Engineering Failure Analysis 94 (2018) 379–395

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Engineering Failure Analysis

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Review

Combating hot corrosion of boiler tubes – A study

T
⁎
Santosh Kumara,b, Manoj Kumarc, , Amit Handaa
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, IKG Punjab Technical University, Kapurthala, Punjab, India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, CGC- College of Engineering, Landran, Mohali, Punjab, India
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chandigarh University, Gharuan, Mohali, Punjab, India

A R T IC LE I N F O ABS TRA CT

Keywords: The premature failure of boiler tubes, especially in coal fired boilers poses serious threat to the
Thermal spray coatings efficiency of the Indian boilers. In coal fired thermal power plant boilers, hot corrosion and
Erosion-corrosion erosion is the primary reason behind downtime, which leads to huge economic losses. So the
Boiler environment consolidated results of the various researchers working in the area of combating hot corrosion of
Oxidation
boiler tubes, especially in context with Indian boilers (both actual and simulated environment)
are presented in this article. These results help the researchers in selecting an appropriate and
accurate coating material composition, coating process and parameters for a particular boiler
steel to improve the life of boiler tubes. So, that, any unwanted damage of boiler tubes due to hot
corrosion could be minimized.

1. Introduction

Overall economic loss due to all the types of corrosion in India, accounts to US$ 6500 million annually [1]. Corrosion under high
temperature environment known as hot corrosion is the oxidation of materials under accelerated conditions. This is induced by a thin
film of fused salt deposit [2]. The fireside corrosion of boiler tubes occurs due to the reaction of sulphur species in the gas phase with
surface of metal [3]. The presence of sulphur content in low- grade coal produces SO2 due to combustion, which is partly oxidized to
SO3. This SO3 further reacts with NaCl and water vapour to give Na2SO4 (melting point 884 °C), at combustion temperatures [4]. A
small amount of vanadium may also be present in coal, which on combustion forms V2O5 (melting point 670 °C). This may further
react with Na2SO4 to form sodium vanadate's having a low melting point. These sodium vanadates are extremely corrosive to high
temperature materials used in the combustion system [5, 6].
As reported by Shih et al. [7] when metals and alloys confined with a thin layer of liquefied salt at elevated temperature in gas
environment, then oxidation appears at higher rates. This category of oxidation is known as hot corrosion. Due to high temperature
corrosion rapid erosion/deterioration of metal and alloy take place which is commenced by liquid salt deposits (Na2SO4). There are
number of deposits such as sulfates of Na, Ca, and K, as well as vanadates and carbonates that have been shown to cause hot corrosion
of alloys. Fig. 1 shows the condition that causes hot corrosion of metals and alloys [8].
Viswanathan, R. et al. [9] reported that in the U.S., 70% of the electricity is produced in fossil power plants, 15% in nuclear power
plants, 12% in hydraulic power plants and the rest from other types of sources. In steam power plant, the fossil fuel may be pulverized
coal or natural gas. Due to the low cost and availability, coal is most commonly used in steam turbine plants. The layout of various
elements of a coal fired steam power plant is shown in Fig. 2.
In Indian coal fired boiler, the coal contains 50% ash, which contains nearly 15% abrasive mineral species (hard quartz) that

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: santosh.3267@cgc.edu.in, manoj.me@cumail.in (M. Kumar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2018.08.004
Received 5 May 2018; Received in revised form 14 July 2018; Accepted 12 August 2018
Available online 15 August 2018
1350-6307/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Kumar et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 94 (2018) 379–395

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram showing conditions that cause hot corrosion of metals and alloys [8].

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of a coal-fired steam power plant [9].

increase the erosion propensity of coal [10]. The Indian coal proved to be exceptional in that they had a quantity of alkali feldspars,
(K, Na) AlSi3O8, a garnet (Mg, Fe2+)3 Al2Si3O12, and minerals usually thought of as trace elements of a coal [11].
Due to the presence of oxygen, carbon, and sulphur in the gaseous atmosphere, it may cause rapid material degradation because
of its corrosive nature and result in the premature failure of machine components [12]. Combustion of coal produces very corrosive
media, especially near the superheater tubes of the coal fired boilers. The super heater tubes suffering serious fireside corrosion,
sulphate salts concentrate on the deposit/scale interface and become partially fused since these salts incorporate alkali metals of
sodium (Na) and potassium (K) [13]. In the combustion systems, much of the sodium (Na) and potassium (K) is volatilized from the
mineral matters in the flame to form Na2O and K2O vapours. The sulphur (S) released from the coal, forms SO2 with a minor amount
of SO3 and reacts with the volatilized alkali to form Na2SO4 vapours, which then condense together with fly ash on the boiler tubes.

1.1. Hot corrosion

Hot corrosion may be characterized as accelerated corrosion, resulting from the presence of salt contaminants (Na2SO4, NaCl, and
V2O5) that combine to form molten deposits, which damage the protective surface oxides.

1.1.1. Characteristics of hot corrosion

Hot corrosion is mainly classified into two types of attack, namely: Type 1 or High temperature hot corrosion and Type II or Low
temperature hot corrosion. Numerous parameters may affect the development of these two types of hot corrosion such as composition
of alloys, contaminant, temperature, flux rate, velocity, temperature cycles, erosion process and thermo-mechanical condition.

1.1.1.1. Type 1 hot corrosion. It occurs at elevated temperature 850–950 °C (above melting point of Na2SO4) [14, 15]. It begins with
the condensation of fused alkali metal salts like sodium sulfide, sodium carbonate, and sodium acetate etc. on the surface of the
exposed parts to elevated temperature. Then the chemical reaction occurs and initially attacks the protective oxide film and
continuously reduces the chromium (Cr) content of the substrate materials. Due to the reduction in chromium content, oxidation of

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the substrate rapidly increases and porous scale form.

In many cases the macroscopic appearance of type I hot corrosion is characterized by severe peeling of metallic elements and by
significant colour changes. In addition, due to the formation of NiO in the range of accelerated attack, a greenish tone appears on the
surface of metals. Microscopically, the morphology of Type I hot corrosion is characterized by a sulphidation and depletion region
below the porous, non-protective scale. The reaction products usually show oxide precipitates dispersed in the salt film [16].

