in the eyes of
others. Love and work are primary concerns at this stage of life.

Developmental Tasks

Early adulthood can be a very busy time of life. Havighurst (1972) describes some of
the developmental tasks of young adults. These include:

 Achieving autonomy: trying to establish oneself as an independent person with a

life of one’s own
 Establishing identity: more firmly establishing likes, dislikes, preferences, and
philosophies
 Developing emotional stability: becoming more stable emotionally which is
considered a sign of maturing
 Establishing a career: deciding on and pursuing a career or at least an initial
career direction and pursuing an education
 Finding intimacy: forming first close, long-term relationships
 Becoming part of a group or community: young adults may, for the first time,
become involved with various groups in the community. They may begin voting or
volunteering to be part of civic organizations (scouts, church groups, etc.). This is
especially true for those who participate in organizations as parents.
 Establishing a residence and learning how to manage a household: learning how
to budget and keep a home maintained.
 Becoming a parent and rearing children: learning how to manage a household
with children. Making marital adjustments and learning to parent.

Developmental Hazards
The major hazards of stems from a failure to master some or most of the important
developmental tasks for that age making the individual seem immature.
Poor health or physical defects:
Adults who are handicapped by poor health cannot achieve what they are capable of in
their vocational or social lives which results to frustrations.

14
Adults find their unattractive appearance detrimental and an almost insurmountable
barrier to upward social mobility.

MIDDLE ADULTHOOD
The late thirties through the mid-sixties is referred to as middle adulthood. This is a
period in which aging, that began earlier, becomes more noticeable and a period at
which many people are at their peak of productivity in love and work. It may be a period
of gaining expertise in certain fields and being able to understand problems and find
solutions with greater efficiency than before. It can also be a time of becoming more
realistic about possibilities in life previously considered; of recognizing the difference
between what is possible and what is likely. This is also the age group hardest hit by the
AIDS epidemic in Africa resulting in a substantial decrease in the number of workers in
those economies (Weitz, 2007).

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Developmental Tasks
Physical Changes:

For those in middle adulthood, aging is inevitable. By age 64, visible signs are apparent,
such as gray and thinning hair, wrinkles, the need for reading and bifocal eyeglasses,
and some hearing loss. Internally, changes are taking place as well, with some decline
in the major organs, including the lungs, heart and digestive system; additionally women
undergo menopause sometime between the ages of 42 and 51. Developmentalists call
these forms of aging primary, meaning that the changes are inevitable and happen to
everyone regardless of race, ethnicity, culture or socioeconomic class.

Secondary aging, however, is the result of unhealthy behaviors, such as smoking, drug
use, unhealthy eating, alcohol abuse, obesity and lack of exercise. Death rates for this
age group remain relatively low, although the two major illnesses that do affect the
health and mortality of this age group are heart disease and cancer: analysis from a
2006 report by the nonprofit group Life Insurance Foundation for Education finds that
the leading causes of death for males ages 45-65 is heart disease, followed by cancer.
For females ages 35-64, the leading cause of death is cancer. Researchers have
proven, however, that exercise alone reduces the risk of almost every serious illness in
middle adulthood - especially heart disease and cancer. Add healthy eating and the
elimination of tobacco and alcohol use to middle-age lifestyles, and major illnesses can
literally be halted altogether. And exercise slows many primary aging changes too, such
as the physiological changes taking place within the vital organs.

Developmentalists also study individuals' vitality, or "joy of living" during the middle adult
years as they have found high correlations between positive, upbeat attitudes and
physical and mental health. These researchers have found that negativity caused by
stress or conditions such as depression or anxiety can even eventually lead to chronic
physical conditions in otherwise healthy bodies.

Cognitive Changes:

Until the middle of the 20th century, it was thought that intelligence peaked in
adolescence and then began to decline, and continued its descent over the remainder
of a person's life. However, psychological researchers, particularly the work of K.
Warner Schaie and his 1956 study called the Seattle Longitudinal Study, have proven
that hypothesis incorrect, proving that some aspects of intelligence, such as vocabulary
skills, actually increase until about age 60. Schaie's research project studied the aging
and cognition of individuals from birth through the entire life span. Two researchers

16
during the 1960s, Raymond Cattell and John Horn, identified two categories of
intelligence - crystallized and fluid intelligence. These researchers argued that fluid
intelligence, or the ability to process new concepts and facts quickly and creatively,
including abstract reasoning problems, independent of previous education or learning,
peaks in adolescence and then starts a gradual decline between the ages of 30 and
40.On the other hand, crystallized intelligence, or the stored knowledge gained from
experience and education, becomes higher as people age. Facts like mathematical or
chemical formulas, vocabulary size and history dates are all examples of crystallized
intelligence. And researcher James Flynn has shown that each new generation of IQ
test takers scores higher than previous generations. Researchers point to better
education, nutrition and health as contributing factors.

Although younger generations score higher on IQ tests than older generations, that
doesn't mean that the intellectual abilities of adults diminish. To the contrary, middle
adulthood is a time when many people have acquired a particular vocational expertise
that makes them uniquely more qualified and capable than younger adults. This means
that many in midlife are at the height of their careers, which also means increased job
responsibilities. Career pressures combined with other changes taking place in their
lives requires the ability to adequately juggle personal and professional responsibilities.

