Sustainable Technology and Entrepreneurship 2 (2023) 100028

Sustainable Technology and

Entrepreneurship
http s://www.jo ur nals .elsevier .c om/su stai n a ble-tech nolog y-an d-entrepr en eu rs hip

Full Length Article

Sustainable subgrade improvement using limestone dust and sugarcane

bagasse ash
Desmond E. Ewa*, Enang A. Egbe, Joseph O. Ukpata, Anderson Etika
Department of Civil Engineering, Cross River University of Technology, Calabar, Nigeria

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article History: The study investigated the suitability of Limestone Dust (LSD) and Sugarcane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) as stabilizer
Received 22 June 2022 for the improvement of the geotechnical properties of Calabar subgrade soil. Limestone Dust (LSD) and Sug-
Accepted 7 September 2022 arcane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) wastes were employed as stand-alone stabilizers and in combination, to improve
Keywords: the geotechnical properties of Calabar subgrade soil. The soil was classified as clay with low plasticity using
Soil stabilization the USC-system and, A-6 under the AASHTO classification. The un-stabilized soil had a maximum dry density
Limestone dust of 1.74 kg/m3 at an optimum moisture content of 24.5%, with a 48-hours soaked California Bearing Ratio
Sugarcane bagasse ash (CBR) value of 6.92%, and, an unconfined compressive strength of 103.66 KN/m3. Stabilizers were added at
Compaction 0% − 50% by weight of soil. Results showed a reduction in the swelling potential of the soil, improvements in
California bearing ratio compaction characteristics by a range of 4.3−9,8%, an increase in CBR by 50% -78.5%, unconfined compressive
strength by 23.8%-38.1%, as well as improvements in shear strength, and secant modulus. It was observed
that LSD as a stand-alone stabilizer and in combination with SCBA, showed better improvement compared to
SCBA as a stand-alone stabilizer. It was concluded that a combination of limestone dust and sugarcane
bagasse ash can be used for soil stabilization, contributing to the useful conversion of wastes and supporting
the global advocacy for sustainable development in term of economic resource utilization
© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier España, S.L.U. on behalf of Sustainable Technology and Entre-
preneurship. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

Introduction Unsuitable weak soils are usually stabilized to increase their

Infrastructure are constructed with the intent that they continue
to offer the services throughout it useful life. Subgrade which is the
foundation for road infrastructure plays a critical role in the sustain-
ability of roads. The design, cost and sustainability of roads is majorly
dependent on the nature and type of subgrade. Most subgrade
encountered in tropical rainforest zone of sub-Sahara Africa usually
fall below the minimum requirement in terms of strength properties,
thereby requiring stabilization for it to be able to support the impose
load from traffic.
Stabilization is the process of integrating and mixing components
with soil to improve engineering attributes such as dry density, shear
strength, and bearing capacity. Chemical stabilization which is widely
use entails adding commercially available additives to change the
gradation, texture, or flexibility of the soil or operate as a binder for
cementation, whereas mechanical stabilization on the other hand,
has to do with blending the soil to produce the required gradation.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: desmondewa4sky2@gmail.com, desmondewa@crutech.edu.ng
(D.E. Ewa), joeukpata@crutech.edu.ng (J.O. Ukpata).
strength and longevity while also reducing erosion and dust produc-
tion. The main goal is to develop a soil material or system that can
withstand design loads during the expected life of the engineering
structure, (Sen & Kashyap, 2012). Stabilization enhances the index
properties and strength characteristics of the material, allowing it to
be utilized for construction and to meet engineering design criteria,
(Salahudeen & Akiije, 2014). Chemical stabilization comprises com-
bining industrial by-products with natural or agricultural additives to
alter the soil’s gradation, texture, or flexibility, or to act as a cement
binder. Lime and cement are the age longed material commonly used
for stabilization of poor soils. Recently, industrial and agricultural
waste materials have been used for soil stabilization as reported by
Bethlehem (2015); Ewa, Egbe and Akeke (2016); Jalal, Xu, Jamhiri
and Memon (2020); Okagbue (2007); Patrick Khaoya (2016); Yadu,
Tripathi and Singh (2011). Cement kiln dust (CKD) has been investi-
gated as a chemical stabilizer. CKD improves the engineering proper-
ties of treated soils, as well as their effectiveness as a foundation and
construction material (Hussin, 2013; Miller & Azad, 2000; Okafor &
Ewa, 2012; Singh & Jain, 2015), and (Mohamed, 2002; Okafor & Egbe,
2013). CKD or an appropriate mixture of Fly Ash (FA) and Lime Kiln
Dust (LKD) can be used for long-term soil subgrade stabilization for
different soil types as reported by Bandara, Hettiarachchi, Jensen and