1.1.1.2. Type II hot corrosion. It takes place at 650–800 °C temperature (less than the melting point of Na2SO4, in the presence of small
amounts of SO3) [17, 18]. It is described by a pitting attack with little attack underneath. In this type of hot corrosion, low melting
point eutectic mixtures of sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) and cobalt sulfate (CoSO4) cause typical pitting in the confined areas. The
localized nature of type II hot corrosion is related to localized failure of the scale as a result of erosion, thermal cycling, and chemical
reactions. In low temperature hot corrosion microscopic sulphidation and chromium depletion is normally not observed [19].
Although the mechanism of hot corrosion is mainly depends on temperature. As the temperature is raised the attack shifts from
type II to type I hot corrosion [20].

1.2. Mechanism of hot corrosion

The commencement of high temperature hot corrosion is due to failure of the protective oxide layer, which permits the molten
salt to access directly to the substrate material (metal/alloy). This failure may be due to erosion, erosion-corrosion, thermal stresses
and chemical reactions. The two different mechanisms suggested for type I hot corrosion propagation stages are the sulphidatio-
n–oxidation mechanism and the salt fluxing mechanisms [17]. Goebel and Pettit et al. [21, 22] initially suggested the salt fluxing
mechanism and proposed that, the protection efficiency of the surface oxide layer might be lost due to fluxing of this layer in the
molten salt. Fluxing can be basic fluxing or acidic fluxing. The basic fluxing can be caused by a combination of oxides with O2 to form
anions, whereas acidic fluxing can be caused by decomposition of oxides into the corresponding cations and O2. Acidic fluxing occurs
when the O2 activity in the molten salt is considerably lowered; as it leads to much more severe oxidation reaction compared to basic
fluxing. As compared to basic fluxing, acidic fluxing can be self-sustaining, since the displacement of the salt from stoichiometry does
not become progressively more severe as the reaction proceeds [17].

1.3. Stages of hot corrosion

The hot corrosion of superalloys takes place in three different stages [23].

i) First stage (incubation stage): the reaction proceeds at a rate similar to normal oxidation.
ii) Second Stage (initiation stage): the corrosion is accelerated
iii) Third stage (propagation stage): rapid corrosion takes place.
After this stage ultimate failure of a component take place.

1.4. Erosion

Erosion is the mechanical phenomenon of wearing material from the target surface when solid particles hit the metal surface at
higher velocity. Erosion is the regular loss of material from a solid surface and the major cause for the down time of the machine parts
such as boiler tubes, turbine blade, and industrial waste incinerators [24]. The total economic loss due to solid erosion in power plant
boilers is estimated to be US$150 million per year [25, 26]. Erosion wear can be classified into four types: Solid Particle Erosion
(SPE), Liquid Impingement, Cavitation, and Slurry Erosion (SE). In SPE loss of material appears due to repeated impact of small, solid
particles entrained in air or gas.
Erosive wear of superheater and heat exchanger tube in coal fired boilers are identified as the main cause of downtime at power
generating plants (50–70% of their total arrest time) [27]. Maintenance costs for replacing damaged tubes in the same installations
are also very immense and can be approximated up to 54% of the total production cost. Hence oxidation and erosion by the impact of
fly ashes and unburned carbon particles at elevated temperature (above 600 °C) are the main problems to be solved in these ap-
plications. Therefore, the development of wear and hot corrosion protection systems in coal fired boilers are a very significant topic
from both engineering and an economic point of view [27].

2. Results & discussion

2.1. Studies by various researchers in simulated boiler environment

N. Bala et al. [28] investigated the accelerated hot corrosion studies of bare and cold spray Nie50Cr coated T22 and SA 516 boiler
steels in the accelerated boiler environment under cyclic conditions at 900 °C. The Nie50Cr coating was found to be effective in
reducing the overall weight gain of T22 and SA 516 boiler steel by 78% and 88% respectively. In another investigation N. Bala et al.
[29] studied the hot corrosion behaviour of Nie20Cr coating on SA 516 boiler steel under similar environment. The coating reduced
the weight gain by 87.2%, this may be due to the presence of oxides of Ni and Cr, dense microstructure and adherence to the
substrate. G. Kaushal et al. [30] investigated the hot Corrosion behavior of D-Gun, HVOF and cold sprayed Nie20Cr Coatings on T22

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steels. Among the three different coatings, detonation gun spray proved to be better in terms of hot corrosion resistance. This may be
due to the development of a protective Cr2O3 phase along with NiCr2O4 in its oxide scale. In addition to this the D-gun sprayed
coating was dense as compared to cold spray and HVOF spray that also helps to provide better corrosion resistance. B·S Sidhu et al.
[31] investigated the hot corrosion behaviour of uncoated and plasma-sprayed Ni3Al coatings on GrA1, T11, T22 steels in air and
molten salt environments. In the case of the molten salt environment (Na2SO4–60%V2O5), the coated GrA1boiler steel imparted more
hot corrosion resistance, whereas bare T22 steel showed the least hot corrosion resistance. The NiO, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 were primarily
responsible for contributing hot corrosion resistance. H. Singh et al. [32] studied high temperature corrosion behaviour of bare and
plasma sprayed NiCrAlY, Nie20Cr, Ni3Al and Stellite-6 on Superfer 800-H super alloy in the molten salt environment. The results
indicated NiCrAlY coating imparts highest corrosion resistance followed by Nie20Cr, Ni3Al and Stellite-6 respectively. The formation
of oxides and spinels of aluminum (Al), Nickel (Ni) and chromium (Cr) devoted to reducing hot corrosion. The hot corrosion be-
haviour of plasma sprayed & laser remelted stellite-6 coating on GrA1, T-11 and T-22 steels was studied in a molten salt environment
(Na2SO4–60%V2O5) by B.S. Sidhu et al. [33]. The Stellite −6 coated GrA1 showed maximum hot corrosion resistance, whereas
coated T22 steel provides less corrosion resistance. The Laser remelting coating was found beneficial in reducing the porosity value
(< 0.5%) and improving the microstructure. In another experiment the same coatings behaviour was studied on the same steels by
B.S. Sidhu et al. [34] but without laser remelting and it has been observed that GrA1 boiler steel has highest hot corrosion resistance
followed by T-11 and T-22 steels. H. Singh et al. [35] deposited the presynthesised Ni3Al powder on Superni-75 superalloy by the
plasma spray process. The hot corrosion rate (mg/cm2) of coated and uncoated samples was studied in a simulated environment
(Na2SO4–60V2O5) for 50 cycles at 900 °C. The overall weight gain for uncoated Superni-75 superalloy was less (6.82 mg/cm2) as
compared to hot corroded Ni3Al coated Superni-75. Although the coated selected specimen indicates a more weight gain, a large
value of the parabolic rate constant and thicker oxide scale during the corrosion analysis in comparison with uncoated specimen. But
the plasma sprayed Ni3Al coating was found to be successful in reducing the internal oxidation of the substrate superalloys. The
microhardness of the plasma sprayed Ni3Al coated Superni-75 superalloy was lower (172–205 Hv) as compared to bare superni-75
(281-321Hv). The XRD and EDAX analysis showed that the oxides of Ni and Al and their spinel could protect hot corrosion. A. Mangla
et al. [36] compared hot corrosion behaviour of high velocity oxy fuel and plasma sprayed Nie20Cr coating on T-22 boiler steel in
molten salt environment at 900 °C. From the result of SEM/EDS and X-ray diffraction tests it was found that HVOF sprayed coating
imparted the better resistance to hot corrosion than plasma sprayed coating in the simulated environment. D. Gond et al. [37]
deposited plasma sprayed Yttria- Stabilized Zirconia (YSZ) coating in the molten salt and air environment at 900 °C on T-91 boiler
steel to reduce hot corrosion. From the characterization techniques it was found that due to the formation of zirconium oxides (ZrO2)
and yttrium oxide (Y2O3), the coating provides better corrosion resistance. H. Singh et al. [38] observed that NiCrAlY plasma sprayed
coating on Superni-75 and 600 reduce more hot corrosion than Nie20Cr coating. This may be due to the presence of oxides of Cr /Al,
and spinel containing NieCr mixed oxides, which are reported to be protective against the hot corrosion. S. Prakash et al. [39] also
investigated that plasma sprayed NiCrAlY coating on Superni-718 increase maximum hot corrosion resistance followed by Nie20Cr,
Ni3Al and satellite −6 coating respectively at 900 °C.
S. Prakash et al. [39] studied the hot corrosion performance of Ni-based superalloy (NiCoCrAlYTa) at 900 °C for 100 cycles in the
molten salt environment. From the result, it is found that the superfer 800H super alloy experienced a catastrophic hot corrosion
attack which results in severe sputtering and spalling of the scale. The improved protection may be due to the development of thick
and adherent of chromium and aluminum oxide scale on coating. These oxides developed over the circumference of nickel rich splat

Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of the proposed oxidation mechanism of the D-Gun sprayed NiCoCrAlYTa-coating on SF 800H at 900 °C in Na2SO4–25%
K2 SO4 after 100 cycles. [39].

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Fig. 4. X-Ray diffraction patterns for NiCr coated steels exposed to cyclic oxidation in Na2SO4–60%V2O5 at 900 °C after 50 cycles. [48].

borders in the subscale region. The schematic diagram of the oxidation mechanism of the D-Gun-sprayed NiCoCrAlYTa coating on
Superfer 800H at 900 °C in the molten salt environment (Na2SO4–25% K2 SO4) for 100 cycles represented in Fig. 3.
H. Singh et al. [40] in another investigation demonstrated that plasma sprayed NiCrAl coating on superni-600 provides higher hot
corrosion resistance as compared to Nie20Cr, Ni3Al and satellite −6 coating. Many authors [41–49] deposited HVOF sprayed, WC-
Co, satellite-6, Ni, Cr, and Fe, based coating on different boiler steel at 900 °C. H.S. Sidhu et al. [48] successfully deposited NiCr
coatings on GrA1, T-11, and T-22 boiler steels by LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) assisted HVOF spray process. The kinetics of

Fig. 5. X-ray diffraction pattern of D-gun-sprayed Cr2O3–50% Al2O3 coating on (a) ASTM-SA213-T-22 boiler steel, (b) Superfer 800H superalloy
[53].

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Fig. 6. XRD patterns of conventional NiCrC coating in as- deposited state (a) and after corrosion in Na2SO4–30%K2SO4 salt at 550 °C (b), 650 °C (c)
and 750 °C (d) for 160 h [66].

Fig. 7. XRD patterns of nanostructured NiCrC coating in as-deposited state (a) and after corrosion in Na2SO4–30%K2SO4 environment at 550 °C (b),
650 °C (c) and 750 °C (d) for 160 h [66].

corrosion was studied using thermo gravimetric at 900 °C in the molten salt environment. From the experiments result of SEM/EDAX,
XRD and EPMA techniques, the NiCr coating on GrA1, T-11, and T-22 steel reduce hot corrosion in the order of 96.97, 94.13, and
95.26% respectively. This may be due to the formation of protective oxide such as NiO, Cr2O3 and NiCr2O4. The porosity, thickness,
and average microhardness of the NiCr coating were found to be < 1%, 300 μm, and 400Hv respectively.
The bare steels specimen shows Fe2O3 as the main ingredient of scale. Whereas NieCr coated samples indicate the presence of
Fe2O3, Cr2O3, NiO and NiCr2O4 phases in the scales as shown in Fig. 4.
The uncoated boiler tube steels samples showed peeling of scale, intense spalling, cracking and enormous weight gain during hot
corrosion studies in Na2SO4–60%V2O5 at 900 °C.Whereas coated selected specimen showed more hot corrosion resistance. The hot
corrosion behaviour of various coatings was studied by various researchers on distinct boiler steels at 900 °C [50–58]. A. Rani et al.
[53] reduces hot corrosion resistance (97%) and (19.92%) in Na2SO4–60%V2O5 environment by depositing D-gun sprayed
Cr2O3–50% Al2O3 on T-22 steel and superfer 800-H respectively. From the results of SEM/EDAX and X-ray diffraction methods it was
found that uncoated alloys have suffered intense spallation in the form of removal of their oxide scales, which may be due to the
formation of non-protective Fe2O3-dominated oxide scales. On the other side coated alloys have shown lower weight gains along with
the improved adhesiveness of the oxide scales with the substrate.The XRD diffractograms of the D-gun-sprayed Cr2O3–50% Al2O3
coating in as- sprayed conditions on ASTM-SA213-T-22 boiler steel and Fe-based superalloys Superfer 800H are represented in Fig.5.
The uncoated T-22 boiler steel showed a gray-colored flimsy scale during initial cycles and spalling of scale starts just after fifth

