Saudi Journal of Civil Engineering

Abbreviated Key Title: Saudi J Civ Eng

ISSN 2523-2657 (Print) |ISSN 2523-2231 (Online)
Scholars Middle East Publishers, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Journal homepage: https://saudijournals.com/journal/sjce/home

Original Research Article

Experimental Analysis on the Effect of Calcination on the Index and

Engineering
1
Properties
2*
of Clay Soil
H. D. Mac-Eteli , S. Sopakirite
1
Lecturer 2, Department of Civil Engineering, Niger Delta University, Bayelsa State, Nigeria
2
Lecturer 2, Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University Otuoke, Bayelsa State, Nigeria

DOI: 10.36348/sjce.2021.v05i06.001 | Received: 22.03.2021 | Accepted: 15.05.2021 | Published: 08.07.2021

*Corresponding author: S. Sopakirite

Abstract
The paper aims to access and evaluate the index as well as engineering properties of clay soil when subjected to
controlled thermal treatment. To achieve this, clay soil was collected from a specific location in Amassoma, Southern
Nigeria, and heated up at 200oC, 400oC, 600oC and 800oC. To adequately inform the engineering society on the potentials
of thermally treated clay soil in the construction industry, properties such as specific gravity, Atterberg limits, California
bearing ratio test (CBR), and compactibility were determined. Specific gravity increased by 60% between the control at
room temperature and the specimen produced at 800 oC. The increment was direct showing flattening tendencies between
600oC and 800oC. A direct relationship was found to exist between calcination and compactibility for all specimens
between 27oC and 800oC. A similar trend was observed for CBR values of which at 800 oC, the soil specimen having a
CBR of 13.51 had improved in CBR by 655% when compared to the control’s CBR of 1.79. An inverse relationship was
observed between calcination and Plasticity Index. At 800 oC, the plasticity index having a value of 6.9 had reduced by
63% when compared to the control specimen having a PI of 18.4. By the process of calcination, the soil was successfully
transformed from a clayey, high plastic, cohesive soil with very high affinity for water and unsuitable subgrade for
pavement purposes, into a silty, low plastic, partly cohesive soil with reduced affinity for water having a fair CBR and
applicable for subbase utilization in pavement construction.
Keywords: Calcination, Clay soil, Physio-Mechanical Properties, California Bearing Ratio, Plasticity Index, Maximum
dry density.
Copyright © 2020 The Author(s): This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License (CC BY-NC 4.0) which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium for non-commercial use provided the original
author and source are credited.