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stae.2022.100028
2773-0328/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier España, S.L.U. on behalf of Sustainable Technology and Entrepreneurship. This is an open access article under the CC BY
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
D.E. Ewa, E.A. Egbe, J.O. Ukpata et al.
Binoy (2020). However, Fly Ash and LKD can be utilized as a short-
term soil stabilizer in certain soil types (for construction facilitation).
The utilization of agricultural and industrial waste in construction
is a step toward solving the ecological challenges associated with dis-
posing such waste. This is because the production of large amounts of
agricultural wastes and the improper management of such wastes
causes serious environmental problems such as air, water and soil
pollution. Several studies have been carried out on biowaste to
improve the soil properties such as compaction, shear strength, per-
meability etc., among them is the sugarcane bagasse ash which is a
by-product of crushed sugarcane.
Bagasse is a residual fibrous material after crushing sugarcane to
extract its juice; and Sugarcane Bagasse Ash is produced after burning
bagasse. Inappropriate disposal of this material can create environ-
mental challenges around sugar manufacturing plants. According to
Hasan, Dang, Khabbaz, Fatahi and Sergei Terzaghi (2016) ‘’Bagasse
ash, comprising a high percentage of silica (SiO2), is considered as a
sensible pozzolanic material with non-reactive behavior and has
potential to be used in road subgrade stabilisation’’.
Sugarcane Bagasse Ash has received a lot of research as a soil sta-
bilizer. When soil containing kaolinite clay was stabilized with
bagasse ash, the strength and index values improved to some extent,
according to Athira and Sini (2019). This agrees with (Kharade, Sur-
yanshi & Deshmukh, 2014). Bagasse ash, on the other hand, was
found to be ineffectual as a “stand-alone” stabilizer by Osinubi, J
Bafyau and Adrian (2009), and should instead be utilized in admix-
ture stabilization.
Nigeria is also blessed with naturally occurring deposit of large
quantities of limestone found in several states including Cross River,
Ebonyi, Abia, Imo, Enugu, Benue, Edo, Ogun, Sokoto, Bauchi, and
Gombe. The several places of Nigeria where limestone and marble
Fig. 1. Geology map of Nigeria showing Limestone and Marble Occurrences (Fatoye & Yomi, 2013).
2
Sustainable Technology and Entrepreneurship 2 (2023) 100028
can be found are depicted in Fig. 1. As seen in Fig. 2b, limestone is
abundant in Cross River State with to local mining operating sites.
Construction of pavement as previously reported in poor sub-
grade across most state in rainforest zone of Nigeria is capital inten-
sive as often the unsuitable material is usually replaced with
recommended material hauled from distance. This situation is the
same for most cities in the country including Calabar which is the ref-
erence city for this study. The use of alternative materials to stabilize
subgrade is gaining acceptance to lessen or eliminate the demand for
the conventional stabilizers and reduce cost associated with subgrade
improvement.
In most cities of the world including Calabar, Nigeria large quan-
tity sugarcane waste are produced annually. Onchieku, et al. (2012)
in Salim, Ndambuki and David (2014) reported that many developing
countries produce large amount of Sugarcane Bagasse Ash with lim-
ited recycling for soil amendment. Kenya for example generate an
estimated 1.6 million tons of Sugarcane Bagasse Ash per year with a
potential of about 2.6 million tons out of which only 25% is recycled
by the factories as a renewable energy. Greater percentage of it is dis-
posed to open landfills which contravenes the current global advocacy
for sustainable development in term of economic resource utilization
(Okafor & Egbe, 2013). Although statistic is scanty but it was reported
that Nigeria in 2013 produced over 15 million tons of sugarcane
(Abdulkadir, Onyejobi & Lawal, 2014). One ton of sugarcane according
to Ganesan, Rajagopal and Thangave (2007) generates 280 kg of
bagasse, the waste from it if properly utilized would not only be eco-
nomical, but may also result to foreign exchange earnings and envi-
ronmental pollution control as reported by Balogun (2009); Magudu,
Abdulwahab and Aigbodion (2009); and (Aigbodion et al., 2008)
The conversion of sugar cane waste to ash could create entrepre-
neurial opportunities and source of livelihood for those farmers
D.E. Ewa, E.A. Egbe, J.O. Ukpata et al. Sustainable Technology and Entrepreneurship 2 (2023) 100028