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Table 1a
Summary of Hot Corrosion Behavior of different Bare and Coated Boiler Steels in Simulated Boiler Environment at 900 °C. (CS: Cold spray, PS:
Plasma spray, HVOF: High velocity-oxy fuel spray, D Gun: Detonation gun spray, BRCS: Balzers rapid coating system, LVOF: Low velocity oxy- fuel
spray, HVAF: High velocity-air fuel spray, Superfer: SF, Superni: SN, Superco: SC, Inconel: INCO).
S. No. Year Authors Coating material Substrate Process Hot corrosion of bare Hot corrosion of % Reduction in hot
samples (mg/cm2) coated samples (mg/ corrosion after coating
cm2)

1 2010 N. Bala et al. Ni-50Cr T22 CS 218 48 77.98

[28] SA516 245 29 88.16
2 2009 N. Bala et al. Ni-20Cr SA516 CS 250 32.5 87
[29]
3 2013 G. Kaushal Ni-20Cr T-22 CS 136 48.9 64.04
et al. [30]
4 2003 B.S. Sidhu Ni3Al GrA1 PS 273 39 85.71
et al. [31] T-11 263 52.2 80.15
T-22 410 164 60
5 2005 H. Singh et al. NiCrAlY SF 800H PS 52 5 90.38
[32] Ni–20Cr 10.1 80.58
Ni3Al 14.1 72.88
Stellite-6 32.5 37.5
6 2006 B.S. Sidhu Stellite-6 GrA1 PS 290 14.5 95
et al. [33] T-11 250 30 88
T-22 440 61.6 86
7 2006 B.S. Sidhu NiCrAlY GrA1 PS 290.568 33.567 88.45
et al. [34] T-11 257.861 33.661 86.95
T-22 431.893 115.25 73.32
Ni-20Cr GrA1 290.568 25.771 91.13
T-11 257.861 21.653 91.6
T-22 431.893 76.746 82.23
Stellite-6 GrA1 290.568 13.697 95.29
T-11 257.861 20.382 92.1
T-22 431.893 62.064 85.63
Ni3Al GrA1 290.568 37.395 87.13
T-11 257.861 43.023 83.32
T-22 431.893 170.315 60.57
8 2007 H. Singh et al. Ni3Al SN 75 PS 6.82 12.15 −78.15
[35]
9 2017 A. Mangla Ni-20Cr T-22 PS 49.67 19.43 60.88
et al. [36]
10 2012 D. Gond et al. Yttria-Stabilized Zirconia T-91 PS 69 18.2 73.62
[37]
11 2007 H. Singh et al. NiCrAlY SN 75 PS 7 6.02 14
[38] Ni-20Cr 14 −100
12 2005 S. Prakash NiCrAlY SN 718 PS 12 9 25
et al. [39] Ni-20Cr 14.04 −17
Ni3Al 20.12 −67.67
Stellite-6 23.4 −95
13 2006 H. Singh et al. NiCrAlY SN 600 PS 13 5.33 59
[40] Ni-20Cr 10.39 20.08
Ni3Al 17.16 −32
Stellite-6 25.05 −92.69
14 2006 T.S. Sidhu NiCrBSi SN 600 HVOF 15.33 9.19 40.05
et al. [41] SN 601 30 10.5 65
SF 800H 46 9.2 80
15 2006 H.S. Sidhu Cr3C2-NiCr T-11 HVOF 238 26 89.08
et al. [42] NiCr 14 94.12
WC-Co 142 40.34
Stellite-6 110 53.78
16 2006 T.S. Sidhu NiCrBSi SN 600 HVOF 16 10 37.5
et al. [43] Stellite-6 12.5 21.88
17 2011 G. Kaushal Ni-20Cr 347H HVOF 3 0.7 76.67
et al. [44]
18 2016 S. Singh et al. Cr3C2–25(Nie20Cr) T91 HVOF 2.07 0.4 80.68
[45] Ni-20Cr 1.5 27.54
19 2017 A. Mangla Ni-20Cr T-22 HVOF 49.67 12.24 75.36
et al. [36]
20 2006 T.S. Sidhu NiCrBSi SN 601 HVOF 26 9.36 64
et al. [46] Cr3C2-NiCr 8.32 68
Ni-20Cr 6.5 75
Stellite—6 10.4 60
(continued on next page)

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Table 1a (continued)

S. No. Year Authors Coating material Substrate Process Hot corrosion of bare Hot corrosion of % Reduction in hot
samples (mg/cm2) coated samples (mg/ corrosion after coating
cm2)

21 2006 T.S. Sidhu NiCrBSi SN 75 HVOF 8 6.32 21

et al. [47] SN 718 7 9.45 −35
22 2006 H. S. Sidhu NiCr GrA1 HVOF 349.32 10.58 96.97
et al. [48] T-11 234.3 13.76 94.13
T-22 426 20.2 95.26
23 2006 T.S. Sidhu Cr3C2-NiCr SN 600 HVOF 15 8.25 45
et al. [49] Ni-20Cr 6 60
24 2013 G. Kaushal Ni-20Cr T-22 HVOF 136 53.04 61
et al. [30]
25 2011 G. Kaushal Ni-20Cr T-22 D-Gun 46.5 16 65.59
et al. [50]
26 2009 S. Kamal et al. Cr3C2–25NiCr SN 75 D-Gun 5.8 4.072 29.79
[51] SN 718 5.58 2.8 49.82
SF 800H 6.21 4.98 19.81
27 2008 S. Kamal et al. Cr3C2-NiCr SN 75 D-Gun 10.5 9 14.29
[52] SN 718 6 3.5 41.67
SF 800H 11.5 7.5 34.78
28 2017 A. Rani et al. Cr2O3–50% Al2O3 T-22 D-Gun 364.17 10.5 97.12
[53] SF 800H 26.58 21.55 18.92
29 2017 A. Singh et al. Al2O3 T-11 D-Gun 400 148 63
[54] Al2O3 + 1.5%CNT 32 92
Al2O3 + 2%CNT 51.84 87.04
Al2O3 + 4%CNT 50.8 87.3
30 2014 D. Mudgal Cr3C2–25NiCr SN 600 D-Gun −0.2 7.2
et al. [55] Cr3C2–25NiCr + 0.4%CeO2 4.6
31 2015 S. Saladi et al. Cr3C2-Ni INCO 718 D-Gun 11 22.2
[56] Cr3C2-NiCr-CeO2 15.5
32 2014 N.K. Mishra Al2O3–40TiO2 SN 718 D-Gun 2.8 2.2 21.43
et al. [57] AE 435 2.1 1.1 47.62
33 2014 D. Mudgal Cr3C2-NiCr SN 718 D-Gun 5.6
et al. [58] SN 600 8
SN 605 11
Cr3C2-NiCr+0.4%CeO SC718 4.4
SN 600 4.5
SC605 4
34 2013 G. Kaushal Ni-20Cr T-22 D-Gun 136 16.32
et al. [30] 88
35 2011 V. Chawla TiAlN T-22 BRCS 348.55 73.36 78.95
et al. [59] AlCrN 345.05 1
36 2015 N.K. Mishra Al2O3–40% TiO2 SN 601 LVOF 58.06 54.1 6.82
et al. [60] SC605 52.78 49.81 5.63

