Geotech Geol Eng (2019) 37:3065–3076
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-019-00825-0 (0123456789().,-volV)
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ORIGINAL PAPER
Comparative Assessment of the Stabilization of Lime-
Stabilized Lateritic Soil as Subbase Material Using Coconut
Shell Ash and Coconut Husk Ash
Chijioke C. Ikeagwuani
Received: 19 June 2018 / Accepted: 4 February 2019 / Published online: 8 February 2019
Ó Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019
Abstract The effect of two agro-based admix-
tures—coconut shell ash (CSA) and coconut husk
ash (CHA)—on lime-stabilized lateritic soil were
assessed and their results were compared with respect
to the most potent stabilizer that can be used for the
stabilization of lateritic soil as sub-base material in
this study. Engineering properties such as California
bearing ratio (CBR) and unconfined compressive
strength (UCS) were determined for both stabilizers.
The peak values of the CBR and UCS for the CSA
were obtained when the soil was treated with a
combination of 4% CSA ? 4% lime content while
that of the CHA were observed at a combination of
16% CHA ? 4% lime content. However, the CBR and
UCS values for the CSA were found to be higher than
that of the CHA treated soil. The UCS and CBR for the
soil specimens treated separately with CSA and CHA
did not meet the criteria necessary to be qualified as
sub-base material but they adequately satisfy the
requirement as subgrade material.
Keywords California bearing ratio  Coconut husk
ash  Coconut shell ash  Compaction  Lateritic soil
C. C. Ikeagwuani (&)
Civil Engineering Department, University of Nigeria,
Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria
e-mail: chijioke.ikeagwuani@unn.edu.ng
1 Introduction
Lateritic soil is a complex compound consisting of
materials that varies widely in its chemical composi-
tions and physical characteristics. Significant amount
of quartz and kaolinite are present in lateritic soil
while primary silicates and bases are absent from it
(Dowling 1965). It is a naturally occurring soil found
in most part of the earth crust such as Australia, India
and some sub-Saharan countries especially Nigeria
(Osinubi et al. 2015). Lateritic soils found in Nigeria
are used extensively for road construction. Most of
them have been used successfully as base or sub-base
material in highway construction. Despite its success-
ful usage, it has been reported in most cases that the
criteria for specifications of road base or sub-base are
not often met thus caution is applied when utilizing it
as sub-base material (IFG 2007). Several limitations
affect the utilization of lateritic soil for road construc-
tion particularly when used as sub-base material. Such
limitations include the climate, hydrological regime of
the engineering site, its nature and strength of the
available gravel particles present in it (Joel and
Agbede 2011). Remediation of the soil can be
achieved through stabilization. Different stabilization
methods are available for improving engineering
properties of lateritic soils (Ghasemzadeh and Tabai-
yan 2017).
Stabilization of lateritic soil is not a new concept in
geotechnical engineering or in highway construction.
Stabilization is done primarily to improve the
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engineering properties of soil either mechanically or
by using additives as stabilizing agents to mitigate the
adverse effect of soils. The type of additive used
depends largely on the nature of the soil. In the
selection of the type of additive needed for stabiliza-
tion of lateritic soils, cost implication is usually
considered. Recycling of available and economical
agro-wastes that are pozzolanic when reduced to ash
has gained wide acceptance lately among researchers
in stabilization of soil, particularly when the cost of
agro-wastes materials are compared with other con-
ventional admixtures such cement and lime that are
used for soil stabilization as well. Despite showing
marked improvement in the geotechnical properties of
lateritic soil, these conventional admixtures are fast
losing their popularity in most parts of the world
particularly Africa due to their soaring costs. Another
drawback in the use of these admixtures is that some
conventional admixtures are difficult to obtain in
commercial quantity in some regions across the world.
Notwithstanding the shortcomings of these con-
ventional admixtures, Ola (1977a) stabilized most
Nigerian lateritic soils ranging from A-1-a to A-7-6
with lime and observed substantial improvement in the
geotechnical properties of the soils used largely as
base materials. In addition, it was clearly revealed that
only the lateritic soil classified as A-1 met the criteria
as material for use as base course at 6% lime content.
Other categories of lateritic soils, despite showing
appreciable improvement in geotechnical properties
after the addition of lime, fell short of the requirement
for use as base material due to their low CBR value. A
related research conducted by Joel and Agbede (2011)
on the improvement of both the physical and strength
properties of lateritic soil using sand and lime as
admixtures showed that 45% sand and 6% lime
content improved the engineering properties of the
soil. Furthermore, the sand was observed to effectively
alter the gradation of the soil thus improving its
physical properties.
Other attempts were also made recently to stabilize
lateritic soil with economical agro-waste materials as
admixtures. Osinubi et al. (2009) treated lateritic soil
with bagasse ash, a by-product from sugar processing
factories and reported little improvement in the static
strength properties after 2% bagasse was added by air-
dried weight of the soil. This prompted them to
recommend that 2% bagasse content will be sufficient
to boost the strength properties of the lateritic soils
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Geotech Geol Eng (2019) 37:3065–3076
used as subgrade materials. Similarly, Amadi (2010)
studied the influence of fly ash on the plasticity of
lateritic soil. Findings from his study revealed that
maximum compressive strength was attained at 5%
flyash content and a reduction in the compressive
strength of the lateritic soil as the curing days
increased. The reduction in compressive strength
was attributed to the low calcium oxide present in
the flyash which prevented the continuous formation
of any cementitious products. It was suggested that
adding lime to the soil–flyash mixture could further
improve the geotechnical properties of the soil. This
sentiment was shared by Lyon Associates (1971) in
their lateritic soil improvement study where the
pronunciation that lime should be combined with
other admixture for effective result was made.
This present study therefore combines lime and
agro-based additives in the treatment of lateritic soil.
The agro-based additives are coconut shell ash (CSA)
and coconut husk ash (CHA). Effective comparisons
between each of the agro-based additives added
separately with the lime-stabilized lateritic soil were
made to determine the most potent additive that would
significantly and better improve the engineering
properties of the poor lateritic soil used in this study.
Both coconut shell and coconut husk are described as
agro-wastes materials that are often disposed indis-
criminately once the copra (meat) from the coconut
has been removed thereby constituting nuisance to the
environment. This has spurred researchers to harness
the beneficial use of coconut husk and shell in soil
improvement especially when reduced to ash due to
their pozzolanic potential as noted by most researchers
(Oyediran and Fadamoro 2015). Oyediran and Fada-
moro (2015) evaluated the strength characteristics of
compacted shales treated with coconut husk ash and
reported significant improvement in the geotechnical
properties of the compacted shale used in their study.
The optimal value of the geotechnical properties of the
soil was observed when between 6 and 10% CHA was
added by dry weight of the compacted shale. Simi-
larly, Amu et al. (2011) conducted a study on the
determination of the potentials of coconut shell and
coconut husk ash on lateritic soil to be used as
subgrade material and stated that there was significant
improvement in the static strength properties deter-
mined for the soil.
Geotech Geol Eng (2019) 37:3065–3076 3067

