Physics 112, Fall 2019

Midterm Examination
November 5, 2019

NAME:

Student Number:

Selected Formulae
d̄Q = dU + d̄W
τ dσ = dU + pdV
F ≡ U − τσ
ln N ! ' N (ln N − 1)
p = − −∂U −∂F



∂V σ
= ∂V τ

harmonic oscillator eigenvalues s = s~ω, s = 0, 1, 2, ...

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Problem 1. (16 points all parts) A system consists of N two-state paramagnetic moments
in thermal contact with a resevoir at temperature τ .
a) (4 points) Define the term “multiplicity” g, and write down a statistical definition for
the entropy σ in terms of g. What is g(N, s) and σ(N, s), of a system comprised of N
paramagnetic moments?
Each moment can be in one of two states, such that N = N↑ + N↓ . The total magnetic
moment of the system is M = (2s)µ, with 2s = (N↑ − N↓ ) and µ↑ = µ, µ↓ = −µ.

g is given by the binomial distribution,

(N↑ + N↓ )!
g(N↑ , N↓ ) =
N↑ !N↓ !
N!
=
(N/2 + s)!(N/2 − s)!

The entropy is given by σ ≡ ln g(N, s), with g given above.

b) (2 points) Evaluate σ(s = 0). Hint: Use the Stirling Approximation.

σ(s = 0) = ln(N !) − 2 ln(N/2)!

= [N ln N − N ] − 2[(N/2) ln(N/2) − N/2]
= N ln 2.

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c) (6 points) Invoking the Stirling Approximation, and further examining the case of small
s/N leads to
2s2
σ(s) ' σ(s = 0) − .
N
With the energy Us = −(2s)µB, write the entropy as σ(Us ). Us is the total energy of
the system of the N moments. Use this expression and the statistical definition for
temperature to evaluate Us (τ ), and the heat capacity C.

We have the expression for σ above, and we want to calculate

 
1 ∂σ
= .
τ ∂U

Thus, we insert
−U
s= ,
2µB
so that σ is written as σ(U ). That is,
 2
2 U
σ(s) = σ(s = 0) − .
N 2µB

Taking the derivative w.r.t. U gives

1 −2 2U
= .
τ N (2µB)2
Finally,
(µB)2
U = −N .
τ
The heat capacity is given by

∂U
CV = (1)
∂τ
(µB)2
=N (2)
τ2

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d) (4 points) Now suppose the paramagnetic system, prepared with s 6= 0 (determined by the
field strength and initial temperature τi ), is thermally isolated from the resevoir. Following
this thermal decoupling, the applied field strength is slowly (i.e., reversibly) reduced from
an initial value Bi to a final value Bf , with Bf < Bi . What is the final temperature of the
spin system? [Hint: The entropy depends only on N , s. What happens to the entropy of
the spin system in the process?]
This method has been used to cool nuclei to sub-µK temperatures.
The entropy is constant in the process, since it depends on N , s only. As the field is slowly
decreased with the system in isolation, the ratio N↑ to N↓ remains the same. That means
also that µ̄ is constant. The implication is that for the situation presented here, where the
energy and magnetization are given according to (c), we have

B2
= constant.
τ2

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Problem 2. (18 points all parts) Ideal gas and equipartition. Consider a monatomic ideal
gas, consisting of N identical particles in a container of volume V and in thermal contact
with a resevoir at temperature τ .

a) (4 points) Give a definition for the partition function Z, in terms of possible microstates
of a system s . Using this definition, show that the average energy can be written as
∂ ln Z
U = τ2 .
∂τ

P
Z≡ s exp[−s /τ ].
We want to calculate
∂ ln Z 1 ∂Z
= .
∂τ Z ∂τ
In taking the derivative w.r.t. τ , we have

 2 P
1 ∂Z 1  exp[−s /τ ]
= Ps s .
Z ∂τ τ s exp[−s /τ ]

That is,
∂ ln Z X
τ2 = s P (s ),
∂τ s

the mean energy.

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b) (4 points) The single particle partition function for the classical limit of the monatomic
ideal gas in a three dimensional volume V can be written as nQ V , with nQ = [M τ /2π~2 ]3/2 .
What is the 3-particle partition function, Z3 , in terms of Z1 ? Explain your reasoning (1-2
sentences is enough). Comment on why Z3 , as written, will not be valid in the limit τ → 0?

