SENIOR HIGH ACADEMIC REVIEWERS FOR EXAMINATIONS EARTH SCIENCE

Grade 12 || FINALS EXAMINATION || MAY 2022 (Not yet verified)

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 MINERALS AND ROCKS DEFINITE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION and
WHAT IS A MINERAL? ORGANIZED INTERNAL STRUCTURE
• KEEP IN MIND THE ACRONYM NIHDO: • Minerals have a definite chemical
1. N – Naturally-occurring composition and organized internal
2. I – Inorganic structure.
3. H – Homogeneous solid • There is a systemic arrangement of the
4. D – Definite chemical composition atoms/molecules within minerals.
5. O – Organized crystalline structure

NATURALLY-OCCURRING
• Minerals are note man-made.
• Ice (H2O), when formed in nature, is
considered a mineral. Anything formed in
your freezer at home cannot be
considered a mineral.
• Halite (mineral name of rock salt) is a mineral
with a chemical formula of NaCl (Sodium
INORGANIC Chloride). This mineral, along others, has a
• They do not consist of or deriving from consistent composition and crystal structure
living matter. (cubic).

HOMOGENEOUS SOLID
• Mineral consist all parts of the same kind.

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EARTH SCIENCE WITH DISASTER READINESS AND RISK REDUCTION
MINERALOID
• It is a naturally-occurring mineral-like
substance that does not exhibit
crystallinity.
• Examples are opal and obsidian.
HOW DO MINERALS FORM?
COOLING AND SOLIDIFICATION OF MOLTEN
MATERIAL
• The first way of forming minerals is
through the cooling and solidification of
molten material called magma or lava.
• Depending on the temperature and
pressure conditions of magma or lava,
as well as its chemical composition,
different minerals would be formed.
• For an instance, Quartz (SiO2) would
only form under temperatures of 800°C
and when the molten material is rich in
Silicon and Oxygen.
SOLUTION
• The second possible way on how
minerals would form is though solution.
• Supersaturated solutions would usually
form minerals within hollow rock cavities
by forming precipitates.
• Features like geodes and nodules are
the usual products of minerals forming
through solution.
MINERAL PROPERTIES
• There are many different properties of
minerals which could help in identifying
them.
• Geologists use these properties to
distinguish them from one another.
1. Color
2. Streak
3. Hardness
4. Luster
5. Crystal Form or Habit
6. Cleavage
7. Fracture
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COLOR
• It is the property possessed by an object
producing different sensations on the eye as
a result of the way objects reflect or emit
light.
• Minerals like quartz (SiO2) can exhibit a
range of colors depending on the impurities
within the mineral
• Amethyst has iron atoms that replaced
some silicone atoms within its structure
• Rose quartz has iron and titanium replacing
silicon, while smoky quartz has aluminum as
its impurity
• Because of this, color cannot be a
diagnostic property of minerals.
• Example of Colors:
✓ Native Sulfur (yellow)
✓ Bornite (variegated blue and purple)
✓ Azurite (deep blue)
✓ Amethyst (purple)
✓ Rose Quartz
✓ Smoky Quartz
STREAK
• It is the color of a mineral in powdered form
• Since it is inherent to almost every mineral, it
is a more reliable property than color.
• Examples of streak:
EARTH SCIENCE WITH DISASTER READINESS AND RISK REDUCTION

PROS AND CONS OF USING THE MOHS

HARDNESS SCALE

LUSTER
• It is the quality and intensity of reflected light
exhibited by the mineral.
• It has two classifications:
✓ Metallic – example is Magnetite
✓ Non-metallic – vitreous/glassy,
adamantine, resinous, silky, pearly,
HARDNESS dull/earthy, etc.
• It is the measure of how easily a mineral
can be scratched.
• Testing the hardness is done by
scratching the surface of the mineral
using common objects.

