● It absorbs the heat from the Sun 

and keeps the heat inside the 

ELS Quiz #2  ●

atmosphere helping the earth to 
stay warm. 
Keeps the overall temp of the 
Earth and its Subsystems  Earth fairly steady, especially 
─  between night and day. 
● The atmosphere is primarily 
THE GOOD EARTH  composed of nitrogen (about 78%) 
and oxygen (about 21%). Other 
● Not too CLOSE or too FAR from the 
components only exist in small 
Sun. 
quantities such as Argon. 
● Large bodies of water on its 
surface.  What are its roles? 
● Sustains life. 
● It contains the gases that living 
● Has plate tectonics which allows 
organisms need for survival 
the carbon-silicate cycle to be 
(oxygen for respiration, carbon 
continuous. 
dioxide for aerobic respiration).  
  ● Heat transfer. 
● Protects Earth’s surface from being 
Which system describes the Earth? 
struck by meteors. 
● Isolated system​ - which does not  ● Ozone in the stratosphere protects 
allow the transfer of either mass  the biosphere from UV radiation. 
or energy.  ● Plays a part in weathering and 
● Closed system​ - allows the  erosion. 
transfer of energy (heat) but not 
How was our atmosphere formed? 
mass. 
● Open system​ - can exchange  ● The early atmosphere did not 
mass and energy usually in the  support life. It contains deadly 
form of heat.  gases such as Methane and 
Ammonia with only very little 
 
Oxygen. 
SUBSYSTEMS OF THE EARTH  ● Over time, gases were added to 
(Spheres)  the atmosphere by volcanic 
eruptions, and as a result of 
  chemical reactions due to sunlight.  
1.) ATMOSPHERE  ● The Ozone Layer formed as a 
● transition between earth and the  result of the chemical reactions. 
vacuum of space.  Ozone is made of three oxygen 
● comes from the Greek word,  atoms bonded together. It blocks 
“ATMOS,” meaning AIR.  out ultraviolet radiation from the 
● Protects Earth like a blanket of  sun.  
insulation. 

 
 
 2 
  

● The formation of the ozone layer 

● Temperatures increase with 
allowed MICRO-ORGANISMS such 
altitude because of increasing 
as Blue-Green Algae to appear on 
amounts of ozone.  
Earth. They take in Carbon Dioxide 
● The ozone layer within the 
(CO2) and release Oxygen (O), so 
stratosphere absorbs harmful 
the oxygen in the atmosphere is 
ultraviolet rays of sunlight. 
steadily increased. 
● Many jet aircrafts fly in this layer 
  because it is very stable. 
PARTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE  c.) Mesosphere 
● the middle layer. 
● where the meteorites and debris 
from outer space burn. 
● as the mesosphere extends 
upward above the stratosphere, 
temperatures decrease.  
● the coldest parts of our 
atmosphere are located in this 
layer and can reach –90°C. 
d.) Thermosphere 
● the warmest layer of the 
atmosphere where the Aurora 
borealis and australis can be 
found. 
● ionosphere​ - ionized by solar 
radiation. 
  ● the air is thin, meaning that there 
are far fewer air molecules. 
a.) Troposphere 
● the thermosphere is very sensitive 
● lowest layer of the atmosphere.  to solar activity and can heat up to 
● ground-level ozone.  1,500°C or higher when the Sun is 
● where all the weather activity  active making an aurora that lights 
occurs.  up the night sky.  
● the base of this layer is warmer  ● astronauts orbiting Earth in the 
than its top because the air is  space station or space shuttle 
heated by the surface of the Earth,  spend their time in this layer. 
which absorbs the Sun’s energy. 
e.) Exosphere 
b.) Stratosphere 
● topmost layer of the earth. 
 3 
  

● the boundary between the Earth’s 

SMOG 
surface and outer space.  
● where atoms and molecules  ● originated during the Industrial 
escape into space  Revolution. 
● London Smog​ - the first smog ever 
 
released in the atmosphere. 
Montreal Protocol​ - an international  ● the hot and cold air mixing 
agreement developed under the  (​thermal inversion​).  
sponsorship of the UN to eliminate the  ● pollution formed by the interaction 
production of CFCs.  of pollutants and sunlight usually 
restricting visibility and enabling 
 
hazards to human health. 
THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT 
 