Those in this age group typically need to simultaneously manage a variety of family
issues including children at various ages of development, aging, ill parents and financial
concerns and worries. But by middle age, many individuals are better at handling the
stresses of life. Through experience, flexible thinking, higher levels of intuition and
adaptability, and the support of friendships that have been nurtured over the years, this
age group typically conquers these challenges artfully and with expertise. And by
adequately managing major life stressors, many individuals gain a sense of
empowerment and confidence.

However, those who do struggle with middle-age stressors generally find that such
stressors can negatively impact their overall health - especially as they get older and
enter older adulthood. Alcoholism and overeating are examples of negative approaches
to problem-solving, that are particularly relevant to this age group. In fact, according to
the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the obesity prevalence for men
and women aged 50-59 years increased to 31.7% and 30.2%, respectively from 19.1%
for men and women aged 18-29 years. The CDC also reports that 30% of current
consumers of alcohol drink excessively.

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Emotional Changes:

Just about everyone has heard of the "midlife" crisis. Supposedly this is a time of great
emotional upheaval, anxiety, and drastic changes in behavior. But professionals
specializing in developmental psychology characterize this time period quite differently,
and research supporting the evidence of midlife crisis simply doesn't exist. Most middle-
aged individuals say that they are in meaningful intimate relationships, including those
who have been married for several years. For those who divorce and remarry, many
report satisfying intimacy although most report that remarriage brings a new set of
challenges.

And developmentalists have found that most people in this age group have less
problems with their children and also better relationships with their own parents.

Most middle-aged individuals say that they are in meaningful intimate relationships,
including those who have been married for several years. For those who divorce and
remarry, many report satisfying intimacy although most report that remarriage brings a
new set of challenges.

And developmentalists have found that most people in this age group have less
problems with their children and also better relationships with their own parents.

Developmental Hazards
The major hazards stems from the tendency of many men and women to accept the
cultural stereotype of the middle-aged person as fat, forty and balding.

Acceptance of traditional beliefs:

It has profound influence on attitudes toward the physical changes that comes with
advancing age.

Idealization of youth:
Many middle-aged people are in constant rebellion against the restrictions age places
on their usual patterns of behaviour.

Role Changes:
Changing role is never easy, especially after one had played and has learned to derive
satisfaction from them.
Too much success in one role make adjustments to another role difficult.

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Changing interests:
They are likely to become bored and wonder how they can spend their leisure time.

Status Symbols:
Can be hazard if families cannot afford the status symbols they want.
These tend to lead to frictional relationships with spouses.

Unrealistic aspirations:
They face a serious hazard when they realize they have fallen short of their goals and
that time is fast running.

LATE ADULTHOOD/OLD AGE STAGE

This period of the life span has increased in the last 100 years, particularly in
industrialized countries. Late adulthood is sometimes subdivided into two or three
categories such as the “young old” and “old old” or the “young old”, “old old”, and “oldest
old”. We will follow the former categorization and make the distinction between the
“young old” who are people between 65 and 79 and the “old old” or those who are 80
and older. One of the primary differences between these groups is that the young old
are very similar to midlife adults; still working, still relatively healthy, and still interested
in being productive and active. The “old old” remain productive and active and the
majority continues to live independently, but risks of the diseases of old age such as
arteriosclerosis, cancer, and cerebral vascular disease increases substantially for this
age group. Issues of housing, healthcare, and extending active life expectancy are only
a few of the topics of concern for this age group. A better way to appreciate the
diversity of people in late adulthood is to go beyond chronological age and examine
whether a person is experiencing optimal aging (like the gentleman pictured above who
is in very good health for his age and continues to have an active, stimulating
life), normal aging (in which the changes are similar to most of those of the same age),
or impaired aging (referring to someone who has more physical challenge and disease
than others of the same age).

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Developmental Tasks
Adjusting to Deterioration Health and Physical Strength:
The elderly must accept the fact that they are physically weak. They must not engage
themselves in activities that require higher health quotient. They should, however,
engage in leisure activities that involves mental and physical exercises optimal to their
potential.
Adjusting to Retirement and Reduced Income:
A central developmental task that characterizes the transition into old age is adjustment
to retirement. The period after retirement has to be filled with new projects, but is
characterized by few valid cultural guidelines. Adaptation to retirement involves both
potential gains (e. g., self actualization) and loses (e.g., loss of self esteem).
Meeting Social and Civil Obligations: This developmental task involves a role change,
unlike the middle age, the elderly has minimal role in economic activities. They must
engage themselves in activities associated with wisdom and share their valuable
experiences to the younger generation through possible social interactions.
Adjusting to Death or Loss of Spouse:
One of the most bitter tasks of old age is coping to the death of spouse. It is difficult one
as it contributes to the loneliness of the spouse. This task is more difficult for women
who depend on men for their economic resources.
Affiliation with Members of One’s Age Group:
Loneliness is a curse for the old aged. Bye making healthy friendships with people of
same age they can overcome the same to a great extent. Small groups of elderly can
be very helpful in this regard.
Establishing Good Physical Living Arrangement:
A minimum standard of life is required for a successful old age. Once has to arrange the
same through good planning in his middle age. Elderly has to take good care about their
living environment and ensure its quality.

Developmental Hazards
This is due partly to the physical and mental decline that makes the elderly more
vulnerable to potential hazards and partly to lack of recognition of these potential
hazards on the part of the social group.
Disease and Physical Handicaps:
Elderly people are most commonly inflicted by circulatory disturbances, metabolic
disorders, involutional mental disorders, disorders of the joints, tumors, heart disease,
rheumatism, arthritis, visual and hearing impairment, hypertension, gait disorders and
mental and nervous conditions.

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