32

Finally, (Na) is Na since

1 1

Na Na = Na a = Ne = Naa = NaNa :
1 1 1 1

Having proved G=N is a group, we next check : G ! G=N is a group

homomorphism:
(ab) = Nab = NaNb = (a) (b):
For the last assertion, ker = (Ne) = fa 2 G : Na = Neg = N , by
1

0
Remark 2:9 . 
The group G=N is called the residue group, factor group, or quotient
group. The homomorphism of Theorem 12 is called the canonical homo-
morphism. Let us now consider three instances when N / G and determine
the structure of the group G=N .
Example 13.
(i) G = (Z; +) and N = nZ. Then
G=N = fN + 0; N + 1; : : : ; N + (n 1)g;
with the group operation given by (N + a) + (N + b) = N + (a + b). This
group is identied naturally with (Zn; +) if we write [a] in place of N + a.
(ii) G = (Z ; +) and N = 3Z = f[3a] : a 2 Zg: Then G=N =
fN + [0]; N + [1]; N + [2]g; which is identied naturally with (Z ; +).
6 6

(iii) G = S and N = h(123)i. Then G=N = fNe; Ngg where g = (12).

3

Note that NgNg = Ne. Thus we can identify G=N with (f1g;: ).
Please note that (i) provides an instance where G=N is not isomorphic
to a subroup of G. (This observation should help one to avoid a common
error.) Our next goal is to view (i), (ii) in their general contexts.
Noether's Isomorphism Theorems
Suppose ': G ! K is a surjection, and N = ker '. We have just seen that
N / G, and G=N is a group whose order is [G : N ] = jK j when K is nite.
We would like to show that G=N  K . Given any N / G and N  H < G,
write H=N for fNh : h 2 H g, easily seen to be a subgroup of G=N .
Lemma 14. Suppose ': G ! K is any group homomorphism, and N is a
normal subgroup of G contained in ker '. Then there is a homomorphism
': G=N ! K given by '(Ng) = '(g), and ker ' = (ker ')=N .
Proof. ' is well-dened, for if Ng = Ng ; then g = ag for some a in N;
1 2 1 2

and thus
'(Ng ) = '(g ) = '(ag ) = '(a)'(g ) = '(g ) = '(Ng ):
1 1 2 2 2 2
 33

The rest is easy: ' is a homomorphism since

'(Ng Ng ) = '(Ng g ) = '(g g ) = '(g )'(g ) = '(Ng )'(Ng );
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

and ker ' = fNg : '(g) = eg = fNg : g 2 ker 'g = (ker ')=N by deni-
tion. 
Remark 15. In Lemma 14, ' is onto i ' is onto.
Theorem 16. (Noether I) Suppose ': G ! K is any surjection. Then
K  G= ker '.
Proof. Take N = ker ' in Lemma 14. Then ': G=N ! K is onto, and
ker ' = N=N = Ne, the neutral element of G=N , so ' is an isomorphism. 
Example 160 . The natural surjection (Z; +) ! (Zn; +) has kernel nZ, so
(Z=nZ; +)  (Zn; +). (Compare with Example 13(i).)
Theorem 17. (Noether II) If N  H are normal subgroups of G; then
G=H  (G=N )=(H=N ).
Proof. The canonical homomorphism ': G ! G=H is onto and has kernel
H containing N , so Lemma 14 provides a surjection ': G=N ! G=H with
kernel H=N ; we conclude with Noether I. 
Example 170 . Dene G = Z; N = 6Z, and H = 3Z. Then Z=3Z 
(Z=6Z)=(3Z=6Z)  Z =3Z . (Compare with Example 13(ii).)
6 6

Theorem 18. (Noether III) If N / G and H < G; then H \ N / H and

H= H \ N  NH=N .
Proof. Dene ': H ! NH=N by h 7! Nh. Clearly ' is onto, and ker ' =
fh 2 H : Nh = eg = fh 2 H : h 2 N g = H \ N , so we conclude with
Noether I. 
For any H < G, the proof of Theorem 18 shows that NH=N is the
image of H in G=N under the canonical homomorphism G ! G=N . In
particular we have
Corollary 19. If N / G and H < G with H \ N = feg; then H is
isomorphic to its canonical image in G=N:
Proof. NH=N  H=(H \ N ) = H=feg  H: 
These three theorems of Noether (especially Noether I) are powerful
tools for building isomorphisms. Let us also record an application of Propo-
sition 4.15 to G=N .
Remark 190 . Suppose N /G. If N  H < G, then H=N < G=N ; conversely
every proper subgroup of G=N has the form H=N for N  H < G.