2 Materials and Method of Testing specifies a maximum plasticity index of 35% for soils
to be used as subbase material. The CBR (soaked and
2.1 Materials unsoaked) for the natural lateritic soil which is low
imply that the soil cannot adequately be used as a
2.1.1 Lateritic Soil subbase material. To mitigate this detrimental effect of
the soil, it has to be adequately stabilized before it can
Lateritic soil used in this study was obtained from a be used as a subbase material.
borrow pit through disturbed sampling method close to
the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu main gate. 2.1.2 Lime
According to the geographical map of Nigeria, Nsukka
lies between latitude 6°840 2900 N and Longitude Lime used in this study was quicklime sourced locally.
7°370 3300 E. Lateritic soils found mainly in Enugu are Nigeria does not produce quicklime so the quicklime
categorized under the ferrisols groups (Osula 1989). used was actually an imported one that was sold in a
These groups of lateritic soils are characterized by clay local store close to the University of Nigeria, Nsukka,
fraction that are virtually kaolinite. Occasionally, Enugu, main gate.
minute quantities of lattice clays and gibbsite in the
ratio of 2:1 are present as well (D’Hoore 1964). Result 2.1.3 Coconut Shell Ash and Coconut Husk Ash
of the conducted preliminary test used in identification
of the natural soil is summarized in Table 1 while the Both the coconut shell ash (CSA) and the coconut husk
particle size distribution curve for the soil is shown in ash (CHA) used in this present study were sourced
Fig. 1. The preliminary investigations carried out on locally from Nsukka market where very large quan-
the natural soil sample showed that the soil is reddish tities of coconuts are sold. Production of coconut husk
brown in colour and it has a specific gravity of 2.57. ash and coconut shell ash were from the incineration of
This value for the specific gravity is consistent with the the husk and the shell in a separate furnace with
values of lateritic soil found in most tropical regions of temperature set at 500 °C for approximately 6 h.
the world (Gidigasu 1974). More than 50% coarse Coconut husk used in the production of the CHA is a
fraction passed through BS. No 4 sieve which 5–10 mm thick fibrous cover that envelops the coco-
indicated that the soil has a high quantity of sand nut shell (Tejano 1984). The coconut shell was
present in it. The plasticity index of the lateritic soil skimmed from the coconut and ground into powdery
obtained as 38.4 signified that the plasticity of the soil form prior to incineration. X-ray fluorescence was
is very high. Nigerian General Specification (1997) performed on representative samples of CSA and
CHA to determine their oxide composition. These
Table 1 Properties of the natural lateritic soil admixtures were sieved using BS No 200 sieve before
usage. The oxide composition of the admixtures are
Property Description
presented in Table 3.
Specific gravity 2.57
Natural moisture content (%) 17.0
Liquid limit (%) 52.0 3 Method of Testing
Plastic limit (%) 13.6
Plasticity index (%) 38.4 3.1 Index Properties of Soil
AASHTO classification A-2-7(1)
USCS classification SW Determination of index properties of the soil speci-
CBR mens were done in accordance with BS 1377 (1990b).
Unsoaked 9.15 Collected moist soil specimens were air-dried for
Soaked 6.89 3 days before usage to simulate the actual field
Group index 1 conditions the soil will be subjected to in practice.
Colour Reddish brown Particle size distribution for soil specimen passing BS
No. 200 was carried out using sodium hexametaphos-
phate as dispersant because it is known to produce a