CRYSTAL FORMAT/HABIT
• It is the external shape of an individual
crystal or crystal group
• It defines the relative growth of the crystal in
3 dimension which are its length, width, and
height.
• It is the natural shape of the mineral before
the development of any cleavage or
fracture.
• Examples include prismatic, tabular,
bladed, platy, reniform, and equant.
• The element Talc has a hardness of 1 so • A mineral that does not have a crystal
it can be easily scratched by fingernail structure is described as amorphous.
• Gypsum has a hardness of 2, so it can still
be scratched by fingernail, though not
as much as with talc
• Diamond is considered to be the
hardest mineral, so the only object that
could scratch diamond is itself.

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CLEAVAGE
• It is the property of some minerals to
break along parallel repetitive planes of
weakness to form smooth, flat surfaces.
• These planes of weakness are inherent in
the bonding of atoms that makes up the
mineral and are parallel to the atomic
planes and appear to be repeating
within the mineral.
• Some minerals tend to break along
certain plains because of weak bonds
between their crystal structures.
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FRACTURE
• It is the breaking of minerals resulting in
rough or jagged edges.
• These are broken surfaces that are irregular
and non-planar.
• When minerals don’t break along cleavage
planes, they are called fracture.
• Examples of fracture or conchoidal, fibrous,
hackly, and uneven among others
OTHER PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
• Taste – Halite has a salty taste.
• Smell – most minerals with sulfur have a
“rotten egg” smell
• Density – mass of a substance per unit
volume
• Specific Gravity – ratio of the density of the
mineral over the density of water
• Magnetism – Magnetite (Fe3O4) is a
magnetic mineral.
• Reaction to acid (effervescence) – Calcite
(CaCO3) dissolves in acid.
MINERAL GROUPS
• Minerals are categorized into groups
according to chemical composition.
EARTH SCIENCE WITH DISASTER READINESS AND RISK REDUCTION

ROCKS INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS

• It is a solid aggregate of one or more
minerals or mineraloids
• It has three major categories: Igneous,
Sedimentary, and Metamorphic.
• These are also called plutonic igneous rocks
• They come from solidified magma from
underneath the surface of the Earth
• In contrast to extrusive rocks, forming this
rock type involves gradual lowering of
temperature indicated by the movement of
magma from depth to surface
• Because of this, slow cooling or
crystallization takes place, forming larger
minerals

MAGMA VS. LAVA

• Magma – molten material BELOW the
surface of the Earth
• Lava – molten material AT or ABOVE PYROCLASTIC WORKS
earth’s surface • These are also special types of igneous
rocks.
IGNEOUS ROCKS • They are fragmental rocks usually
• Rocks that form from the solidification of associated with violent or explosive type of
molten rock material. eruption.
• It has two subcategories: • These rock types usually consist of either
intrusive/plutonic rocks and volcanic glass or volcanic ash.
extrusive/volcanic rocks.

EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS

• These are also called volcanic igneous
rocks
• They come from solidified lava at or
near the surface the surface of the Earth
• In the formation of these rocks, fast rates
of cooling or crystallization of minerals
take place because there is a huge
variance in the temperature between
the Earth’s surface and underneath
• Because of this fast rate of cooling, the
minerals that form are usually fine-
grained
PUMICE
• It is a pyroclastic rock that has many holes
called vesicles
• These features are present because of the
trapped air bubbles during the time of
crystallization
• Because of this, it can float on water
• It mostly consists of volcanic glass

TUFF
• It is a type of pyroclastic rock that consists
entirely of volcanic ash

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• This consolidated ash may come from and deposition (Compaction and
accumulated ash fall or ash flows. Cementation)
• Two types: Classic and Non-classic

CHARACTERISTICS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

STRATIFICATION
• The layering that occurs in most sedimentary
rocks and in those igneous rocks formed at
the Earth’s surface (as lava flows and
volcanic fragmental deposits).
• A single layer of rock is called stratum (plural:
strata).
• In studying rock stratification, it is a usual
convention that the oldest rocks (the ones
that formed first) can be found on the
bottom layers, whereas the youngest rocks
are the ones at the topmost layers