Fig. 2. (a) Sampling of soil (b) limestone site (c) Air drying of soil sample and (d) burnt sugarcane bagasse ash.

leading to reduction in poverty and also conversion of what is consid-

ered waste into useful product for engineering application. Also, the Table 2
Chemical Composition of Stabilizers.
existing local mining of limestone in the area could lead to a larger
scale of activities for limestone dust quarrying and production. Mineral Sugarcane Bagasse Ash Limestone Dust
This study therefore, investigate the potential utilization of Lime- Percentage
stone dust (LSD) and sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) wastes as stand- Al2O3 6.4 0.35
alone stabilizers and in combination, to improve the geotechnical SiO2 72.6 1.10
properties of Calabar subgrade soil. This subgrade soil at natural and CaO 2.8 54.6
Fe2O3 6.1 0.04
untreated state are unsuitable to serve as foundation soils for pave-
K2O 2.1 −
ment design. MgO 3.3 0.06
The paper is structured into four sections. Section 1 is background Na2O 1.1 −
and literature reviews. The materials and methods employed are pre- P2O5 2.2 −
sented in section 2. The results of the study are presented and dis- CaCO3 − 96.69
TiO2 − 0.02
cussed in section 3. While, the conclusions, the contribution of the LOI 1.0 43.55
study and the limitations and recommendations for further studies
are summarized in section 4.
Maitera, Khan and Kefas (2015) and (Magaji, Zubairu & Ladan, 2020)
in a related work.
Materials and methods

Subgrade soil Methodology

The subgrade soil used was obtained in Calabar, Niger Delta The study adopt both field exploration and laboratory testing for
region, Nigeria within coordinates 425512.955E and 544220.535 N the determination strength properties prior and after treatment with
32 N (4°550 23.7700 N, Longitude: 8°190 41.3300 E).The soil was collected additives.
at a depth of 0.5−1 m using a hand auger, (see Fig. 2), air-dried, and The lateritic subgrade was stabilized by the addition of the stabil-
stored in sag bags in the laboratory. The soil’s index properties were izers following the mix proportion of Table 3. Each stabilizer was also
determined according to BS (1990). used as a stand-alone chemical additive and in combination with
each other. Tests conducted on the matrix include Atterberg’s limits,
particle size distribution, dry density, the California Bearing Ratio
Stabilizers (CBR), Secant Modulus, and Unconfined Compressive (USC) test, see
set-ups in Fig. 3. Linear Shrinkage was estimated using Eq. (1) as
Limestone Dust (LSD) and Sugarcane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) were
employed separately and in combination to improve the subgrade’s Table 3
geotechnical properties. The LSD was obtained from a local mining Mix Proportion.
site at Mfamosing on GPS coordinates of 5°40 56.89200 N, 8°310 31.41500
SN Soil Sugarcane Limestone LSD-SCBA Designation
E and as seen in Fig. 2. The SCBA was obtained by burning sugarcane
Bagasse Ash Dust
bagasse from Mbukpa community located on the following GPS coor-
dinates: N4° 56ʹ 31.354ʺE, 8°18ʹ 59.722ʺ, in Calabar, Cross River State, 1 100 0 0 0 Control
Nigeria. The stabilizers were sieved through a sieve 200 mm and 2 95 0 5 0 LSD
3 90 0 10 0 LSD
stored in airtight sag bags. Table 1 shows the basic properties of the 4 85 0 15 0 LSD
stabilizer while Table 2 present the chemical compositions of the sta- 5 75 0 25 0 LSD
bilizers as determined by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) examination. The 6 50 0 50 0 LSD
LSD composition agrees with values previousely reported by Penuel, 7 95 5 0 0 SCBA
8 90 10 0 0 SCBA
9 85 15 0 0 SCBA
10 75 25 0 0 SCBA
Table 1
11 50 50 0 0 SCBA
Basic properties of Stabilizers.
13 95 0 0 5 LSD-SCBA
Stabilizer Specific gravity % Passing sieve 200mm 13 90 0 0 10 LSD-SCBA
14 85 0 0 15 LSD-SCBA
LSD 2.6 23.5 15 75 0 0 25 LSD-SCBA
SCBA 1.9 21.2 16 50 0 0 50 LSD-SCBA