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Fig. 1 Particle-size 100

distribution curve of the
90
natural lateritic soil
80

Percentage passing (%)

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.01 0.1 1 10
Particle size (mm)

Table 2 Variation of the lime content with plasticity index of test with the soil specimens being compacted in three
the soil layers with a 2.5 kg rammer allowed to fall freely from
Lime 0 2 4 6 8 10 a height of 310 mm. Each layer received 25 blows of
the rammer. Soil–lime–admixture mixtures were
Plasticity index 38.4 30.4 26.1 29.5 32.1 31.6 achieved by mixing thoroughly the admixture in the
ratio of 0, 4, 8, 12, 16 and 20% by weight of the
lateritic soil. The lime added was kept constant at the
percentage obtained from the Atterberg limits test of
better result (Gidigasu and Kuma 1987) when com-
soil specimen with the least plasticity index.
pared with other dispersants.
3.4 California Bearing Ratio Test
3.2 Atterberg Limits
The California bearing ratio (CBR) was conducted in
The procedure described by BS 1377 (1990c) Part 2
accordance with BS 1377 (1990d) Part 4. Soaked and
was used for the determination of the Atterberg limits.
unsoaked CBR were determined on the soil–lime–
The soil–lime mixture was achieved by adding lime in
admixture mixtures. British standard Light (BSL)
the ratio of 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10% by weight of the
energy level were used for the compaction of the
lateritic soil. The mixing time of the soil–lime mixture
mixture at their optimum moisture content. CBR test
was kept well under 5 min as it has proven to produce
specimens were cured for a duration of 6 days. The
better and reliable Atterberg limits result (Goswami
cured specimens compacted at moisture content
and Singh 2005). During the combination of the
corresponding to their optimum moisture content
mixtures, hand mixing was employed throughout the
were placed in a CBR machine driven at strain rate
duration of the test and adequate precaution was taken
of 1 mm/min. The CBR value was measured as the
to obtain a homogenous mix at every stage involved in
ratio of the test load at either 2.5 mm or 5 mm
the mixing.
penetration from a standard cylindrical plunger of
49.65 mm diameter to the standard load which is given
3.3 Compaction Test
as 13.2 kN and 20.5 kN for 2.5 mm and 5 mm
penetration respectively. The lower of both CBR
Compaction test to determine the moisture-density
values reported in percentage represents the CBR of
relationship was conducted in accordance with BS
the tested specimen. CBR test was performed at the
1377 (1990d) Part 4. Soil specimens were air-dried for
top and bottom of the mould and the resulting values
a 3-day period to eliminate moisture. British standard
were averaged and reported as the CBR for each
proctor mould was used throughout the compaction