• The diagram summarizes the two major

types of igneous rocks. FOSSIL ASSEMBLAGE
• The sample shown are arranged in terms • A group of associated fossils found in a given
of mineral composition (i.e. darkest to stratum
lightest-colored minerals). • Known fossils of organism usually have an
• This is important to note when looking at age range, a time when these organisms
igneous rocks because it has an have existed
implication on the composition of the • By utilizing this information and analyzing it in
molten material that they come from. strata containing multiple fossils, the
• Usually, dark-colored form before approximate age of the formation of rock
lighter-colored minerals. can be determined
• Furthermore, green-colored minerals
are associated with dark igneous rocks
(like in the gabbro sample which
contains olivine, a green mineral).
• On the other hand, the color red is
usually associated with light colored
minerals (as seen in rhyolite and granite
that show light red or pink minerals that
are most likely orthoclase crystals.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

• Sedimentary rocks from at or near the • These are rocks composed of grains, matrix,
surface of the Earth. and cement
• Sedimentary processes include • They are commonly classified based on
weathering, erosion, sediment transport particle size

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• Most common examples of clastic rocks, pressure and temperature conditions

arranged in order of increasing grain or under which metamorphic rocks form
particle size, are shown below. (i.e. low metamorphic grade denotes
low temperature and pressure
conditions in the forming of the
metamorphic rocks, etc.)

• Conglomerate and breccia form from FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS

the same size of particles (gravel or • Foliation forms when pressure squeezes the
pebble). flat or elongate minerals within a rock so
• The difference between the two is that they become aligned.
conglomerate contains more round • These types of rocks develop a platy or
grains while breccia contains angular sheet-like structure (banded appearance)
grains. that reflections the direction that pressure
was applied in.
• In these features, elongated minerals align
NON-CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS perpendicular to the direction of the stress
• These form from chemical reactions, or pressure applied on the rock.
usually during times when an area used • The lowest-grade rock in this classification is
to be submerged in ocean water called slate, which comes from
• They are named according to the metamorphosed shale (a clastic
mineral present. sedimentary rock).
• Evaporation and precipitation or
lithification of organic matter.
• Classified as evaporites (halite,
gypsum), precipitates (limestone), and
bioclasts (coquina). • Gneiss is metamorphosed schist, which is
• Examples of these rocks include: metamorphosed phyllite, which is
metamorphosed slate

NON-FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS

• These types of metamorphic rocks do not
have a layered or banded appearance.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS
• These are rocks that form below the
surface of the Earth through the process
of metamorphism with the
recrystallization of minerals in rocks due
to changes in pressure and temperature
conditions. ROCK CYCLE
• Two types: foliated and non-foliated • It illustates the constant recycling of rock
• A rock’s metamorphic grade is a material
general term describing the relative

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• It demonstrated how geologic processes
that occur both on and underneath the
Earth’s surface can change a rock from
one type to another
few centimeters per hour for silicic flows
to several km/hour for basaltic flows.
• Most characterize this as quiet effusion
of lava.
• Major hazards of lava flows include
burying, crushing, covering, burning
everything in their path.
• Lavas can burn. The intense heat of
lavas melt and burn.
• Lavas can bury

ASHFALL OR TEPHRA FALLS

• These are showers of airborne fine-to-coarse
grained volcanic particles that fallout from
the plumes of volcanic eruption; ashfall
VOLCANIC HAZARDS distribution or dispersal is dependent on
• These are phenomena arising from prevailing wind direction.
volcanic activity that pose potential
threat to persons or property in a given
area within a given period of time. NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF ASHFALL OR TEPHRA
FALLS
• Ashfall endanger life and property by
DIFFERENT KINDS OF VOLCANIC HAZARDS producing suspensions of fine-grained
1. Lava Flow particles in air and water which clogs filters
2. Ashfall or Tephra Falls and vents of motors, human lungs, industrial
3. Pyroclastic Flows or surges machines, and nuclear power plants.
4. Lahars • During peak of eruption with excessive ash,
5. Volcanic Gases can cause poor or low visibility (drying,
6. Debris Avalanche or Volcanic Landslide slippery roads)
7. Ballistic Projectiles • Ash suspended in air is also dangerous for
8. Tsunami aircrafts as the abrasive ash can cause the
engines to fail if the suspended ash is
encountered by the airplane.
LAVA FLOWS
• These are stream-like flows of
incandescent molten rock erupted from PYROCLASTIC FLOWS AND SURGES
a crater of fissure. • Also known as Pyroclastic Density Current
• When lava is degassed and/or viscous, • These are turbulent mass of ejected
it tends to extrude slowly, forming lava fragmented volcanic materials (ash and
domes rocks), mixed with hot gases (200oC to
700oC to as hot as 900oC) that flow
NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF LAVA FLOWS downslope at very high speeds (>60kph).
• Lava flows rarely threaten human life • Surges are the most dilute, more mobile
because lava usually moves slowly – a derivatives of pyroclastic flows.