3
D.E. Ewa, E.A. Egbe, J.O. Ukpata et al. Sustainable Technology and Entrepreneurship 2 (2023) 100028

Fig. 3. (a) USC set up. (b) Atterberg Limit set up, (c) drying oven used.

suggested by Widjaja and Chriswandi (2020).

P:I ¼ 2:13LS ð1Þ
Where, P.I is the plasticity index and LS, linear shrinkage. The
plasticity index is the size of the range of water contents where the
soil exhibits plastic properties. The PI is the difference between the
liquid limit and the plastic limit (PI = LL-PL). while the linear shrink-
age is the reduction in length of a soil sample when oven-dried,
beginning with a moisture content of the sample at the liquid limit.
The modified proctor compaction test was carried out in accordance
to (ASTM, 2012) was performed for each mixture matrix. The maxi-
mum dry density (MDD) and moisture content (OMC) were obtained
Fig. 4. Particle size distribution of subgrade.
from the compaction results.
For the CBR test, 48 hrs. soaked CBR was performed on each sam-
ple. Each mixture matrix was compacted with a 4.5 kg mechanical soil is described as silty clayey soil. The soil had liquid limits of
hammer into the CBR mold. Compaction was performed in three 38.44% with a plasticity index of 15.2% and was classified as clay with
layers with 56 blows for each layer following (ASTM, 2005). low plasticity from the Casagrande Classification Chart, A-6 under the
The direct shear box method was used to determine the shear AASHTO classification. The specific gravity was 2.73 with a maximum
strength, where the shearing strain is increased at a steady rate. The dry density of 1.74 kg/m3 at an optimum moisture content of 24.5%.
unconfined compression strength is determined by applying axial The 48 h-soaked value of the California bearing ratio (CBR) was 6.92%
stress to a cylindrical soil specimen with no confining pressure and against a minimum of 5% required in Nigeria.
observing the axial strains corresponding to various stress levels.
This test was conducted following (AASHTO, 2015), compacted speci- Swelling potential of native subgrade soil
mens wrapped in polyethylene sheets and cured for 3 days. The potential swell or expansiveness of the soil is related to the
For each mix proportion (16 mixes in total), three samples (48 linear shrinkage as shown in Table 5. With a shrinkage limit of
samples in total) were prepared and tested for the above parameters 12.33% and linear shrinkage of 7.14, the subgrade soil has a marginal
and the average values reported. to a critical degree of expansiveness.