cycle. In case of uncoated Superfer 800H, showed a dark gray-colored scale after second cycles, which changed to blackish green-
colored surface and a small light gray spot during last cycles (50th cycle). The coated T-22 steel showed gray colour, whereas in case
of Cr2O3–50% Al2O3 coated SF 800H showed a dark gray colour.
The uncoated T-22 boiler steel specimen shows noticeable spalling of its top layer and the oxide scale is damaged, whereas the
bare Superfer 800H superalloy shows small needles dispersed in matrix-like structures.
Various authors [54–58] also deposited D-Gun sprayed metal oxide based coating on boiler steels and reduce 92% erosion
corrosion rate by depositing Al2O3 + 1.5% CNT on T-11 steel at 900 °C. V. Chawla et al. [59] used a blazer's rapid coating system to
deposit TiAlN and AlCrN coating on T22 boiler steel at 900 °C. TiAlN, AlCrN coating reduces 78% and 1% respectively. K.N. Mishra
et al. [60] used Al2O3–40% TiO2 coating on Superni 601 and superco 605 by using Low Velocity Oxy Fuel (LVOF) process at 800 °C.
The Al2O3–40% TiO2 coating on superni 601 reduces only hot corrosion by 9%, whereas the same coating on superco 605 reduces
5%. G. Singh, et al. [61–63] many authors prove that ZrO2 coating exhibits superior stability in air oxidation to molten salt en-
vironment against hot corrosion as compared Cr2O3 and Al2O3-TiO2.
T.S. Sidhu et al. [64] reduced hot corrosion by 63% and 64% by depositing WC-NiCrFeSiB coating on superni 75 and SF 800-H
superalloys in the molten salt environment at 800 °C by HVOF process. N. Jegadeeswaran et al. [65] reduced hot corrosion by 86% by
depositing an Al2O3 + CoCrAlTaY coating on Ti-31 using HVOF process in a simulated boiler environment.
T. Kai et al. [66] deposit HVAF (high velocity air fuel) NiCrC conventional and nano coating on ASTM1020 steel at temperature
ranges from 500 °C–750 °C. The oxidation and hot corrosion were studied in air and the molten salt environment (Na2SO4–30%
K2SO4) for 160 h. Thermo gravimetric technique was used to study the kinetics of corrosion. From XRD result four different phases:
NiCr solid solution, Cr7C3, Cr23C6 and Cr2O3 were also identified which increases with an increase in oxidation temperature. Fig. 6
and Fig. 7 show the XRD patterns of conventional and nanostructured NiCrC coatings in the as-deposited state and after hot corrosion

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Table 1b
Summary of Hot Corrosion Behavior of different Bare and Coated Boiler Steels in Simulated Boiler Environment at 850 °C - 550 °C.
S. No. Year Authors Coating Material Substrate Process Hot Corrosion of Hot Corrosion of % Reduction in hot
bare samples (mg/ coated samples corrosion after
cm2) (mg/cm2) coating

At 850 °C
1 2017 G. Singh et al. [61] Cr2O3 T-22 PS 65.16 50.93 21.84

At 800 °C
2 2014 K. Katiki et al. [62] ZrO2 INCO 625 PS 15 1.1 92.67
3 2014 K. Katiki et al. [63] Al2O3-TiO2 INCO 625 PS 15 5 66.67
4 2007 T.S. Sidhu et al. [64] WC-NiCrFeSi SN 75 HVOF 110 40 63.64
SF 800H 170 60 64.71
5 2013 N. Jegadeeswaran Al2O3 + CoCrAlTaY Ti-31 HVOF 72.3 10.3 85.75
et al. [65]
6 2015 N.K. Mishra et al. Al2O3–40% TiO2 SN 601 LVOF 56.81 51.36 9.59
[60] SC 605 52.02 49.39 5.06

At 750 °C
7 2009 T. Kai et al. [66] NiCrC conventional ASTM1020 steel HVAF 108 1.31 98.79
8 2009 T. Kai et al. [66] NiCrC nano ASTM1020 steel HVAF 108 1.1 98.98

At 700 °C
9 2017 C. Jiang et al. [67] Fe-based 380 μm T-91 PS 35 6 82.86
Fe-based 270 μm 7 80
Fe-based 100 μm 14 60
10 2014 B. Somasundaram Cr3C2–35% NiCr +5% T-22 HVOF 24.71 7.05 71.47
et al. [68] Si MDN-310 3.97 4.43 −11.59
SF 800H 3.15 3.5 −11.11
11 2009 M. Kaur et al. [69] Cr3C2-NiCr SAE-347H HVOF 6.174 2.925 52.62
12 2012 M. Kaur et al. [70] Cr3C2-NiCr T-22 HVOF 77.87 −3.83 104.92
13 2016 V.N. Shukla et al. Cr3C2-NiCr 310S HVOF 6 4.3 28.33
[71]
14 2010 M. Kaur et al. [72] Cr3C2–NiCr T-22 D-Gun 75 0.75 99
SAE–347H −5 0.5 110

At 650 °C
15 2009 T. Kai et al. [66] NiCrC conventional ASTM1020 steel HVAF 34 1.5 95.59
16 2009 T. Kai et al. [66] NiCrC nano ASTM1020 steel HVAF 34 1 97.06

At 550 °C
17 2009 T. Kai et al. [66] NiCr conventional ASTM1020 steel HVAF 13 0.28 97.85
18 2009 T. Kai et al. [66] NiCrC nano ASTM1020 steel HVAF 13 0.1 99.23

at 550 °C, 650 °C and 750 °C, respectively, for 160 h.