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NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF PYROCLASTIC FLOWS AND vapor, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide,
SURGES carbon monoxide, hydrogen chloride,
• Pyroclastic flows and surges are and hydrogen fluoride
potentially highly destructive owing to
their mass, high temperature, high
NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF VOLCANIC GASES
velocity and great mobility.
• Sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon dioxide (CO2),
• Pyroclastic flows can:
and hydrogen fluoride (HF) are some
➢ Destroy anything on its path by
volcanic gases that pose hazard to people,
direct impact
animals, agriculture and property.
➢ Burn sites with hot rocks debris
• SO2 can lead to acid rain.
➢ Burn forests, farmlands, destroy
• High concentrations of CO2 which is
crops, and buildings
colorless and odorless can be lethal to
• Deadly effects include:
people, animals, and vegetation.
➢ Asphyxiation (inhalation of hot ash
• Fluorine compounds can deform and kill
and gases)
animals that grazed on vegetation covered
➢ Burial
with volcanic ash.
➢ Incineration (burns)
➢ Crushing from impacts

DEBRIS AVALANCHE OR VOLCANIC LANDSLIDE

• It is the massive collapse of a volcano,
usually triggered by an earthquake or
LAHARS
volcanic eruption.
• These are rapidly flowing thick mixture of
volcanic sediments (from the
pyroclastic materials) and water, usually
NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF DEBRIS AVALANCHE OR
triggered by intense rainfall during
VOLCANI LANDSLIDE
typhoons, monsoons, and
• When a huge portion of the side of the
thunderstorms.
volcano collapses due to slope failure.
• The huge volcanic debris avalanche
typically leaves an amphitheater-like
NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF LAHARS
feature and at the base of volcanoes with
• Lahars can destroy by direct impact
debris avalanche event, a hummocky
(bridges, roads, and houses)
topography (small hills all over).
• Lahars can block tributary stream and
form a lake
• Lahars can bury valleys and
BALLISTIC PROJECTILES
communities with debris
• These are volcanic materials directly
• Lahars can lead to increased deposition
ejected from the volcano’s vent with force
of sediments along rivers and result to
and trajectory.
long-term flooding problems in the low-
lying downstream communities.

NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF BALLISTIC PROJECTILE

• Ballistic projectiles endanger life and
VOLCANIC GASES
property by the force of impact of falling
• Gases and aerosols released in the
fragments, but this occurs only close to an
atmosphere, which include water
eruption vent.

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TSUNAMI VOLCANIC ASSESSMENT

• Sea waves or wave trains that are
generated by sudden displacement of
water (could be generated during
undersea eruptions or debris
avalanches)
NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF TSUNAMI
• An eruption that occurs near a body of
water may generate tsunamis if the
pyroclastic materials enter the body of
water and cause it to be disturbed and
displaced, forming huge waves.
• The assessment of volcanic status (if it is quiet
or in normal state, in state of unrest,
expected to erupt, erupting) is based on the
different parameters that can be observed.
• Volcanologists often use a combination of
as many data available from the different
parameters used for evaluation.
• For example, the number of earthquakes as
recorded by the seismograph may increase
from background levels of 0-5 per week and
may escalate into 100s a in a day.