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penetration (2.5 mm or 5 mm). Prior to subjection of stroke movement at a revolution of 6 rpm. After the
the soaked CBR specimens to axial load in the pelletization, the sample was loaded onto the cassette
California bearing ratio machine, the specimens were of the XRF equipment by means of a spring attached to
immersed in water for duration of 24 h under ambient the cassette. The cassette was locked manually by
temperature. This was performed in accordance with turning in a clockwise direction to prevent the pellet
the recommendation stipulated in the Nigeria General sample from falling off or scattering on the goniometer
Specification (1997). when the analysis was on. After about 20 min, the raw
data was generated and analysed. Table 3 shows the
3.5 Unconfined Compression Strength Test oxide composition of the soil and the admixtures used
in this study. The oxide composition of the soil from
The procedure described by BS 1377 (1990a) was Table 3 shows that the lateritic soil is rich in
adopted for the determination of the unconfined sesquioxide (Al2O3 ? Fe2O3). Also, using the silica-
compressive strength test for the soil–lime–admixture alumina ratio classification of the soil as proposed by
mixes. Cylindrical specimens whose diameter and Martin and Doyne (1927), the soil was identified as
length were 38.1 and 76.2 mm respectively were used lateritic soil because its silica-alumina ratio is 1.36.
to perform unconfined compressive strength (UCS) The classification states that soils whose silica-
test. Cured specimens were produced by sealing in alumina ratio is less than 1.33 should be grouped as
polythene bags at duration of 7, 14, and 28 days before laterite soil. Those whose silica-alumina ratio falls
the determination of the unconfined compressive between 1.33 and 2.00 should be grouped as lateritic
strength. The cured specimens were placed in an soil why soils with silica-alumina ratio greater than
unconfined compression strength machine set at a 2.00 should be called non-lateritic soil. However, it
strain rate of 0.10%/min and subjected to compression
until it failed. The results obtained from three spec- Table 3 Oxide compositions (%) of the soil, coconut shell ash
imens were averaged to obtain a reliable data. (CSA), coconut husk ash (CHA) and lime
Resistance to strength loss of the specimens Element oxide (%) Soil CSA CHA Lime
performed in accordance with BS 1377 (1990a) was
used for ascertainment of the durability of the Silica (SiO2) 41.45 39.02 23.42 –
mixtures. The durability of the mixtures were obtained Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 21.34 0.08 2.56 0.1979
by determining the ratio of the unconfined compres- Alumina (Al2O3) 30.41 13.98 3.01 12.1905
sive strength of specimens cured for 7 days and then Phosphorus oxide (P2O5) 0.01 2.35 0.02 –
completely immersing in water for an additional Sulphur dioxide (SO2) – 1.51 0.53 –
7 days to the unconfined compressive strength of the Soda (Na2O) 0.06 – 9.20 –
specimen that was cured for 14 days. In this study, the Potash (K2O) 0.15 27.24 30.61 –
proposed maximum allowable 20% by Ola (1978a, b) Lime (CaO) 1.16 1.91 0.03 80.4695
was used as a criterion for determining the resistance Magnesia (MgO) 0.06 3.00 0.02 6.7915
to loss of strength since no value was specified by BS Titanium oxide (TiO2) 1.21 0.05 0.01 –
(1990a). Magnesium oxide (MnO) 0.01 0.08 0.01 –
Zinc oxide (ZnO) – 0.02 0.01 –
3.6 X-Ray Fluorescence Loss on ignition (LOI) 4.14 10.76 30.57 –
(P2O3) – – – 0.2541
The X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) analysis was per- (SrO) – – – 0.383
formed using the ARL ADVANT-X 1200 model. (MoO) – – – 0.0072
Samples were mixed with BORAX that acts as a (Ag2O3) – – – 0.0042
binder. The mixture of the borax and the sample were (CdO) – – – 0.0197
in the ratio of 4:1. Homogeneous mixture was obtained (SbO) – – – 0.0077
by using Herzog vibrating cup miller at the speed of (BaO) – – – 0.0191
8 rpm. The mixture was loaded onto an aluminium cup (HfO) – – – 0.0003
of size 22 mm 9 40 mm and placed in a pelletizing
machine operated by allowing upward and downward