● the atmosphere is quite 
Kyoto Protocol​ - an international treaty 
transparent to shorter-wavelength 
that sets binding obligations on 
solar radiation and more readily 
industrialized countries to reduce 
absorbs longer-wavelength 
emissions of greenhouse gases. 
terrestrial radiation. 
● The greenhouse effect is a ​ natural   
process that warms the Earth’s 
The Carbon Cycle​ - the process in which 
surface.​ When the Sun’s energy 
carbon travels from the atmosphere into 
reaches the Earth’s atmosphere, 
organisms and the Earth and then back 
some of it is ​reflected back to 
into the atmosphere. 
space​ and the rest is absorbed 
and re-radiated by g ​ reenhouse 
gases. 
● Greenhouse gases include w ​ ater 
vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, 
nitrous oxide, ozone and some 
artificial chemicals such as 
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). 
● The absorbed energy ​warms the 
atmosphere and the surface of 
the Earth.​ This process maintains 
the Earth’s temperature at around   
33 degrees Celsius​ warmer than it 
 
would otherwise be, allowing life 
on Earth to exist.  2.) GEOSPHERE  
  ● The skeleton of our planet 
● the solid earth that includes the 
  continental and oceanic crust as 
 4 
  

well the various layers of Earth’s 

​Inner Core 
Interior 
● the geosphere is not static  ● the inner core is a hot, dense ball 
(unchanging) its surface (crust) is in  of (mostly) iron. 
a constant state of notion.  ● it has a radius of about 1,220 - 1, 
● mineral resources are mined from  250 kilometers (758 miles). 
the geosphere.  ● magnetic 
● the temperature in the inner core 
 
is about 5,200° - 6,000° Celsius 
THE EARTH’S CORE  (almost as hot as the surface of the 
sun). 
● the pressure is nearly 3.6 million 
atmospheres (atm). 
● the temperature of the inner core 
is far above the melting point of 
iron. unlike the outer core, the 
inner core is not liquid or even 
molten. The inner core’s intense 
pressure—the entire rest of the 
planet and its 
 
atmosphere—prevents the iron 
● It is the very hot, very dense center  from melting. 
of our planet. The ball-shaped core  ● It rotates eastward, like the 
lies beneath the cool, brittle crust  surface, but it’s a little faster, 
and the mostly-solid mantle. The  making an extra rotation about 
core is found about 2,900  every 1,000 years. 
kilometers (1,802 miles) below 
​Outer Core 
Earth's surface and has a radius of 
about 3,485 kilometers (2,165  ● is mostly composed of liquid iron 
miles)  and nickel.  
● composed of Iron (Fe) and a small  ● the outer core, about 2,200 - 2,300 
amount of Nickel (Ni)  kilometers (1,367 miles) thick. 
● inaccessible to life  ● the NiFe alloy of the outer core is 
● Studied instead through scientific  very hot, between 4,000° and 
information and computer models  5,000° Celsius. 
● another key element in Earth’s  ● the liquid metal of the outer core 
core is sulfur—in fact, 90% of the  has very low viscosity, meaning it is 
sulfur on Earth is found in the  easily deformed and malleable. 
core.  ● it is the site of violent convection.  
● the churning metal of the outer 
   