SIGNS OF VOLCANIC ERUPTION

1. Increase in the frequency of volcanic
quakes with rumbling sounds;
occurrence of volcanic tremors.
2. Increased steaming activity; change in
color of steam emission from white to
gray due to entrained ash.
3. Crater glow due to presence of magma
at or near the crater
4. Grown swells (or inflation), ground tilt,
and ground fissuring due to magma
intrusion
5. Localized landslides, rockfalls, and
landslides from the summit area not
attributable to heavy rains.
6. Noticeable increase in the extend of
drying up of vegetation around the
volcano’s upper slopes
7. Increase in the temperature of hot
springs, wells, and crater lake near the VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
volcano. • People living near volcanoes may
8. Noticeable variation in the chemical observe premonitory events before an
content of springs, crater lakes within eruption.
the vicinity of the volcano. • What used to be white steam slowly or
9. Drying up of springs/wells around the drastically change to gray to dark
volcano. (suggests in increasing presence of ash)
10. Development of new thermal areas • Drying up vegetation, drying up of
and/or reactivation of old ones; streams, water wells
appearance of solfataras. • Crater glow at the summit area

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• Increasing frequency of rolling rocks THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH AND PLATE
from the summit; localized landslides TECTONICS
not related to heavy rains. • The Earth is made up of 3 main layers:
• Summit area appears to glow or ➢ Crust
becomes incandescent at night. ➢ Mantle
➢ Core (divided into outer and inner
core)
OTHER OBSERVATIONS
• Auditory observations – hear rumbling
sound THE CRUST
• Olfactory – smell of Sulfur (rotten eggs) • The Earth’s crust is made of:
• Feel (Tactile) – ground movement ➢ Continental Crust
o Thick (10 – 70km)
o Buoyant (less dense than oceanic
VOLCANO HAZARD MAPS crust)
VOLCANO ALERT LEVELS o Mostly old
• In the Philippines, we use a system of
Volcano Alert Signals to define the ➢ Oceanic Crust
current status of each volcano. o Thin (~7km)
• The alert levels range from 0 to 5. o Dense (sinks under continental
• The alert levels are used to guide any crust)
appropriate response from the Local o Young
Government Units (LGUs).
• For each of the Alert Level, there should
be a corresponding action coming from
authorities.
• For example, take a look at Mayon
Volcano Alert Levels, if Alert Level 1 is
declared, it is advised that the people
should not venture into the 6-kilometer
radius or Permanent Danger Zone.
• Hazard maps illustrate potential for
ground-based volcanic impacts – lava
flows, pyroclastic flows, ashfall, volcanic
gases, and more far-reaching hazards
HOW DO WE KNOW WHAT THE EARTH IS MADE
(such as lahars) in valleys that drain the
OF?
volcano.
• Geophysical surveys: seismic, gravity,
magnetics, electrical, geodesy
➢ Acquisition: land, air, sea, and
PERMANENT DANGER ZONE (PDZ)
satellite
• It is a delineated and identified where
➢ Geological surveys: fieldwork,
no permanent habitation is
boreholes, mines
recommended due to the possible
impact of various hazards at any time.

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PLATE TECTONICS WHAT LIES BENEATH THE TECTONIC PLATES

• The Earth’s crust is divided into 7 major • Below the lithosphere (which makes up
plates and numerous minor plates which the tectonic plates) is the
move in various directions. asthenosphere.
• This plate motion causes them to collide,
pull apart, or scrape against each other.
• Each type of interaction causes a HISTORY OF PLATE TECTONICS
characteristic set of Earth structures or • If you would look at a map of the world,
“tectonic” features. you may notice that some of the
• The word tectonic, refers to the continents could fit together like pieces
deformation of the crust as a of a puzzle.
consequence of plate interaction. • This is due to the theory called PLATE
TECTONICS and is the modern version of
the CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY.
WHAT ARE PLATE TECTONICS MADE OF?
• Plates are made of rigid lithosphere.
• The lithosphere is made up of the crust CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
and the upper part of the mantle. • This was proposed by the German
geophysicist Alfred Wegener in 1912 to
try to explain the movement of the
continents.
• But this was rejected due to lack of proof
on how the continents moved
accordingly.
• But in the 1950s, the concept of Seafloor
Spreading was proposed by Harry Hess
to support Wegener’s theory.
• In his theory, Hess proposed that the
seafloor itself was the one moving while
the continents follow.
• Another supporting concept to provide
more proof for plate tectonics was Arthur
Holmes’ Mantle Convection.