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has to be stated that the use of silica-alumina ratio for
the identification of lateritic soil has generated
controversy (Ola 1977b; Gidigasu 1976) with several
authors opting rather to identify the soil based on its
morphology to eliminate any kind of confusion that
may arise from the use of such method in engineering.
In this study, however, the silica-alumina ratio was
adopted because it is still commonly used by most
researchers for identification of the soil. The chemical
composition of Table 2 gave a clear indication that the
CSA is a pozzolan of class C accordingly to the ASTM
C618-12 classification (2012). A Class C pozzolan has
a combination of SiO2 ? Al2O3 ? Fe2O3 greater than
50%. In contrast, the CHA did not fall into any of the
class of pozzolan. However, it possesses a high
percentage of potash which could influence the
response of the soil when subjected to different static
strength tests.
3.7 X-Ray Diffraction
Determination of the clay minerals was performed
using the Schimadzu 6000model X-ray diffractome-
ter. The soil sample used for the XRD was air-dried for
3 days because it was in moist state when it was
collected and the sample passing BS No. 200 sieve was
used for the analysis. The XRD analysis conducted on
soil samples revealed that the predominant clay
mineral present in the soil is the kaolinite group with
some other clay minerals such as the montmorillonite
present in trace quantity. The montmorillonite clay
mineral found in the lateritic soil could have been
formed from the existing poor drainage at the location
(Gidigasu 1976). The montmorillonite clay mineral,
which has the ability to undergo alternate drying and
swelling depending on the moist condition of the soil,
often result in the unpredictable behaviour of the soil.
4 Results and Discussion
4.1 Plasticity Characteristics
4.1.1 Atterberg Limits
The variation of the lime content with the plasticity
index of the soil is shown in Table 2. Plasticity index
of the natural lateritic soil decreased from 38.4 to
26.1% when 4% lime content was added to the soil
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Geotech Geol Eng (2019) 37:3065–3076
before the gradual increase observed afterwards from
the curve. Reduction in the plasticity index was
brought about by the kaolinite mineral, which is
known to be electrically neutral. However, it loses
hydrogen ions after the dissociation of hydroxyl ions
in the presence of moisture. This leaves the soil with a
net negative charge thereby making its flat surface to
be attracted to cations and water, thus leading to the
formation of a thick layer of water being adsorbed on
the surface. This process is known as Base Exchange.
The cation (Ca2?), which is from the quicklime,
quickly replaced hydrogen ions (H?) forming more
stable complexes known as calcium alumino silicate.
The calcium alumino silicate, which is a natural
cement, causes cementing action. This resulted in the
flocculation and agglomeration of the clay particles
that brought about reduction in water content and
decrease in the plasticity index that was observed from
Fig. 2. Oyediran and Okosun (2013) observed a
similar trend in their study on the improvement of
geotechnical properties of some selected highway
lateritic soils stabilised with lime. The soil properties
were found to improve significantly with lime content
ranging from 6 to 10%. The increase in the plasticity
index after the addition of 4% lime content could be
attributed to the enlarged flocs formed. These large
particle size flocs resulted in the increase in the void
ratio and this finding is in agreement with the works of
Kinuthia et al. (1999), Abdi and Wild (1993) and
Locat et al. (1990). However, it has to be stated that the
lime in their study was used to stabilised pure kaolinite
but in this present study the soil specimens comprised
largely of kaolinite and other trace quantities of other
clay minerals. They enunciated that the large flocs was
as a result of cation exchange process that took place
in the mixture. The increased void ratio invariably
increases the moisture content of the soil–lime mixture
leading to an increase in the liquid limit and a
reduction in the plastic limit of the mixture. The
reaction taking place in the soil–lime mixture:
CaO þ H2 O ! CaðOHÞ2
CaðOHÞ2 ! Ca2þ þ 2ðOHÞ
Ca2þ þ OH þ SiO2 ! CSH
Ca2þ þ OH þ Al2 O3 ! CAH
Geotech Geol Eng (2019) 37:3065–3076 3071

Fig. 2 Variation of 1.61

maximum dry density
1.6
(MDD) with varying

Maximum Dry Density (g/cm3)

percentages of admixtures 1.59
(CSA and CHA) and lime 1.58
1.57
1.56
1.55 Coconut shell ash
1.54
1.53 Coconut husk ash