From the test result the author concluded that NiCrC nano-coating reduce maximum hot corrosion (99%) at 550°C. Whereas the
XRD results of the nanostructured and conventional NiCrC coatings after oxidation at a temperature range between 550-750°C were
very similar to those of the hot corrosion experiment.The better hot corrosion resistance of nanostructured NiCrC coating is mainly
due to the nano-crystalline characteristic. The increased grain boundary diffusion in the nanostructured NiCrC coating not only
provides the formation of a denser oxide scale with a higher rate, but also helps to mitigate the Cr depletion at the metal/scale
interface. The low porosity of the nanostructured NiCrC coating also helps to increase hot corrosion resistance.
C. Jiang et al. [67] found that Fe-based (380 μm) coating imparts more hot corrosion resistance than 270 and 100 μm Fe-based
plasma sprayed coating on T-91 steel at 700 °C. Other authors used HVOF sprayed Cr3C2–35% NiCr +5%Si coating deposited on T-22
steel and reduce hot corrosion resistance (71%) at 700 °C [68–71]. Though Cr3C2–NiCr coatings were sprayed on T22 and SAE–347H
boiler steels by D-gun spray process at 700 °C by M. Kaur et al. [72]. The author concludes that due to the presence of oxides of Ni and
Cr, it reduces hot corrosion by 99%.
The results of hot corrosion before and after coating on different boiler steels in simulated boiler environment are summarized in
Table 1a and Table 1b) and summarized graphically in Fig. 8 (a-b).

2.2. Studies by various researchers in actual boiler environment

The maximum downtime of the boilers in coal fired thermal power plants is due to erosion-corrosion (E-C) of boiler tubes [73].
The erosion-corrosion of boiler tubes leads to continuous thinning of the boiler tubes in the working environment; ultimately result
into an immediate rupture of the boiler tubes. As per the data, E-C is recognized as the main cause of downtime of the boilers
(50–75% of their total arrest time) at power-generating plants [74–77]. Therefore, fireside erosion-corrosion protection of boiler
tubes is a major area of focus for the power generation industry [78–80]. The development of hot corrosion resistant coating is very
important to enhance the life of boiler tubes.
Steam generator and other thermal power plant machinery are subjected to different types of failures associated with one or more

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Fig.8. (a): Hot corrosion rate vs. substrate/coating material/coating process/temperature by different thermal spray processes at 900 °Cs (CS: Cold
spray, PS: Plasma spray, HVOF: High velocity-oxy fuel spray, D Gun: Detonation gun spray, BRCS: Balzers rapid coating system, LVOF: Low velocity
oxy- fuel spray, HVAF: High velocity-air fuel spray, Superfer: SF, Superni: SN, Superco: SC, Inconel: INCO). in the simulated boiler environment. (b):
Hot corrosion rate vs. substrate/coating material/coating process/temperature by different thermal spray processes at 850 °Cs −550°Cs (CS: Cold
spray, PS: Plasma spray, HVOF: High velocity-oxy fuel spray, D Gun: Detonation gun spray, HVAF: High velocity-air fuel spray) in the simulated
boiler environment.

of distinct mechanisms. Overheating is one of the major root causes of failure of the boiler. From the survey done by one laboratory
over a time period of 144 months, found that out of 413 inquiries, 201 failures were due to excessive heating, while remaining failure
were due to improper or defective material [81].
Moujahid et al. [82] noticed a harsh ash corrosion, mechanical deformation and cracks on the C.I. chains of moving grate helped
to air burning of coal. Kamal et al. [83] integrated CeO2 in NiCrAlY coating and studied hot corrosion resistance. The coatings
exposed separate splat spherical dendritic phases. The CeO2 scattered along the boundaries of splats, while aluminum lines dis-
tributed non-uniformly. A thick oxide film was found on the coated super alloy which serves as shielding phases like: NiO, Al2O3
Cr2O3, NiCr2O4 and NiAl2O4 that provide resistance to hot corrosion. During the starting period, some of the oxides of Fe and Si

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S. Kumar et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 94 (2018) 379–395

Fig. 9. Graphical representation of proposed hot corrosion kinetics of the NiCrAlY +0.4 wt% CeO2-coated super alloy SF 800H at 900 °C in molten
salt (Na2SO4 + 60% V2O5) after 100 cycles [83].

Fig. 10. Schematic diagram showing probable erosion corrosion mode for the cold sprayed Nie20Cr coating on SA 516 boiler steel subjected to
actual boiler environment at 740 ± 10 °C for 1500 h [92].

transferred to the top surface. A schematic diagram shows a proposed hot corrosion kinetics of the NiCrAlY +0.4 wt% CeO2-coated
super alloy SF 800H at 900 °C in molten salt (Na2SO4 + 60% V2O5 after 100 cycles is represented in Fig.9.
S.S. Chatha et al. [84, 85] studied the E-C behaviour of 75Cr3C2–25NiCr and Nie20Cr alloy coating at 900 °C temperature for
1500 h duration in superheater zone. From the thickness loss data Ni-20 Cr coated steel performs better which is due to the presence
of Cr2O3 in the top oxide scale. R. Bhatia et al. [86] deposited four different compositions of Cr3C2-Ni20Cr alloy coating by HVOF
spray process on T-91 boiler tube steel. The cyclic studies were performed in a coal-fired boiler at 850 ± 10 °C.SEM/EDAX, X-ray
diffraction and elemental mapping analysis techniques were used to analyze the corrosion products. All the coatings deposited on T-
91 boiler tube steel improved hot corrosion resistance. The 65Cr3C2–35 (Nie20Cr) -coated T-91 steel sample performed better than
all other coated samples in the given environment and reduce the maximum erosion corrosion rate (96.11%).
B.S. Sidhu et al. [87–89] formulated Ni and Co based coatings by plasma spray process on boiler tube steels at 755 °C. The
maximum erosion corrosion resistance (92.2%) was observed in the case of Stellite-6 (St-6) coating on the GrAl substrate. The authors
reported that Nie20Cr coating has better coating resistance. M. Kumar et al. [90–92] synthesized the NieCr nano-structured powders
in-house and then deposited the same with the help of cold spray process on T22 and SA 516 steels. The coatings were found to have a
dense microstructure. The thickness of the coating obtained was 200 ± 8 μm and 220 ± 9 μm respectively, for T22 and SA 516
steels. Then the E-C behaviour of the coatings was investigated in live boiler conditions at Thermal Power Plant Ropar. It has been
observed during the 1500 h of cyclic study that the coatings sustained 100% thermal adherence and minimal (< 0.47 mm) thickness
loss was observed. This may be attributed to the presence of protective NiO and Cr2O3 phases in its dense oxide scale and high micro
hardness. The grain size of Nie20Cr cold-spray coating on T22 and SA 516 boiler steels was found to be 42 nm and 57 nm re-
spectively.
During first 5th cycles the uncoated T-22 boiler tube steel showed a dark gray colour oxide scale and turned to redness after 6th
cycles which may be due to the formation of Fe2O3 scale. The hot corrosion increases from 6th to10th cycles and continued up to 15th
cycles. On the other hands bare SA 516 boiler steel, change silver colour to dark gray after 1st cycles. After 2nd cycles, a red colored