Results and discussion

Atterberg limits

Index properties of subgrade soil

The influence of the stabilizers on the Atterberg Limits indices is
shown in Fig. 5. Liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index all
The index properties of the existing soil are presented in Table 4
decreased with the addition of the stabilizers. Liquid limit decreased
while the particle size distribution of the soil is shown in Fig. 4. The
by 11.0%, 13.89%, and 10.12% for LSD-SCBA, LSD, and SCBA, plastic
Table 4 limit decreased by 2.1%, 3.35%, and 4.73% for LSD-SCBA, LSD, and
Index properties of existing subgrade soil used. SCBA, while plasticity index decreased by 8.99%, 10.53% and 5.39% for
LSD-SCBA, LSD, and SCBA, stabilizers respectively. The cation
Description Results
exchange caused by the action of divalent calcium-silicates ions could
Liquid limit (%) 38.44 explain the decline in the liquid limit for the mixes stabilized with
Plastic limit (%) 23.24 LSD-SCBA. The drop in plasticity index could be related to the
Plasticity index (%) 15.20
Shrinkage Limit (%) 12.33
Linear shrinkage (%) 7.14
Table 5
Specific gravity 2.73
Values of shrinkage limits and linear shrinkage for the determination of
Percentage Passing BS Sieve 200 (0.075 mm) 65
potential expansiveness (Chen, 1988).
AASHTO classification A- 6
USGS classification CL Shrinkage limit in% Linear shrinkage in% Degree of expansion
Maximum dry density (kg/m3) 1.74
Optimum moisture content (%) 24.5 Less than 10 Greater than 8 Critical
Unconfined Compressive strength (KN/m2) 103.66 10−12 5−8 Marginal
California bearing ratio (soaked)% 6.92 Greater than 12 0−5 Non-critical

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D.E. Ewa, E.A. Egbe, J.O. Ukpata et al. Sustainable Technology and Entrepreneurship 2 (2023) 100028

Fig. 5. (a) Influence of stabilizers on Liquid Limit, (b) Influence of stabilizers on Plastic Limit, (c) influence of stabilizers on Plasticity index (d) influence of stabilizers on Shrinkage
Limit.

availability of calcium and silicates for cation exchange. The com-
bined impact of non-plastic ash particles made of pozzolans partially
replacing plastic soil particles can also explain this phenomenon. A
drop in the plasticity index implies that soil qualities have improved.
LSD as a stand-alone stabilizer had a better improvement on plastic-
ity than SCBA and LSD-SCBA combinations. Linear shrinkage also
decreased with an increase in stabilizers contents. The decrease in
shrinkage limit implies that the soil becomes less expansive. From
Fig. 5a-d, LSD had a better effect on reducing the tendency for expan-
sion than the other stabilizers.
Compaction characteristics
All the stabilizers improved the maximum dry density (MMD) as
can be seen in Fig. 6. For LSD, SCBA, and LSD-SCBA, the MDD increases
by 7.4%, 4.3%, and 9.8%, respectively, at 15% stabilizers content. LSD

Fig. 6. (a) influence of stabilizers on MDD, (b) influence of stabilizers on OMC.

5
D.E. Ewa, E.A. Egbe, J.O. Ukpata et al. Sustainable Technology and Entrepreneurship 2 (2023) 100028

stand-alone’ stabilizer for long-term situations, as previously stated

(Osinubi et al., 2009). The economic implications of the results are
the reduction in the cost of stabilization by a range of 15−25% com-
pared to Portland cement and lime stabilization.

Unconfined compressive strength (UCS)