1. INTRODUCTION support load or resist shear. In highway engineering, the

The engineering society is constantly
embodied with the responsibility of conserving nature
while harvesting nature’s resources in its vision for a
more comfortable society. In the developing world and
the world over, clay is yet to attain its peak of efficient
utilization particularly in the construction industry, due
its limitation in friction and load bearing. Even as a fill
material, its mechanical efficiency is questioned due to
its non-aquific properties. Abel 2019, established that
particularly in the developing countries, high cost of
materials remains the bane of the construction industry.
The Engineering society therefore considers it
needful to research on local materials and how they can
be engineered towards the construction industry.
Soil stabilization is a critical component in
construction as only a stabilized soil can adequately
Citation: H. D. Mac-Eteli & S. Sopakirite (2021). Experimental Analysis on the Effect of Calcination on the Index and
Engineering Properties of Clay Soil. Saudi J Civ Eng, 5(6): 133-138.
subgrade is usually a clay soil; a weak foundation
requiring some sort of stabilization either by
compaction or the use of lime and other materials with
cement-like properties.
Clay soil has been one the major construction
materials for a long time. The main reason lies on the
fact that it is readily available and the cost of obtaining
it is comparatively low (Agbede, 2003). This however
would be greatly appreciated if its physio-mechanical
properties could be made similar to that of sand whose
angle of friction, porosity as well as CBR aligns with
the ideal material for general foundation of civil
engineering structures.
1.1 General Hypothesis
Clay is a finely textured natural rock or soil
material that clay minerals with possible traces of
quartz (SiO2), metal oxides (Al2O3, MgO etc.) and
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 H. D. Mac-Eteli & S. Sopakirite., Saudi J Civ Eng, July, 2021; 5(6): 133-138
organic matter, (Olive et al., 1989). The mineral
composition of clay gives it a high affinity for water
hence are high in plasticity. Alhassan et al., (2014)
established that a clay mineral in the chlorite group
called lepidolite is responsible for higher plasticity in
clay while kaolinite with reduced affinity for water,
responsible for a reduction in the plasticity of clay. On a
general note, clay is high is plasticity, low in strength,
high in compressibility, high in volumetric changes and
hence practically an unstable material for construction,
(Ural 2018).
Calcination of clay samples for improved
engineering properties is opined on the context of
expansion of the clay sample to drive off trapped
carbon dioxide as well as impurities and reduce clays
affinity for water by thermally refining its mineral
composition at controlled temperatures in the absence
of oxygen. Clay minerals with high affinity for water
will be broken down under the treatment of heat and
impurities driven off.
1.2 Scope of Research
This work is limited to investigating the use of
calcinated clay soil as an engineering material. Hence,
Table-1: Engineering Properties of Expansive Clay Soil
S/N INDEX PROPERTIES OF CLAY SAMPLE LABORATORY VALUES
1 Specific Gravity
2 Moisture Content (%)
3 Liquid Limit (%)
4 Plastic Limit (%)
5 Plasticity Index (%)
6 Classification
7 Optimum Moisture Content (%)
8 Maximum Dry Density (kg/m3)
9 CBR at OMC (%)
3. EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATION
3.1 Specific Gravity Test
Specific gravity, is the ratio of weight of soil
and weight of water of equal volume. Clay soil exhibits
shrinkage and swelling due to the presence of trapped
voids. These voids tend to reduce the density and
specific gravity of clay. It is expected that at
calcination, trapped air will be given off and hence
specific gravity improved. At improved specific
gravity, the stability of the material will be improved
and greater compatibility can be achieved. Specific
gravity test was conducted in accordance to ASTM
C128.
© 2021 |Published by Scholars Middle East Publishers, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
clay soil will be subjected to 5 calcination temperatures
(atmosphere temperature, 2000, 4000, 6000 and 8000)
respectively, and thereafter tested for Specific gravity,
Porosity, Plasticity, CBR value, moisture content and
compaction to ascertain their behavior under the above
temperatures.
2. MATERIALS
2.1 Clay
Natural clay sample collected at a depth of 1m
below natural ground level was used in this study. The
soil investigated was collected form Amassoma
community, Southern Ijaw LGA, Bayelsa state,
Southern Nigeria. Unlike the clay soil found in china
which is predominantly kaolinite having a very low
affinity for water, the clay found in the southern region
of Nigeria is predominantly expansive in nature readily
changing its volume with changing concentration of
water. Laboratory tests were conducted on the clay in
accordance to the British standard to ascertain the index
and engineering properties of the clay sample. Table-1
summarizes the index and engineering properties of the
clay used in this study.
1.4
29.3
47.03
28.6
18.40 (Highly Plastic)
CIO (BS Classification)
26.7
1931
1.79
Fig-1: Clay Sample Passing 40 Micron BS Sieve
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 H. D. Mac-Eteli & S. Sopakirite., Saudi J Civ Eng, July, 2021; 5(6): 133-138
3.2 Compaction Test
The Proctor compaction test is a laboratory
method of experimentally determining the
optimal moisture content (OMC) at which a
given soil type will become most dense and achieve its
maximum dry density (MDD). This is quite essential if
a soil is to be engineered mechanically towards
improved load resistivity. At reduced porosity and
improved specific gravity, it is expected that the
maximum dry density of a soil which is an index
property of its compatibility will be enhanced. While it
is logical to expect a reduction in porosity, increase in
Specific gravity and increase in MDD at increasing
calcination temperatures, no boundary conditions have
been developed in this regard as to what temperature