core creates and sustains Earth’s 
  magnetic field. 
 5 
  

depth of about 100 kilometers (62 

 
miles).  
THE EARTH’S MANTLE   ○ the lithosphere includes 
● composed primarily of the  both the crust and the 
intermediate layers, which is the  brittle upper portion of the 
longest part of the mantle.  mantle.  
● made up of mostly molten rocks.  ○ the lithosphere is both the 
● It is the thickest layer, expanding  coolest and the most rigid 
to a width of 2900 km.  of Earth’s layers. 
● It is 70% of the earth’s volume.  TECTONIC PLATE MOVEMENTS 
● the mantle lies between Earth’s 
● The process that deforms the 
dense, super-heated core and its 
earth’s crust 
thin outer layer, the crust. 
● Tectonic Plate​ - plates that move 
● the temperature of the mantle 
around on top of the 
varies greatly, from 1000° Celsius 
asthenosphere 
(1832° Fahrenheit) near its 
● large scale movements of earth’s 
boundary with the crust, to 3700° 
lithosphere 
Celsius (6692° Fahrenheit) near its 
● the lithosphere is divided into 15 
boundary with the core. 
major tectonic plates: the North 
● it is mostly solid rock, but less 
American, Caribbean, South 
viscous at tectonic plate 
American, Scotia, Antarctic, 
boundaries and mantle plumes. 
Eurasian, Arabian, African, Indian, 
Lower/Middle Mantle  Philippine, Australian, Pacific, Juan 
● exhibits plasticity  de Fuca, Cocos, and Nazca. 
● produces higher pressure  Convergent 
● 2240km thick 
● Continental : Continental - 
● soft/magma 
mountains 
● where the plate tectonics are 
● Continental: Oceanic - 
located 
volcanic arcs 
● reduces temp and pressure 
● Oceanic: Oceanic - trenches 
● causes formation of minerals that 
● occurs when two plates 
are different from the upper layer 
slide towards each other. 
Upper Mantle 
Divergent 
● the upper mantle is mostly solid, 
● seafloor spreading 
but it is more malleable regions 
● oceanic ridges 
contribute to tectonic activity. 
● continental rifting 
● ​Lithosphere​ - is the solid, outer 
● occurs when two plates 
part of the Earth, extending to a 
slide towards each other. 
 6 
  

Transform  ○ chemical weathering of 

rocks on land (2.5 B 
● earthquakes 
tons/year) 
● occur when plates slide 
○ Earth’s interior during 
● asthenosphere​ - is the denser, 
volcanic eruptions, large 
weaker layer beneath the 
quantities of water & gases 
lithospheric mantle.  
are emitted to Earth’s 
○ It lies between about 100 
surface  
kilometers (62 miles) and 
■ volcanic 
410 kilometers (255 miles) 
outgassing—large 
beneath Earth’s surface. 
amounts of chlorine, 
○ The temperature and 
bromine, sulfur, 
pressure of the 
boron= volcanic 
asthenosphere are so high 
eruption is largely 
that rocks soften and partly 
responsible for the 
melt, becoming 
formation of the 
semi-molten. 
present oceans 
  ● Saltwater: 97.5% (ocean & midland 
3.) HYRDOSPHERE  seas) 
● Earth is called Blue Planet; nearly  ● Freshwater: 2.5% (68.9%=Glaciers; 
71% is covered by the ocean.  30.8%=Groundwater; 0.3%=lakes & 
● Five Main Ocean Basins: Pacific  river systems) 
Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian  Ocean Zones  
Ocean, Arctic Ocean & Antarctic 
● may be horizontal or vertical 
Ocean 
● Horizontal Zones – divide the 
● Ocean​ – body of saltwater with 
ocean from land to the sea, 
almost no boundaries & limitless 
consists of the coastal zone & the 
volume 
pelagic zone 
● Sea​ – Part of the Ocean that is 
partially surrounding a landform  1. C
​ oastal Zone​ – the region in 
● Island Sea​ – totally surrounds a  which the sea bottom is exposed 
landform  during low tide f is covered during 
● Saltwater/Seawater has a 3.5%  high tide = sea stars, sea urchins & 
average salinity, which refers to  some species of coral 
the proportion of dissolved salts to 
2. P
​ elagic Zone​ – located seaward 
pure water, expressed in parts per 
of the coastal zone’s low tide mark, 
thousand. 60-m layer of salt would 
always covered with water 
cover the entire ocean floor  
3. N
​ eritic Zone​ – Extends from 
 
over & edge of the continental 
 7 
  

shelf, over ocean floor = zero 

HYDROLOGICAL PROCESSES 
visibility 
1. M
​ elting​ – Solid to Liquid 
4. O
​ ceanic Zone​ – Lies above the 
continental shelf  2. E
​ vaporation​ – Liquid to Gas 