In Fig. 8, compressive strength increases as the content of the sta-

Fig. 7. Influence of stabilizers on California Bearing ratio.
and LSD-SCBA combinations gave higher MDD values compared to
SCBA. According to Osinubi et al. (2009), bagasse ash is ineffective as
a “stand-alone” stabilizer and should instead be employed in admix-
ture stabilization. Hence a justification for the LSD-SCBA combina-
tion, which has improved the MDD of the native subgrade soil. When
limestone dust is combined with clay, it becomes easier to compact
the clay at low moisture levels, resulting in a densification structure
with a lower void ratio and higher density, (Ahmed, Hassan & Lotfi,
2020). As the stabilizer content increases, the lower specific gravity
of the bagasse ash replaces the higher specific gravity soil particles,
resulting in a decrease in density. Optimum moisture content
decreased with an increase in stabilizer content. At 5% stabilizers con-
tent, OMC for LSD dropped by 10.5%, that of SCBA drops by 3.2%,
while for the combination of limestone dust and bagasse ash, OMC
reduces by 9.8%. According to Hassan, Taher and Alyousify (2020),
the drop in OMC could be due to the replacement of clay in the mix-
ture with the SCBA pozzolan, and non-plastic LSD particles which
have a lower water attraction. The change in gradation of the matrix
as a result of the LSD-SCBA inclusion could also be responsible for the
drop in OMC and improvement in MDD. 15% utilization of these sta-
bilizers as full replacement to Portland cement and lime stabilizers
will reduce over dependance on these conventional stabilizers and
reduction in the cost of stabilization giving the current continuous
rise in cost of cement and lime.
California bearing ratio (CBR)
bilizer increased. For the SCBA stand-alone stabilizer and LSD-SCBA
combination, UCS increased to an optimal percentage value of 10%
and 15% respectively. While for the LSD admixture, there were linear
increases in USC with stabilizers content up to 50% replacement level.
Beyond 15% stabilizer content, LSD-SCBA showed decreased in UCS.
The increased in UCS could be attributed to change in gradation of
the matrix with the addition of LSD, leading to possible reduction in
porosity (Consoli, Foppa, Festugato & Heineck, 2007). A similar
improvement in UCS was reported by Osinubi et al. (2009) when
lime-bagasse ash was employed to stabilize the soil. The decrease in
strength with increasing SCBA could be due to a lack of calcium in
the soil to compensate for the excess silica in the additional SCBA
(Kumar, Devi & Rajan, 2020). Grain size effect and specific gravity
may also contribute to a decrease in strength. This agrees with the
conclusion of (Osinubi et al., 2009), who recommended that Bagasse
ash was ineffective as a “stand-alone” stabilizer. This implies a cost
reduction of 10−15% in stabilization as traditional cement or lime are
fully excluded as stabilizers.
Shear strength
Shear strength increased with increasing stabilizers content as
seen in Fig. 9. As a stand-alone stabilizer, SCBA increased to a maxi-
mum of 64.93KN/m2 at 10% stabilizer content before declining. While
for LSD and LSD-SCBA admixtures, shear strength increased up to a
maximum of 72.31KN/m2 at 15% stabilizer content and experienced a
gradual decrease. Suction and change in gradation could have
resulted in improvement in the properties of the subgrade soil. The
cementation effect and pozzolanic reaction generated by soil com-
bined with SCBA and LSD increase soil shear strength. This process
results in an increase in the bond between soil particles. While the
decrease in shear strength caused by increased bagasse ash could be
attributed to less calcium in the soil available to react with the alu-
mina and silica in SCBA, as well as bagasse ash’s specific gravity. With
these range of optimal stabilizer content, cost of stabilizer is reduced
by 10−15%. This is a significant savings in the cost of stabilization.