PLATE MOVEMENT
• Plates of the lithosphere are moved
around by the underlying hot mantle
convection cells.

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WHAT HAPPENS AT TECTONIC PLATE BOUNDARIES
• Three types of plate boundary:
1. Divergent
2. Convergent
3. Transform
DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES
• A divergent boundary occurs when two
tectonic plates move away from each
other.
• Along these boundaries, earthquakes
are common and magma (molten rock)
rises from the Earth’s mantle to the
surface solidifying to create new
oceanic crust.
• The Mid-Atlantic Ridge and Pacific Ring
of Fire are two examples of divergent
plate boundaries.
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AGE OF OCEANIC CRUST
• Red colors indicate old age, light colors
indicate young age.
EXAMPLE OF CONTINENTAL DRIFTING
• Iceland has a divergent plate boundary
running through its middle.
CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES
• When two plates come together or
collide with each other, it is known as
convergent boundary.
• The impact of the colliding plates can
cause the edges of one or both plates to
buckle up into a mountain range or one
of the plates may bend down into deep
seafloor trench.
• This type of boundary may either be a:
➢ Continental-Continental
➢ Continental-Oceanic
➢ Oceanic-Oceanic Collision
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CONTINENTAL-CONTINENTAL CONVERGENT OCEANIC-OCEANIC CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES

BOUNDARY • The same subduction mechanism
• This type of collision forms happens in this type of collision.
mountains/mountain ranges, as such in • The only difference is that the subduction
the collision of the Indian Plate to the is much steeper, forming deeper
Eurasian plate, forming the Himalayas. trenches.
• The Himalayan Mountain range is home • When two oceanic plates collide, one
to the planet’s highest mountain, Mount runs over the other which causes it to sink
Everest. into the mantle forming subduction.
• The subducting plate is bent downward
to form a very deep depression in the
CONTINENTAL-OCEANIC CONVERGENT ocean floor called a trench.
BOUNDARY • The world’s deepest parts of the ocean
• Subduction takes place when a are found along trenches.
continental plate collides with an • The deepest point in the Marian Trench,
oceanic plate. the Challenger deep, is about 11km
• Since the oceanic lithosphere is dense, deep.
it will subduct or sink under the • This depth is enough to submerge the
continental lithosphere. entire Mt. Everest which stands at just
• As the oceanic lithosphere subducts, it 8848m.
dehydrates, forming molten material
above it.
• This melt would rise causing volcanism.
• Almost all islands of the Philippines
formed due subduction zones and fault
lines prevalent all across the
archipelago with Palawan the only
exception.
• Another feature, called trench, forms
along boundaries of colliding oceanic
and continental crusts.
• Volcanic activity occurs about 100km
from these boundaries since the TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES
subducting oceanic slab also • A transform boundary is formed when
dehydrates about 100km below the plates slide past each other, as such at
Earth’s surface. the San Andreas Fault in California.
• Volcanism is absent in this boundary, but
enormous earthquakes usually take
place here.
• Additionally, crustal material in this type
of boundary is neither created nor
destroyed, unlike in divergent and
convergent margins.

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WHAT’S THE CONNECTION: VOLCANOES AND • As with volcanoes, earthquakes are not
PLATE TECTONICS randomly distributed over the globe.
• Volcanism is mostly focused along plate • At the boundaries between plates, friction
margins (Pacific Ring of Fire) causes them to stick together.
• Volcanoes can be formed either by • When built up energy causes them to break,
subduction, rifting, or hotspots. earthquakes occur.
• The map on the right shows volcanic
activity symbolized by red dots.
• Notice that there are some sports in the WHERE DO EARTHQUAKES FORM?
middle of the Pacific plate wherein no
plate boundaries are found.
• Volcanic activity in such areas is caused
by so-called hotspots.