5. V
​ ertical Zones​ - divide the  3. D
​ eposition​ – Gas to Solid 
ocean based on depth, beginning  4. F
​ reezing​ – Liquid to Solid 
at sea level to the deepest point of 
5. S
​ ublimation​ – Solid to Gas 
the ocean  
(Moth Balls & Dry Ice) 
a. Epipelagic Zone/Sunlight 
6. Condensation – Gas to Liquid 
Zone (0-200m)​ – seals, sea 
turtles, sea lions, rays,  + Transpiration​ – plants lose water 
sharks  out of their leaves, gives 
b. Mesopelagic Zone/Twilight  evaporation a bit of a hand in 
Zone (200-1000m)​ – plants,  getting the water vapor back up 
lily fish, octopus, squid  into the air 
c. Bathypelagic  + Condensation ​– temperature of 
Zone/Midnight Zone  the glass is cold enough to cool 
(1000-4000m)​ – animals lack  down the water vapor in the 
eyes: viperfish, anglerfish,  surrounding air, so it turns from 
striped eel, tripod fish  gas to liquid  
d. Abyssopelagic/Abyss  + Precipitation​ – occurs when so 
(4000-6000m)​ —deep sea,  much water has condensed that 
invertebrates: blind  the air cannot hold it anymore, a 
shrimps, small squids,  form of water that falls (Rain, 
hagfish  Snow, Sleet, Hail)] 
e. Hadalpelagic  IMPORTANT ROLES 
Zone/Trenches 
(6000-bottom)​ – deepest,  ● Moderate Climate 
sea cucumber, tube worms  ● Heat Transfer 
● Organisms need water to 
  transport nutrients & waste 
OCEAN CURRENTS  ● Water is essential in many 
of Earth’s processes 
● Factors: Earth’s rotation, 
(mineral formation, erosion, 
wind, temperature, salinity 
weathering) 
differences, gravitation of 
the moon  INTERACTIONS 
● Flow under the surface of  ● ATMOSPHERE – 
ocean & hidden from  evaporation & precipitation, 
immediate detection =  energy is exchanged, a 
submarine rivers 
 8 
  

gaseous envelope that  southwest direction going 

surrounds the earth &  towards the equator 
constitutes the transition  (May-Oct) 
between it & the vacuum of 
 
space 
● BIOSPHERE – transport of  4.) BIOSPHERE 
nutrients & waste products  ● Contains entirely Earth’s living 
in organisms, life zone of  things 
earth, all living organisms,  ● ”zone of life“ 
all organic matter not yet  ● coined by Geologist Edward Suess 
decomposed  (1875) 
● GEOSPHERE – Earth’s 
BIOMES  
surface & interior, water is 
the primary agent for  ● world’s major communities 
chemical & mechanical  ● classified according to the 
breakdown of rock  predominant vegetation & 
(weathering), to form loose  characterized by adaptations of 
rock fragments & soil, &  organisms to a particular climate 
sculpts the surface of the  MAJOR BIOMES: 
Earth 
1.​ Aquatic​ – freshwater (ponds, lakes, 
ENSO (EL NIÑO – SOUTHERN  rivers) & marine (ocean, estuaries) biomes 
OSCILLATION) 
2. F
​ orest​ – tropical, temperate & boreal 
● Christ Child  forests, taiga 
● Waters began warming 
towards the end of  3. D
​ esert​ – low rainfall (<50 cm/yr), have 
November & early  specialized vegetation & animals 
December  4. T
​ undra​ – coldest biome, low biotic 
● Strong warming brings  diversity & simple vegetation structure 
abundant rains to the 
FLOW OF MATTER 
region 
● NITROGEN CYCLE 
HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL 
- Nitrogen comprises 78% of the 
PHENOMENA, HAZARDS & 
atmosphere= cannot be used 
OTHER WEATHER MIXED-UPS 
directly by the majority of living 
● Northeast Monsoon  things unless it undergoes fixation 
(Amihan) – cold wind  by: 
usually coming from China  ○ 1. s​ pecialized organisms 
& Siberia (Nov-Feb)  or industrial processes. 
● Southwest Monsoon 
Fixation​ - nitrogen must be incorporated 
(Habagat) – wind from 
in a chemical compound that can be 
Australia that flows in a 
 9 
  

utilized by animals & plants, requires 

a. Nitrate poisoning (lakes, streams, 
energy 
rivers) 
○ 2. I​ onizing phenomena 
● nitrogen from fertilizers washed 
(cosmic radiation & 
away —> nitrate = poisonous & 
lightning)  
hazard to health  
○ 3. M ​ arine organisms 
○ 4. T ​ errestrial  b. Depletion of dissolved oxygen in the 
microorganisms   water 