The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) is a tool for determining the Secant modulus
strength of soil subgrades and base courses in California. As shown in
Fig. 7, all three stabilizers improved CBR values, with LSD giving the From Fig. 10, it is observed that, as stand-alone stabilizers, the
highest improvement. An optimal of 15% and 25% stabilizers content Secant modulus increased to a maximum of 7834 kPa at 10% SCBA
were observed for LSD-SCBA and SCBA respectively. Beyond 15%
LDS-SCBA content, CBR values decreased. For the LSD admixture,
there were linear increases in CBR with stabilizers content up to 50%
replacement level. Change in gradation of the matrix with the addi-
tion of LSD could be responsible in the increase in CBR. Since the
limestone dust was not calcined, the CaO present in the LSD may
have impacted only on strengthening the physical structure of the
matrix, with no formation of hydration products as reported by
Ojeda-Farias, Mendoza-Rangel and Baltazar-Zamora (2018) where
the formation of stable calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) and calcium
aluminate hydrates (CAH) by the pozzolanic reaction of SCBA results
in long-term strength enhancement due the presence of Portland
cement. The increase in CBR with the presence of SCBA could be
related to cation exchange, which induces flocculation and agglomer-
ation. While LSD and a combination of LSD-SCBA admixture could be
used as stand-alone’ stabilizers, SCBA should not be utilized as a Fig. 8. Influence of stabilizers on UCS.
6
D.E. Ewa, E.A. Egbe, J.O. Ukpata et al.
Fig. 9. Influence of stabilizers on Shear strength.
Fig. 10. Influence of stabilizers on secant modulus.
and 6684 kPa at 25% LSD after which, secant modulus declined for
both stabilizers. For the LSD-SCBA admixtures, the secant modulus
increased to 12,193 kPa at 15% stabilizer content, indicating a 155.9%
improvement in the stiffness of the stabilized soil. Beyond this opti-
mal level, stiffness reduced with increase in stabilizers content. The
secant modulus measures the stiffness of the soil in the inelastic zone
of the stress-strain curve (Aerospace Engineering 2022). The increase
in Secant Modulus with increasing stabilizers could be explained by
the self-hardening effect of stabilizers or the bonding of particles to
form larger aggregates, resulting in a coarse-grained, highly bony
soil. Cost of stabilization is therefore estimated to drop by 15−25% as
cement or lime are excluded wholly.
Conclusions
Limestone dust and sugarcane bagasse ash were utilized to stabi-
lize a subgrade soil commonly encountered in Calabar located in the
Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The stabilizers were used as stand-
alone and a combination of LSD-SCBA. The soil was classified as A-6
under AASTHO classification and as clay with low (CL) plasticity using
the USC system. Findings from the work are summarized as follows:
1. Both stabilizers improved the maximum dry density of the soil but
SCBA decline MDD after 15% injection of the bagasse ash. The sta-
bilizers reduced the plasticity and linear shrinkage of the soil.
2. LSD, SCBA, and LSD-SCBA combinations have the promise to
reduce the swelling potentials of soils with expansive tendencies.
The stabilizers reduced the plasticity and linear shrinkage of the
soil.
3. All stabilizers and the combination of LSD-SCBA improved the Cal-
ifornia Bearing Ratio of the subgrade. While LSD and LSD-SCBA
7
Sustainable Technology and Entrepreneurship 2 (2023) 100028
combination increased UCS, SCBA recorded an optimum stabilizer
content of 10% and declined below the original strength value.
4. Soil stiffness improved when LSD and LSD-SCBA stabilizers were
used but with SCAB, an optimal value of 10% was observed, after
which secant modulus (a measure of the stiffness) declined.
5. The application of the study would create entrepreneurial oppor-
tunities for the conversion of waste into construction products.
Based on the findings, these industrial agricultural wastes when
converted and used as stabilizers had considerable impact on the
engineering properties of subgrade. The utilization of these wastes in
soil stabilization will not only contribute to solving environment
challenges associated with waste disposal but also converting what is
considered waste into useful product for engineering application. For
this to be achieved, deliberate policy formulation and legislation is
required by government and key stakeholders in the built industry
for the utilization of these waste. The microstructural characteriza-
tions were not carried out in this present work, this forms part of the
limitation of the study. Further research utilizing Limestone Dust
(LSD) and Sugarcane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) like, Strength properties of
lateritic concrete incorporating Limestone Dust (LSD) and Sugarcane
Bagasse Ash (SCBA) as well as microstructural characterizations
should be encouraged.
Author contributions
“Conceptualization, E.D. and U.J.; methodology, E.D. and E.E.; soft-
ware, D.E, and E. A .; validation, D.E.U.J, E.E., and E.A.; formal analysis,
E.D.; investigation, E.D, E.E. U.J., and E.A; resources, E.D, E.E. U.J., and
E.A.; data curation, E.D.; writing—original draft preparation, E.D.;
writing—review and editing, E.E., U.J; visualization, E.A.; supervision,
E.D., U.J.; project administration, E.D.; funding acquisition, NONE. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
manuscript.”
Funding
“This research received no external funding”
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Desmond E. Ewa: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Val-
idation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Resources, Data curation,
Writing − original draft, Supervision, Project administration. Enang
A. Egbe: Methodology, Validation, Investigation, Resources, Writing
− review & editing. Joseph O. Ukpata: Conceptualization, Validation,
Investigation, Resources, Writing − review & editing, Supervision.
Anderson Etika: Software, Validation, Investigation, Resources,
Visualization.
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