HYDROMETEROLOGICAL HAZARDS
• Hydrometeorological – it is the study of
the atmospheric and terrestrial phases of
the hydrological cycle with emphasis on
HOTSPOT VOLCANOES the interrelationship between them.
• Hotspot volcanoes from stationary • It deals with the transfer of water and
mantle plumes that do not follow the energy between land surface and the
movement of the crust above them. lower atmosphere.
• The Hawaiian chain of islands formed
from this hotspot in the middle of the
Pacific Plate.
• The tectonic plate moves over a fixed
hotspot forming a chain of volcanoes.
• The volcanoes get younger from one
end to another.

HYDROLOGIC CYCLE (WATER CYCLE)

• Precipitation
➢ Cloud formation and type
➢ Rainfall
➢ Associated hazards
• Formation of snow-covered mountain
tops (not applicable in the Philippines

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• Melting of snow and ice (not
applicable in the Philippines)
• Interception of precipitation by
vegetation cover
• Storage in land surface depressions
• Infiltration of water into soil
• Evapotranspiration
• Recharge of groundwater
• River runoff
CLOUDS
• Clouds are ubiquitous in our daily lives,
so much so that most people don’t pay
attention to them anymore.
• Clouds are essential in the hydrologic
cycle of Earth because their formation
and movement initiate the transport of
water.
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HOW IS RAIN MEASURED?
• Rainfall is measured using a rain gauge.
• Rain gauge is thought to be one of the
oldest weather instruments.
• Rain gauges can be as simple as a
cylinder that catches rain water.
TERRESTRIAL PHASE OF THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
• As water returns to the surface of the
Earth from precipitation, it doesn’t just
stay in one place.
• Gravity takes it into the ground either as
infiltration, or it begins running downhill as
surface runoff.
• Most of this moving water will end up in
streams or rivers flowing towards the
ocean.
A WATERSHED
• A watershed is a basin-like landform
defined by highpoints and ridgelines that
descend into lower elevations and
stream valleys.
• Water is channeled into soils,
groundwater, creeks, and streams
making its way to larger rivers and
eventually the sea.
PROCESSES THAT GOVERN TERRESTRIAL WATER
FLOW
INTERCEPTION OF PRECIPITATION BY VEGITATION
COVER
• Before reaching the land surface, a part
of the precipitation may be intercepted
by vegetation and/or other types of
surface cover.
• A portion of intercepted rainfall
evaporates and the other portion may
flow down on vegetation stems.
EARTH SCIENCE WITH DISASTER READINESS AND RISK REDUCTION

STORAGE IN LAND SURFACE DEPRESSIONS the center of circulation becomes

• Detention of a part of precipitation on
depressions.
• While most waters flows back to the
ocean, some can flow in streams
towards closed lake, or purposely
diverted for human use, and stored
there for a time.
INFILTRATION OF WATER INTO SOIL
• Flow of water through soil surface.
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
• Total evaporation from surface water
and plants is referred to as
evapotranspiration.
RECHARGE OF GROUNDWATER
• Water storage in the soil-rock system.
visible.
CLASSIFICATION OF TROPICAL CYCLONES
• These classifications are according to the
strength of the associated winds as adopted
by PAGASA (as of May 1, 2015)
1. Tropical Depression (TD) – a tropical
cyclone with maximum sustained winds
of up to 61kph.
2. Tropical Storm (TS) – a tropical cyclone
with maximum wind speed of 62 to 88
kph.
3. Severe Tropical Storm (STS) – a tropical
cyclone with maximum wind speed of 89
to 117 kph.
4. Typhoon (TY) – a tropical cyclone with
maximum wind speed of 118 to 220 kph.
5. Super Typhoon (STY) – a tropical cyclone
with maximum wind speed exceeding
220 kph.