Nitrification​ – the process by which  ● Eutrophication-oxygen content in a 

ammonia or ammonium is oxidized into  body of water is reduced due to 
nitrates  the growth of algae. Nitrates 
“enrich” the water, causing algal 
Denitrification​ – Denitrifying bacteria 
bloom. 
(anaerobic conditions) attack nitrates to 
obtain oxygen as a source of energy &  EXOGENOUS PROCESS 
release gaseous nitrogen.  ● “Exo” means outside 
Nitrogen Fixation​ – controls quantities  ● Erosion 
of nitrogen available for all the other  ○ Degradation — Weathering 
● Disintegration and decomposition 
Processes 
of rocks  
1. Electrical Discharges (electrical  ● no transportation involved 
storms) – formation of small 
Types of Weathering 
amounts of nitrogen oxides from 
molecular nitrogen  1. Physical/Mechanical 
2. Biological Processes – limited to a  2. Chemical  
small percentage of living systems 
● Oxidation 
Groups of microorganisms  ● Carbonation 
1. Acetobacter aceti​ (alkaline soil)  ● Hydration 
2. Clostridium pasteurianum​ (acid  3. Biological - usually done by plants, 
soils)  humans, and animals 
● Legumes – Earth’s greatest 
● Degradation — Mass 
natural source of fixed 
Wasting - the movement of 
nitrogen 
soil, sand, and rocks down a 
● Rhizobium invades the 
slope due to gravity 
roots of legumes, 
● Aggradation — Deposition - 
facilitating the formation of 
sediments, soils and rocks 
root swellings=Nodules 
are added to a landform 
Effect of human activities:  
 
ENDOGENOUS PROCESS 
 10 
  

● large-scale landform building and   

transforming processes 
Uniformitarianism 
Types of Igneous Processes 
● A major assumption in Geology 
● Volcanism — the eruption of  ● events in the past occurred the 
magma onto the surface of the  same way that they are occurring 
Earth   today 
● Folding — two forces push  ● Examples:  
towards each other from opposite  ○ Weathering / Erosion 
sides  ○ Deposition 
○ Large Scale  ○ Volcanism 
○ Small Scale  ○ Plate Tectonics 
● Tectonic Processes   ○ Geologic Dating 
○ Faulting  
Two Types of Dating: 
■ 3 Types of Fault 
● Normal   1. Absolute​ (Know dates) 
● Reverse  ● determines the specific age of the 
● Strike-slip  fossil 
● Oblique  ● radiometric 
2. Relative​ (Know Order of Events 
Geological Hazards and Mitigation 
But Not Dates) 
1. E
​ arthquakes   ● used to determine if one thing is 
younger or older than another 
● The PH is in the Pacific Ring of Fire 
● E.g. superposition index fossils, 
+ there is an aftershock because the 
correlation of rock layers 
lands/plates are not fitted together 
● Principles of Relative Dating​ (by 
yet/ 
Nicolas Steno) 
2. L
​ andslides  ● Original Horizontality ​- 
3. V
​ olcanic Eruptions  the horizontal pattern of 
rocks and soils 
4. T
​ sunamis 
● Superposition​ - youngest 
  to top, oldest on bottom 
Why is the Geologic Time Scale  ● Cross-cutting 
important?  Relationship​ - the one that 
always cuts is always the 
● The Earth is approximately 4.6B  youngest 
years old  3. Inclusion 
● Rocks record geological and 
evolutionary changes throughout  Absolute Dating: Radiometric 
Earth’s history  ● Radioactive decay (half-life) 
 
 11 
  

● occurs when the nuclei of unstable 

atoms break down, changing the 
original atoms into atoms of 
another element. 
● Different substances have 
different half-life’s 
● Examples: uranium 238 and 
Carbon 14 
Absolute Dating — Fossils 
● True Fossil 
○ fossils of the actual animal 
or animal part 
○ formed when the tissues of 
animals didn’t decay over 
the years 
○ commonly found in ice, tar 
(natural asphalt) and amber 
(tree resin) 
● Mold Fossil 
○ hollow impressions of living 
thing in a rock 
○ formed when sediments fill 
the inside or outside  
● Cast Fossil 
○ created when minerals and 
sediments enter a cavity or 
mold (sometimes from a 
mold fossil) and harden, 
creating a cast.  
● Trace Fossils or Ichnofossils 
○ impressions of rocks that 
showed imprints 
Where Fossils occur? 
○ Almost exclusively in Sedimentary 
Rocks 
○ The heat of melting of 
metamorphism would destroy