1.52
1.51
1.5
0 5 10 15 20 25
Admixture (%) + 4% lime

4.1.2 Compaction Characteristics
The variation of MDD with varying percentages of
admixtures is shown in Fig. 2 while their correspond-
ing moisture content with varying percentages of
admixtures is shown in Fig. 3. Maximum dry density
obtained for the CSA and CHA curves are 1.56 g/cm3
and 1.60 g/cm3 respectively while the corresponding
optimum moisture content as shown in Fig. 3 are 24.8
and 27.3% for CSA and CHA curves respectively. The
peak MDD obtained from the CSA addition to the
lateritic soil was because of the pozzolanic action that
took place between the soil specimens and the CSA
plus lime content and this action requires less water
thus increasing the strength of the lateritic soil.
However, the peak MDD observed at 16% CHA
content may have been brought about by the admix-
tures occupying the available void spaces in the soil–
lime mixtures which also requires less water to occur.
In addition, the increase in the MDD observed could
also have been brought about by the rich quantity of
potash found in the CHA as seen from Table 3. The
potassium rich ash when added to lateritic soil occurs
in various forms such as soluble, exchangeable as well
as exchangeable form (Sparks and Huang 1985).
Being in soluble form, the extractant needed to cause
the solubility is the pore water. This reaction results in
the dissociation of the KOH to its constituent ions
(potassium ions, K? and hydroxyl ion, OH-).
K2 O þ H2 O ! 2KOH

Fig. 3 Variation of
Optimum moisture content 29
with varying percentages of
Optmimu moisture conture (%)

admixtures (CSA and CHA)

and lime 27

25

23 Coconut shell ash

Coconut husk ash

21

19
0 5 10 15 20 25
Admixture (%) + 4% lime

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3072
KOH ! Kþ þ OH
The K?, thus generated, enters the absorbed
position on the clay mineral which already has calcium
ions from the lime added to the soil. The reaction
taking place in the absorbed position could be in two
fold. Firstly, the K? being higher than Ca2? (from
quicklime) in the electrochemical series could natu-
rally displace some of calcium ion that initially
bonded with the soil to form a cementing compound
as explained earlier in the Atterberg limits result. This
results in a higher concentration in the diffuse double
layer. According to Olphen (1963), with a higher
concentration at the diffuse double layer, the thinner
would be the diffuse double layer. This thinner diffuse
double layer coupled with the fact that the hydration
energy of potassium which is about 34 K Cal g-1 -
ion-1 (Spark 1980) increases the strength of the soil
because it has little ability to cause any swell to the
soil. Secondly, the K? reacts with the kaolinite
(Al2Si2O5(OH)4) clay mineral present in the soil to
form a new compound known as potassium feldspar
(KAlSi3O8). Potassium feldspar is known to have high
energy which may explain why the strength increased.
This process is a gradual process compared with that
of the CSA stabilized soil where the peak MDD was
observed at 4% CSA content due to pozzolanic action
that occurred quickly on the addition of CSA. The
decrease in the MDD afterward for both the CSA and
CHA stabilized soil was as a result of the soil–lime–
admixtures turning into fluid with the addition of more
quantity of water after they got to a fixation point and
this subsequently decreased the MDD. The reaction
taking place between potassium and kaolinite.
Al2 Si2 O5 ðOHÞ4 þ2Kþ þ 4SiO2ðaqÞ
Kaolinite
! 2KAlSi3 O8 þ 2Hþ þ H2 O
Potassium feldspar
4.1.3 California Bearing Ratio Result
Figure 4 shows the variation of the unsoaked CBR
with varying percentages of admixture while the
curves showing variation of the soaked CBR with
varying percentage of admixture is presented in Fig. 5.
It is pellucid from Fig. 4 that there was a gradual
increase in the unsoaked CBR of the CSA curve to a
peak value of 20.5 when 4%CSA content was added to
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Geotech Geol Eng (2019) 37:3065–3076
the soil. This value represents about 124% increment
in the unsoaked CBR value. Similarly, a gradual
increase in the unsoaked CBR to a peak value of 18.1
was observed in the CHA curve as evinced in Fig. 4
but this peak unsoaked CBR for the CHA curve was
observed when 16% CHA content was added to the
soil. The significance of this value is that a 98%
increment in unsoaked CBR for the CHA admixture
was attained. In Fig. 5, the peak soaked CBR of the
CSA curve was 15.3 (about 122% increment in the
CBR) at 4%CSA content while the observed peak
soaked CBR of the CHA curve was 13.1 (about 90%
increment in the CBR value) at 16% CHA content.
Both Figs. 4 and 5 showed a decreasing trend after
attaining their peak CBR value. The increase in the
CBR to its peak value for the soil specimen admixed
with CSA could be attributed to the pozzolanic action
experienced within the soil–lime–admixtures. The
reaction happened quickly in the presence of water. In
contrast, the peak CBR obtained at 16% CHA content
could be attributed to the formation of potassium
feldspar which increases the strength of the mixture as
noted in the compaction result. The decrease in the
CBR value for the lateritic soil admixed with CHA
after attaining its peak CBR may be attributed to the
complete formation of potassium feldspar when all the
K? ion present in the solution has been used up
resulting in the flocculation of the soil samples. This
flocculated samples increased the size of the particles
and invariably the void spaces and this accounted for
the loss in strength observed. Comparatively, the CSA
performed better in terms of its CBR and this may not
be unconnected with the increased pozzolanic activity
from the CSA which generated more strength than that
obtained during the formation of potassium feldspar
from the lateritic soil–lime–CHA mix. Despite the
increase in CBR value obtained from both admixtures,
both of them fell short of the specification by the
Nigerian General Specification (1997) that recom-
mends a minimum CBR of 30% for soils that should be
used as sub-base material.
4.2 Unconfined Compression Strength Result
Figures 6, 7 and 8 show the variation of UCS with
varying percentages of admixtures and lime cured for
7, 14 and 28 days respectively. The trend observed in
Figs. 6, 7 and 8 is similar to that obtained in Figs. 5
and 6 for the CBR curves. Remarkably, from the CSA
Geotech Geol Eng (2019) 37:3065–3076 3073