The two particle partition function is

1 3
Z3 = Z .
3! 1
From the definition in (a), the partition function sums Boltzmann factors over possible
microstates. The 3-particle partition function then includes terms with the sum of single
particle energies in the respective Boltzmann factors. However, the exponential terms can
then be factorized:

any factor exp[−(ε1 +ε2 )/τ ] = exp(−ε1 /τ ) exp(−ε2 /τ ). That is, Z2 = Z1 (1)Z1 (2). The factor
1/3! avoids double-counting, which arises due to the indistinguishability of the particles.
It is not valid in the limit τ → 0, since the occupancy of low energy orbitals will grow to
order unity, hence quantum correlations become relevant.

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c) (4 points) Use ZN , and the expression in (a) to evaluate U for the N -particle classical
ideal gas.

The N -particle partition function is

1 N
ZN = Z .
N! 1

∂ZN 3N 1
=
∂τ 2 τ

Multiplying this result by τ 2 gives the answer,

3N
τ
2

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d) (2 points) Your answer to (c) satisfies the Equipartition Theorem, where the internal
energy is given by τ /2 per degree of freedom. Evaluate the heat capacity at constant volume
for the N-particle classical ideal gas,
 
∂Q
CV ≡ .
∂τ V

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CV = N.
2

e) (4 points) If heat is transferred to the system reversibly, then dσ = dQ/τ . Write down
an expression for the heat capacity at constant pressure, then compare to CV . Comment on
the difference.

We can use the thermodynamic identity,

τ dσ = dU + pdV,

and since dσ = dQ/τ ,

   
∂Q ∂σ
=τ
∂τ p ∂τ p

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is the heat capacity at constant pressure. Combining with the thermodynamic identity, we
have
 
∂V
Cp = CV + p .
∂τ p

This is sufficient for full credit, provided that a comment is included, indicating that Cp > CV
because the constant p condition implies that some of the heat transferred goes to doing work
on the environment rather than solely going to increase the kinetic energy of the gas.
To finish the calculation, note that the ideal gas equation of state, p = N τ /V , so that
Cp /CV = 5/3.

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Problem 3. (16 points) Collection of N identical harmonic oscillators, of resonance fre-
quency ω0 . The energy eigenvalues of each oscillator are εs = s~ω0
a) (4 points) Write down an expression for Z for the case of a single harmonic oscillator in
thermal contact with a resevoir of temperature τ , in terms of the energy eigenvalues. Show
that
Z = [1 − exp(−~ω0 /τ )]−1
.

∞
X
Z= exp[−s~ω0 ].
s=0

With x ≡ exp[−~ω0 /τ ] and x < 1 for any ω0 , τ , rewrite Z as

∞
X 1
xs = .
s=0
1−x

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b) (4 points) Use the expression in (a) to find the average energy, U = s̄~ω0 . Find approxi-
mate forms for U in the limits x  1, x  1, where x ≡ ~ω0 /τ , and τ the temperature.

Along with (a), we use the expression from 2(a),

∂ ln Z
U =τ 2
∂τ
2 1 ∂ ln Z
=τ
Z ∂τ

Let y ≡ ~/ω0 .
Then

~ω0
∂Z τ2
= [1 − exp −y]2 .
∂τ exp[−y]
1
With Z
= 1 − exp(−y), we have

~ω0 exp[−~ω0 /τ ]
U= ,
1 − exp[−~ω0 /τ ]
~ω0
= .
exp[~ω0 /τ ] − 1

Limiing forms:

1. ~ω0  1: The Planck distribution function n(omega0 ' τ /~ω0 , so U ' τ .

2. ~ω0  1: U ' ~ω0 exp[−~ω0 /τ ].

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c) (4 points) Calculate the heat capacity for arbitrary ratio x ≡ ~ω0 /τ . As in a), approximate
it in the limits x  1, x  1.

∂U
CV =
∂τ
 2
~ω0 exp[~ω0 /τ ]
= .
τ (exp[~ω0 /τ ] − 1)2

1. ~ω0  1: CV ' 1.

2. ~ω0  1:
 2
~ω0
CV ' exp[−~ω0 /τ ].
τ

d) (4 points) From the heat capacity, write down an integral expression for the entropy at
temperature τ (do not try to solve it!). Is the answer well-defined in the limit that x  1
(i.e., low temperature limit)?

From the thermodynamic identity,

τ dσ = dU + pdV

and fixed volume,

Z τ2
CV
∆σ = dτ.
τ1 τ

The heat capacity is exponentially small in the limit x  1, so the integral converges in the
case that τ1 → 0.

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