RIVER RUNOFF
• Part of the precipitation that flows into THE WEATHER RADAR
river systems. • Another way weather forecasters track
the movement of tropical cyclones is
with the use of weather radars.
TROPICAL CYCLONE • RADAR is an acronym which stands for
• It is a rotating, organized system of Radio Detection And Ranging.
clouds and thunderstorms that • A radar send out electromagnetic
originates over the tropical waters. waves to the atmosphere that is then
• Tropical cyclones rotate in a reflected by hydrometeors (e.g. rain,
counterclockwise direction in the clouds) present in the sky.
northern hemisphere (conversely, • Once a tropical cyclone enters the
clockwise in the southern hemisphere). Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR), a
• The term tropical cyclone encompasses 5-day forecast track (previously 3-day) is
tropical depressions, tropical storms, issued by PAGASA every 6 hours at 5am,
typhoons, and hurricanes. 11am, 5pm, and 11pm.
• It can be seen in a satellite image due • A forecast track gives expected location
to its characteristic spiral/circular shape. of a tropical cyclone in the succeeding
• The stronger and more intense a tropical 24-hour interval for the next 120 hours or
cyclone becomes, the more 5 days.
symmetrical the inner clouds or • Together with the forecast track,
rainbands are and a distinctive “eye” at PAGASA also issues the Public Storm

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EARTH SCIENCE WITH DISASTER READINESS AND RISK REDUCTION
Warning System (PSWS) to warn citizens
of impending wind strength. The PSWS is
as follows:
HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL HARDS MAPS
RETURN PERIOD
• It is also referred as recurrence interval.
• It is the probability of an event, such as
heavy rain, intense typhoon of floods to
happen.
• It is a statistical measurement mainly
based on historical data that gives the
estimated time interval between similar
extreme events.
RAINFALL IN THE PHILIPPINES
• Rainfall is the most important climatic
element in the Philippines.
• Rainfall distribution throughout the
country varies from one region to
another, depending upon the direction
of the moisture-bearing winds and the
location of the mountain systems.
NATIONWIDE OPERATIONAL ASSESSMENT OF
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RAINFALL OBSERVATION
• Aside from rain gauge monitoring in
different parts of the Philippines, PAGASA
publishes regularly updated color-
coded satellite images from the Multi-
Functional transport satellite or MTSAT (as
of Dec 2015, but will soon shift to a newer
satellite called Himawari-B) to visualize
rain distribution across the country.
• While we are usually concerned with
heavy rainfall events, lack or rain is also a
significant condition that we also
experience.
• Weather in different parts of the
Philippines can also vary significantly for
certain years as a response to changing
global climate.
• One of the main climate drivers that
affect the Philippines is the El Niño
Southern Oscillation (ENSO) or simple El
Niño.
EL NIÑO
• It is a significant increase in ocean
temperature over the eastern and
central Pacific Ocean.
• It occurs at irregular intervals ranging
from 2-7 years usually developing in the
early months of the year and decay the
following year.
• In the Philippines, El Niño conditions are
often characterized by dry and warm to
hot climate.
HAZARDS OR NOAH
• It is a program under the Department of
Science and Technology (DOST) with the
mission to undertake disaster science
research and development, advance
the use of cutting edge technology, and
recommend innovative information
services in government’s disaster
prevention and mitigation efforts.
EARTH SCIENCE WITH DISASTER READINESS AND RISK REDUCTION

NATIONAL MAPPING AND RESOURCE

INFORMATION AUTHORITY (NAMRIA)
• It is an agency of the Philippine
government under the Department of
Environment and Natural Resources
(DENR), responsible for providing the
public with mapmaking services and
acting as the central mapping agency,
depository, and distribution facility of
natural resources data in the form of
maps, charts, texts, and statistics.

THE MINES AND GESCIENCES BUREAU (MGB)

• It is a government agency also under
the Department of Environment and
Natural Resources (DENR), is responsible
for the conservation, management,
development and proper use of the
country’s mineral resources including
those in reservations and lands of public
domains.
• MGB maintains a geohazard
visualization portal accessible at this
URL: https://mgb.gov.ph/.

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