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S. Kumar et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 94 (2018) 379–395

Table 2a
Summary of erosion-corrosion rate in mills per year (mpy) for uncoated and coated boiler steels in actual boiler environment by various thermal
spray processes at 900 °C-740 ± 10 °C.
S. No. Year Author Coating Material Substrate Process E-C rate before E-C rate after % age reduction in E-C
coating (mpy) coating (mpy) after coating

At 900 °C
1 2012 S.S. Chatha et al. [84] Ni-20Cr T91 HVOF 25.08 5.47 78.19
2 2016 S.S. Chatha et al. [85] 75Cr3C2–25NiCr T91 HVOF 33.33 6.89 79.33

At 850 ± 10 °C
3 2015 R. Bhatia et al. [86] 65 Cr3C2–35 Ni-20Cr T91 HVOF 82.8 3.22 96.11
75Cr3C2–25 Ni-20Cr T91 82.8 5.06 93.89
80Cr3C2–20 Ni-20Cr T91 82.8 6.67 91.94
90Cr3C2–10 Ni-20Cr T91 82.8 7.82 90.56

At 755 °C
4 2005 B.S. Sidhu et al. [87] Stellite −6 GrA1 P.S. 378.19 29.221 92.27
Stellite −6 T11 370.17 83.92 77.33
Stellite −6 T22 333.53 188.512 43.48
5 2005 B.S. Sidhu and S. Ni-20Cr GrA1 P.S. 9.6 6.156 35.88
Prakash [88] Ni-20Cr T11 9.402 6.005 36.13
Ni-20Cr T22 8.472 6.979 17.62
6 2006 B.S. Sidhu and S. NiCrAlY GrA1 P.S. 378.19 194.85 48.48
Prakash S [89]. Ni-20Cr GrA1 378.19 242.36 35.92
Stellite-6 GrA1 378.19 29.22 92.27
Ni3Al GrA1 378.19 282.8 25.22
NiCrAlY T11 370.17 260.38 29.66
Ni-20Cr T11 370.17 236.44 36.13
Stellite-6 T11 370.17 83.92 77.33
Ni3Al T11 370.17 275.31 25.63
NiCrAlY T22 333.53 143.12 57.09
Ni-20Cr T22 333.53 274.75 17.62
Stellite-6 T22 333.53 188.512 43.48
Ni3 Al T22 333.53 324.18 2.8

At 740 ± 10 °C
7 2015 M. Kumar et al. [90] Ni–20Cr SAE-213-T22 CS 108 0 100
Ni–20Cr SA 516 Steel 87 0 100
8 2013 M. Kumar et al. [91] Ni-20Cr T91 HVOF 15.76 2.24 85.79
SA-516 – –
9 2015 M. Kumar et al. [92] Ni-20Cr SA 516 steel CS 87 39 55.17

oxide appeared and continued up to 15th cycles. The Nie20Cr coated T-22 change dark gray colour to darkest gray colour after the
1st cycle, which in further change to red gray. Whereas, in case of coated SA 516 boiler tube steel changed to darkest gray colour
during the last cycle. The probable mode of E-C for the coating has been proposed as shown in Fig. 10.
The uncoated T22 steel represented a total weight gain of 2.86 mg/cm2.This may be due to the formation of Fe2O3 and Fe3O4
oxides in its scale, which are usually voluminous and give rise to higher weight gains. The presence of these phases has been revealed
by XRD analysis.
In another investigation author successfully deposited HVOF and cold sprayed Nie20Cr coating on T-91 and SA-516 boiler steel in
actual boiler environment. The author reported that HVOF sprayed Nie20Cr coating on T-91 reduce more erosion corrosion
(85.79%) as compared to cold sprayed Ni-20 Cr coating on SA-516steel (55.17%). N. Bala et al. [93] reported that HVOF sprayed
Nie20Cr coating on T-22 reduce (81%) erosion corrosion at 700 ± 10 °C in the actual boiler environment. Whereas the cold spray
process, reduce (55.5%) erosion corrosion rate under similar condition. M. Kaur et al. [94] observed that D-Gun sprayed Cr3C2-NiCr
coating reduce the more E-C rate and oxidation than HVOF sprayed coating at 700 °C. This may be attributed to the presence of Cr2O3
rich oxide scale. N. Bala et al. [95] reported that Ni-50 Cr coating on SA-516 steel imparts better corrosion resistance than Nie20Cr
coating. This may be due the presence of higher micro-hardness of Nie50Cr coating. V.N. Shukla et al. [96] studied E-C behaviour of
HVOF sprayed Cr3C2–25%NiCr on 310S stainless steel at 700 ± 10 °C. The Coating was formed at a constant spray distance of 18 cm,
and oxygen flow rate 250 L/m. K. P. Sapra et al. [97] studied the E-C behaviour of metal oxide based coating on boiler steel and
observed that selected coatings have good cracking and spallation resistance. G. Kaushal et al. [98–100] observed that D-Gun sprayed
Nie20Cr coated T22 steel reduce maximum E-C rate. N. Bala et al. [101] deposited different Ni based different thermal sprayed
coating on T22 and SA516 boiler tube steel and found that HVOF sprayed Nie20Cr coating reduces the more E-C rate. M. Kaur et al.
[102] deposited HVOF sprayed Cr3C2-NiCr coating on T22 steel and reduce (34.81%) erosion corrosion rate at 700 °C in the actual
boiler environment. B.S. Mishra and S. Prakash et al. [103, 104] deposited Nie20Cr, NiCrAlY coating on Superni 75, 600, 718 and
superfer 800-H by plasma spray process at 540 °C. The XRD, SEM/EDAX, X-ray diffraction and electron probe micro analysis shows
that Nie20Cr coating on superfer 800-H increase maximum erosion resistance. This may be due to the presence of NiO, Cr2O3, Al2O3
and SiO2 as a protective phase. The results of E-C rates before and after coating on different boiler steels are summarized in Table 2a
and Table 2b) as shown graphically in Fig. 11(a-b).