offers better results for calcination of clay. Proctor
compaction test was conducted on the clay samples in
accordance to BS 1377.
3.3 Atterberg Limit Test
Atterberg limits generally illustrate the forms
in which a clay can exhibit under different moisture
content conditions. Whilst at Solid and shrinkage limits,
the soil is at the risk of crack failure when exposed to
mechanical or environmental loadings, somewhere
between the plastic limit and liquid limit, the soil
becomes fluid losing its load carrying potentials. So,
whilst we do not need our soil to be too dry, we equally
do not need our soil to be too wet. However, the water
retaining property of a soil is closely tied to its void
ratio and affinity for water. The effect of calcination
temperature will hence be studied on clay soil’s affinity
for water and invariably its plasticity index.
Table-2: Soil classification based on Plasticity Index
(Roy, 2017)
3.4 California Bearing Ratio Test
The Californian Bearing Ratio (CBR) test is a
penetration test used to examine the foundation of roads
and pavements. Results gotten are raw data for the
pavement engineer to determine appropriate thickness
of successive layers of the road or pavement.
Comparatively, CBR is a measure of the strength index
of the soil or material tested.
Table-3: Rating of soils based on CBR values (Mina
et al., 2019, as cited in Bowles, 1992)
CBR (%) Level Objective
0-3 Very poor Subgrade
3-7 Poor to fair Subgrade
7-20 Fair Subbase
20-50 Good Base or Subbase
>50 Excellent Base
© 2021 |Published by Scholars Middle East Publishers, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
The CBR is a measure of resistance of a
material to penetration of a standard plunger under
controlled density and moisture conditions. Clay is
known to have a CBR value of about 2% while that of
sand ranges between 5% and 15%, (Jones 2017). A
good subgrade material is therefore expected to have a
minimum CBR value of 7%, and could be used as a
subbase material is greater than 7% mostly for light
traffic pavements.
In accordance to BS 1377, a standard piston,
with a diameter of 1.954 in or 50 mm, is used to
penetrate the soil at a standard rate of 1.25 mm/minute.
The pressure up to a penetration of 12.5 mm and its
ratio to the bearing value of a standard crushed rock is
termed as the CBR. In most cases, CBR decreases as
the penetration increases. The ratio at 2.5 mm
penetration is used as the CBR. In any case whereby the
ratio at 5 mm is greater than that at 2.5 mm, CBR value
at 5mm is recorded as true CBR value.
The effect of thermal treatment on the CBR of
clay was therefore studied experimentally to inform the
engineering society on the possibility of improved
potentials of clay in highway engineering.
4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Specific Gravity Results
Chart-1: Effect of calcination on the specific gravity of
clay
The specific gravity was found to be lowest
when the sample was observed at atmospheric
temperature having a value of 1.4. At 8000C, the specific
gravity had increased by 60% having a value of 2.24.
Within the calcination temperatures, it was observed that
at 400oC, the specific gravity had already been improved
by about 39.3% from its Atmospheric condition.
Between 600 and 800oC, only 0.9% increase in specific
gravity was observed.
4.2 Compaction Test Result
Quite revealing are the compaction results
obtained for the clay specimens. It is conventional that
proctor compaction results for soils tend to form a
parabolic shape that opens downward and the crest
point provides results for the optimum moisture content
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 H. D. Mac-Eteli & S. Sopakirite., Saudi J Civ Eng, July, 2021; 5(6): 133-138
as well as the maximum dry density. The results
obtained in this research did not exactly express the
conventional shape as should be expected for normal
soils. Whilst it is theoretically sound to expect oven
dried soils to require higher concentration of water in
pursuit for maximum dry density, this research was
limited to the standard procedure of BS 1377.
Nonetheless, the control specimen having an
atmospheric temperature of 27oC as well as the
calcinated specimen at 200oC where observed to have
developed the crests of their partial parabolic curves at
26.8% and 20.0% moisture contents having respective
dry densities of 1931kg/m3 and 2039kg/m3, hence an
increase in MDD by 5.6% between the control and
200oC specimen.
Chart-2: Calcination Effect on the Moisture Content and
Dry Density of Clay Soil
Besides the control specimen and 200oC
specimen, other specimens produced at 400 oC, 600oC
and 800oC, had their dry densities constantly increasing
with an increase in moisture content for all the trials
observed. Whilst 400oC and 600oC specimens seemed
to be approaching the crest of their curves, 800 oC
specimen appear to be steps behind implying that a
greater concentration of water is yet required if the
maximum dry density is to be achieved.
Due to the partial nature of the curves for
400oC, 600oC, and 800oC samples, conclusive
statements on their respective maximum dry densities
as well as optimum moisture contents cannot be made
yet. However, taking a close look at the cluster of the
curves, it is evident that lower temperature specimens
tend to form their crest first before higher temperature
specimens. This implies that up to 800oC, the
relationship between calcination temperature and dry
density of clay soils is direct.
© 2021 |Published by Scholars Middle East Publishers, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
4.3 Atterberg Limit Test Results
Soils affinity for water is best explained by its
Atterberg limits. Also, the cohesive nature of a soil can
partly be understood from its Atterberg limits.
The effect of calcination on the liquid limit of
the clay specimens is inconclusive. However, the trend
of the curve seems to suggest that the higher the
calcination temperature, the higher the amount of water
required to make the clay sample begin flow.
Chart-3: Effect of Calcination on the Atterberg limits of
clay soil
Plastic limit results show a more direct path
when compared to the liquid limit results. Between