Fig. 4 Variation of 25
unsoaked CBR with varying
percentage of admixtures 20

Unsoaked CBR (%)

(CSA and CHA) and lime
15

10 CSA
CHA
5

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Admixture (%) + 4% lime

Fig. 5 Variation of soaked 18

CBR with varying
percentage of admixtures 16
(CSA and CHA) and lime 14
12
Soaked CBR (%)

10
8 CSA
6
CHA
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Admixture (%) + 4% lime

Fig. 6 Variation of 7 days 1000

UCS with varying
percentages of admixtures 800
UCS (kN/m2)

(CSA and CHA) and lime

600

400 CSA

200 CHA

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Admixture (%) + 4% lime

curve in Figs. 6, 7 and 8, an increasing trend was
observed in the UCS until an optimum value was
attained at 920 kN/m2, 986 kN/m2 and 1259 kN/m2
for samples cured at 7, 14 and 28 days respectively at
4% CSA content. Similarly, for the CHA curves
presented in Figs. 6, 7 and 8, a gradual build in the
UCS to optimal values of 610 kN/m2, 994 kN/m2 and
1154 kN/m2 were observed for samples cured at 7, 14
and 28 days respectively when 16% CHA was added
by dry weight of the soil specimen. Marginal decrease
in the UCS values was observed for subsequent
addition of the admixtures in all the curves present
in Figs. 6, 7 and 8. The increasing trend in the UCS
value to its peak value observed in the CSA curves
could be explicated in terms of the pozzolanic
potential of the coconut shell ash. Development of
strength when pozzolanic reaction was taken place in
the soil–lime–admixture mixture could have increased

123
3074 Geotech Geol Eng (2019) 37:3065–3076

Fig. 7 Variation of 14 days 1200

UCS with varying
percentages of admixtures 1000
(CSA and CHA) and lime
800

UCS (kN/m2)
600
CSA
400
CHA
200

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Admixture (%) + 4% lime

Fig. 8 Variation of 28 days 1400

UCS with varying
percentages of admixtures 1200
(CSA and CHA) and lime 1000
UCS (kN/m2)