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S. Kumar et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 94 (2018) 379–395

Table 2b
Summary of erosion-corrosion rate in mills per year (mpy) for uncoated and coated boiler steels in actual boiler environment by various thermal
spray processes at 700 ± 10 °C -540 °C.
S.No. Year Author Coating Material Substrate Process E-C rate before E-C rate after % age reduction in E-C
coating (mpy) coating (mpy) after coating

At 700 ± 10 °C
1 2010 N. Bala et al. [93] Ni-20Cr T22 HVOF 124.16 22.992 81.48
Ni-20Cr T22 CS 124.16 55.181 55.56
2 2011 M. Kaur et al. [94] Cr3C2-NiCr T-22 D-Gun 10.57 2.29 78.33
3 2012 N. Bala et al. [95] Ni-20Cr SA 516 Steel CS 114.96 48.28 58
Ni-50Cr 114.96 32.189 72
4 2012 V.N. Shukla et al. Cr3C2–25% NiCr 310S stainless HVOF 78.23 25.31 67.65
[96] steel
5 2009 K.P. Sapra et al. [97] Al2O3–3%TiO2 T11 D-Gun 478.2 57.48 87.98
Al2O3–3%TiO2 T22 393.16 52.88 86.55

At 700 °C
6 2011 G. Kaushal et al. [98] Ni-20Cr ASTM A213 HVOF 43 24 44.19
347H
7 2011 G. Kaushal et al. [99] Ni-20Cr T22 HVOF 55 23 58.18
Ni-20Cr T22 D-Gun 55 15 72.73
8 2012 G. Kaushal et al. Ni-20Cr ASTM A213 D-Gun 43 20 53.49
[100] TP347H
9 2016 N. Bala et al. [101] NiCr SA 516 Steel CS 117.2 48.28 58.81
NiCrTiC SA 516 Steel 117.2 27.59 76.46
NiCrTiCRe SA 516 Steel 117.2 25.29 78.42
10 2012 M. Kaur et al. [102] Cr3C2-NiCr T22 HVOF 10.57 6.89 34.82

At 540 °C
11 2015 B.S. Mishra & S. Ni–20Cr SN 75 P.S. 133.81
Prakash [103] SN600 123.81
SN 718 165.54
SF 800H 113.81
12 2013 B.S. Mishra et al. NiCrAlY SN 75 P.S. 158.6
[104] NiCrAlY SN 600 160.02
NiCrAlY SN718 139.5
NiCrAlY SF 800H 168.9

3. Hot corrosion prevention and control methods

Heath et al. [105] suggested a number of preventive measures corresponding to the different types of corrosive environments are
as follows:

i. Usage of corrosion inhibitors.

ii. Selection of proper alloy.
iii. Cathodic protection.
iv. Coating.
v. Optimum design of high performance machinery component. [106, 107]

According to Gurrappa and Eliaz et al. [108, 109] some factors such as super alloy composition, deposit composition, gas
composition and velocity, alloy fabrication condition, amount of deposit on superalloy, temperature cycles, temperature, and erosion
affects the hot corrosion.
The usage of corrosion inhibitors (pyridines, quinolines and pyrimidines) has shown limited success due to solubility. Selection of
proper alloy with high chromium contents possesses high cost input. The coating provides a way of extending the limits of the usage
of materials at the upper end of their performance capabilities, by allowing the mechanical properties of substrate materials to be
maintained while protecting them against the wear or corrosion [110].
Many investigators are actively involved in designing and development of new materials, which can effectively counter the
problem of hot corrosion and thus enhances the service life span of the systems. One possible way to counter this problem is the
application of surface coatings by thermal spray process. The thermal spraying processes have gained wider popularity because they
can help to develop high temperature oxidation and corrosion resistant coatings. These processes offer the capability to coat almost
any material on almost any substrate, high service life and safety and economical solutions [111–114].
Further, the thermal spray coatings can induce desired surface properties without affecting the metallurgical properties of the
substrate material, without any significant impact on the environment [115–118]. In the thermal spray process, the coating material
is heated rapidly in a hot gaseous medium, and simultaneously projected at a high velocity onto a prepared substrate surface, where it
deposits to produce the desired thickness of coating. The coating material is fed to a heating zone to become molten, and is propelled
from there to the surface of substrate material [119]. Among the various techniques of thermal spraying, cold sprayed NieCr coating

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S. Kumar et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 94 (2018) 379–395

Fig. 11. (a): E-C rates Vs substrate/coating material/coating process/temperature by different thermal spray processes between 900 °C to
740 ± 10 °C (CS: Cold spray, PS: Plasma spray, HVOF: High velocity-oxy fuel spray, D Gun: Detonation gun spray, HVAF: High velocity-air fuel
spray) in the actual boiler environment. (b): E-C rates Vs substrate/coating material/coating process/temperature by different thermal spray
processes (CS: Cold spray, PS: Plasma spray, HVOF: High velocity-oxy fuel spray, D Gun: Detonation gun spray, HVAF: High velocity-air fuel spray)
in the actual boiler environment between 700 ± 10 °C to 540 °C.

provides better results but, at the same time it is found that none of the authors have used NieCr coating using wire arc spray process.
Wire Arc Spray coatings is gaining the potential due to lower operating costs, higher material output per hour, and production of a
more coarse coating than the Plasma or HVOF methods. Wire Arc coatings are exceptionally suited for dimensional restoration of

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S. Kumar et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 94 (2018) 379–395

both mis-machined, worn parts and also provides on-site solution. Hence offers versatility and high reliability [120]. Still, it has been
observed that there is scope to study the high-temperature corrosion/erosion-corrosion resistance of the Ni based coatings using wire
arc spray.
Nickel-chromium-Aluminum based alloys are widely used as the coating materials due to their several attractive properties such
as wear, erosion and corrosion resistance, and good thermal conductivity. Due to these properties, NieCr coatings are frequently
considered to control the problem of erosion-corrosion of power plant boilers [121].

4. Conclusion

It has been concluded from the results of various researchers that any material can be coated easily on any substrate material
(boiler steels) using different thermal spray coating processes. As a result high thickness (200–300 μm), dense coatings having good
adherence to the substrate materials and offering a very high micro hardness in comparison to base steels are obtained. Further, it has
been concluded that NieCr based coatings offered very high hot corrosion resistance. Overall a common pool of results of different
researchers has been created, which shall definitely be helpful for boiler industry.

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