200oC and 800oC was observed a steady increase in the
amount of water required to make the clay behave like a
plastic material.
It is noteworthy that the permeability, porosity
and non-cohesive properties of sand give it its desirable
increased compressibility as well as compatibility. Sand
is known to have zero plasticity index and hence
completely non-cohesive with zero affinity for water.
Plasticity results observed illustrate a steady reduction
in plasticity index at increasing calcination
temperatures. A total reduction of 62.5% was observed
between the plasticity indexes of the control specimen
and the specimen produced at 800oC. Result obtained at
800oC was the best observed in terms of plasticity index
and reduced affinity for water, but cannot be said to be
optimum as the graph is still pointing downwards imply
the possibility of obtaining better results at higher
temperatures.
4.4 California Bearing Ratio Test Results
In the application of clay properties in
pavement engineering, California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
is one amongst the most informative properties to the
engineer; informing the engineer on the strength of the
soil and the necessary actions required to improve on
the soil if need be. The CBR of the clay sample was
observed to increase beyond the control by 69%, 600%,
637%, and 655% for respective temperatures of 200 oC,
400oC, 600oC and 800oC.
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 H. D. Mac-Eteli & S. Sopakirite., Saudi J Civ Eng, July, 2021; 5(6): 133-138
Chart-4: Effect of Calcination on the California Bearing
Ratio of clay soil
A great deal of effect was observed between
200oC and 400oC (313% increase) which steadily
reduced between 400oC and 600oC as well as 600oC and
800oC having respective incremental values of 5.43%
and 2.35%. This trend as could be seen is the curve
promises to flatten and form its crest point somewhere
above 800oC before reducing in Bearing capacity, but
this itself is a hypothetical statement. More directly, it
can be stated from the observations in chart 4, that up to
800oC, increase in temperature directly affects the CBR
of clay soils.
4.5 Plasticity Index and CBR Relationship
Chart-5: Relationship between Plasticity Index and CBR
of clay soils subjected to Calcination
It follows theoretical background that
plasticity index is inversely proportional to CBR of
soils. Chart 5 above honours same theory and further
illustrates the combined effect of temperature on both
independent properties. Whilst temperature is directly
proportional to CBR, it is inversely proportional to
Plasticity index for the clay specimens covered under
the scope of this research.
At the point intersection, which is just below
300oC, Plasticity index was observed to have a value of
8.89, while the CBR was observed to be about 7.3%. At
this condition, the soil is deemed to have graduated
from a very poor subgrade material to a fair subbase
material (Mina et al, 2019, as cited in Bowles, 1992),
and from a high plastic cohesive material to low plastic
© 2021 |Published by Scholars Middle East Publishers, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
partly cohesive material, (Roy, 2017). It is therefore
noteworthy that the engineering properties of the soil
have been greatly and positively influenced by the
effect of calcination.
5. CONCLUSIONS
This research has scratched the surface on the
potentials of clay soil when engineered with the effect
of calcination. Between 27oC, and 800oC, the effect of
calcination of specific gravity, Atterberg limits,
compactibility, and strength has been studied, from
which the following conclusions and recommendations
are drawn;
 The soil sample was found to be an organic clay,
highly plastic and cohesive in nature.
 The soil was observed to have a very low specific
gravity of 1.4
 Specific gravity increased by 60% between the
control at room temperature and the specimen
produced at 800oC. The increment was direct
showing flattening tendencies between 600oC and
800oC.
 The compactibility of the specimen increases with
increasing temperature up to 800oC.
 Plasticity reduces with increasing temperature. At
800oC, a 62.5% reduction of plasticity index was
observed when compared to the control.
 The strength of the soil using CBR as a measure,
increases with increasing temperature. At 800oC,
an increase of 655% was observed when compared
to the control.
 The compaction curve did not fully form for
specimens treated at 400oC, 600oC, and 800oC. we
hence recommend that proctor compaction test be
carried out for these specific specimens in order
fully ascertain their respective maximum dry
densities and optimum moisture contents.
 Between 400oC and 800oC, the curve for plasticity
index and CBR begins to flatten. We recommend
that the further research be done to observe what
becomes of these properties beyond 800oC.
 To fully understand the effect on calcination on the
mineral and chemical composition of clay and how
it affects its affinity to water, it is recommended
that further research be done inclusive of X-ray
diffractometric as well as X-ray fluorescence
analysis.
 To hit the ground running on the comprehensive
findings of this research, it is recommended that
mechanical engineer’s pry into low cost clay
calcination techniques so as to increase the chances
of the application of these innovative findings.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors hereby acknowledge the
laboratory support team of the department of Civil
Engineering, Niger Delta University, for its guide and
resourcefulness through the phase of this research work.
We also acknowledge the discipline and commitment of
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Reuben Steven Agudama, a final year project student of British Standards Institute (BSI), London, United
the department of Civil Engineering, Niger Delta Kingdom
University, whose commitment to research greatly 6. BS 1377 – 2, 1990. Methods of test for soils for
contributed to the success of this research paper. civil engineering purposes. BSI 1990, Milton
Keynes, UK: British Standards Institution.
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