800
600 CSA
400 CHA
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Admixture (%) + 4% lime

the value the UCS value. Formation of cementitious
compounds is often observed when pozzolanic reac-
tion occurs and this could also explain the increase in
the strength values observed. Decrease in the UCS
values shortly after the attainment of the peak UCS
values in the CSA curves may have resulted from the
exhaustion of the silica and alumina present in the
CSA that are responsible for the pozzolanic action
experienced in the mixture. In the CHA curves, the
increasing trend observed in the CHA curves could be
explicated in terms of the rich quantity of the potash
present in the CHA. As noted in the explanation in the
compaction analysis, the potassium ion, K? from the
potash could have reacted with the kaolinite present in
the soil to form a new compound by its displacement
of the calcium ion to produce a more stable complex
which ultimately increased the strength of the mixture
to a peak value. Reduction observed after the attain-
ment of the peak values in the CHA curves could have
resulted from the depletion of the potassium ion in the
mixture.
4.3 Durability Characteristics
Figure 9 shows the variation of the resistance to loss of
strength with the admixture. From the curves there was
no combination of the admixtures that met the
requirement by Ola (1978a, b). However, at 4% CSA
content the resistance to loss in strength was 18%,
which is an indication that the loss in strength was 82%
while from the curve of the lateritic soil stabilized with
CHA admixture, it was observed that the resistance to
loss in strength in the 16% CHA content gave a 16%
signifying a loss in strength of 84%. The CSA showed
a promising result in its durability than the CHA
admixture from the durability test conducted. This
may not be unconnected with the fact the CHA with a
higher loss in strength may have started experiencing a
reverse reaction which is known to be associated with
potassium reacting with kaolinite to form potassium
feldspar. The reverse reaction will be pronounced if
the agents of weathering are present in the mixture. In
this case the agent of weathering is water.

123
Geotech Geol Eng (2019) 37:3065–3076
Fig. 9 Variation of
resistance to loss of strength
Resistance to loss of strength (%)
of the soil–lime–admixture
5 Conclusions
Effective comparisons between two agro-waste addi-
tives (CSA and CHA) were evaluated with respect to
the most potent additive that can be applied to
reinforce lateritic soil for its potential use as subbase
material. The lateritic soil used in this study was pre-
stabilized with 4% lime. Results obtained from the
various tests conducted clearly show that:
1. CHA performed better in terms of its compaction
characteristics when compared to the CSA. The
peak MDD (1.60 g/cm3) for CHA gave a higher
value than that obtained for CSA (1.56 g/cm3).
However, the peak MDD values were obtained at
OMC of 27.3 and 24.8% for CHA and CSA
respectively.
2. Both the CHA and CSA significantly improved the
soaked and unsaoked California bearing ratios of
the soil. CHA addition to the lateritic soil resulted
in peak values of 18.1 and 13.1 for unsoaked and
soaked CBR respectively while CSA addition to
the lateritic soil resulted in peak values of 20.5 and
15.3 for the unsoaked and soaked CBR respec-
tively. CSA performed better than CHA in both
the soaked and unsoaked CBR.
3. UCS of the lateritic soil was found to increase
appreciably for soil specimens added with CSA
and CHA at different days of curing (7, 14 and
28 days). When CSA was added to the lateritic
soil, 920 kN/m2, 986 kN/m2 and 1259 kN/m2
were the optimal values recorded at 7, 14 and
28 days respectively. Similarly, when CHA was
added to the lateritic soil, 610 kN/m2, 994 kN/m2
3075
120
100
80
60
CSA
40 CHA
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Admixture (%) + 4% lime
and 1154 kN/m2 were the optimal values attained
respectively at 7, 14 and 28 days of curing.
4. Optimal values in all the tests (Compaction, CBR,
UCS) conducted in this study were obtained at 4%
CSA and 16% CHA addition by weight of the
lateritic soil.
5. The resistance to loss in strength at 4% CSA and
16% CHA content were 18% and 16% respec-
tively. This clearly evince that the loss in strength
are correspondingly 82% and 84% for the 4% CSA
and 16% CHA content.
6. It can be rightly asserted that the CSA is a better
modifier than the CHA, however the optimal
values attained from the strength tests when both
stabilizers were added to the lateritic soil fell short
of the specification by the Nigeria General Spec-
ification (1997) which stipulated a much higher
values for subbase materials. The stabilizers could
still be used to stabilize the soil as subgrade
material or a more potent stabilizer could be added
to improve the geotechnical properties of the soil.
Acknowledgements The author is highly indebted to his
former undergraduate project student, Alago Paschal Obinna,
for his immense assistance during the laboratory experiments. In
addition, the author greatly appreciates the contributions of the
reviewers of this paper.
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