1.

Thermometer
A thermometer is an instrument for measuring or showing temperature (how hot or
cold something is). One type of thermometer is a narrow, concealed glass tube
containing mercury or alcohol which extends along the tube as it expands. Another
type is a digital thermometer, which uses electronics to measure temperature.

Wet Bulb Thermometer

A wet bulb thermometer is simply a regular mercury thermometer

whose bulb is covered with wet fabric, usually muslin, that is
dipped in a reservoir to keep it wet. a wet bulb thermometer,
when used in conjunction with a dry bulb thermometer (which is
simply a regular thermometer without the wet fabric covering),
gives you a way to measure the relative humidity of the air. The
difference between wet bulb temperature and the dry bulb
temperature depends on how much moisture is in the air.

Dry Bulb Thermometer

dry-bulb thermometer A thermometer that registers normal air

temperature. It may be used in conjunction with a wet-bulb thermometer:
the relative humidity can be found by measuring the depression of
temperature registered by the wet bulb.
The difference in temperature between the wet- and dry-bulb thermometers can be
used to compute the amount of water vapour in the air. Hahah pang pahaba.

The dry bulb temperature is basically the temperature of the air,

but the wet bulb temperature is affected by the evaporation of
water from the fabric enclosing the bulb. Evaporation is an
endothermic process, which means it absorbs heat, so the wet
bulb temperature is lower than the dry bulb temperature or the
same. It is never higher.
 2. Thermocouple
A thermocouple is an electrical device consisting of two dissimilar electrical
conductors forming electrical junctions at differing temperatures. A thermocouple produces a
temperature-dependent voltage as a result of the thermoelectric effect, and this voltage can
be interpreted to measure temperature. Thermocouples are a widely used type
of temperature sensor. In practical use, the voltage generated at a single junction of two
different types of wire is what is of interest as this can be used to measure temperature at
very high and low temperatures. The magnitude of the voltage depends on the types of wire
being used. Generally, the voltage is in the microvolt range and care must be taken to obtain
a usable measurement. Although very little current flows, power can be generated by a
single thermocouple junction. Power generation using multiple thermocouples, as in
a thermopile, is common.

Type K
Type K (chromel–alumel) is the most common general-purpose thermocouple with a
sensitivity of approximately 41 µV/°C.[11] It is inexpensive, and a wide variety of probes are
available in its −200 °C to +1350 °C (−330 °F to +2460 °F) range. Type K was specified at a
time when metallurgy was less advanced than it is today, and consequently characteristics
may vary considerably between samples. One of the constituent metals, nickel, is magnetic;
a characteristic of thermocouples made with magnetic material is that they undergo a
deviation in output when the material reaches its Curie point, which occurs for type K
thermocouples at around 185 °C

Type E

Type E (chromel–constantan) has a high output (68 µV/°C), which makes it well suited
to cryogenic use. Additionally, it is non-magnetic. Wide range is −50 °C to +740 °C and
narrow range is −110 °C to +140 °C.

Type N

suitable for use between −270 °C and +1300 °C, owing to its stability and oxidation
resistance. Sensitivity is about 39 µV/°C at 900 °C, slightly lower compared to type
K.

Designed at the Defence Science and Technology Organisation (DSTO) of Australia, by

Noel A. Burley, type-N thermocouples overcome the three principal characteristic
types and causes of thermoelectric instability in the standard base-metal
thermoelement materials:[13]
1. A gradual and generally cumulative drift in thermal EMF on long exposure at elevated
temperatures. This is observed in all base-metal thermoelement materials and is mainly due to
compositional changes caused by oxidation, carburization, or neutron irradiation that can
produce transmutation in nuclear reactorenvironments. In the case of type-K thermocouples,
manganese and aluminium atoms from the KN (negative) wire migrate to the KP (positive) wire,
resulting in a down-scale drift due to chemical contamination. This effect is cumulative and
irreversible.

Type BRS

Types B, R, and S thermocouples use platinumor a platinum/rhodium alloy for each

conductor. These are among the most stable thermocouples, but have lower sensitivity than
other types, approximately 10 µV/°C. Type B, R, and S thermocouples are usually used only
for high-temperature measurements due to their high cost and low sensitivity.

Type T
Type T (copper–constantan) thermocouples are suited for measurements in the −200 to
350 °C range. Often used as a differential measurement, since only copper wire touches the
probes. Since both conductors are non-magnetic, there is no Curie point and thus no abrupt
change in characteristics. Type-T thermocouples have a sensitivity of about 43 µV/°C. Note
that copper has a much higher thermal conductivity than the alloys generally used in
thermocouple constructions, and so it is necessary to exercise extra care with thermally
anchoring type-T thermocouples. A similar composition is found in the obsolete Type U in
the German specification DIN 43712:1985-01.

Type M
Type M (82%Ni/18%Mo–99.2%Ni/0.8%Co, by weight) are used in vacuum furnaces for the
same reasons as with type C (described below). Upper temperature is limited to 1400 °C. It
is less commonly used than other types.

Chromel – Gold/Iron

In these thermocouples (chromel–gold/ironalloy), the negative wire is gold with a small

fraction (0.03–0.15 atom percent) of iron. The impure gold wire gives the thermocouple a
high sensitivity at low temperatures (compared to other thermocouples at that temperature),
whereas the chromel wire maintains the sensitivity near room temperature. It can be used
for cryogenicapplications (1.2–300 K and even up to 600 K). Both the sensitivity and the
temperature range depend on the iron concentration. The sensitivity is typically around 15
µV/K at low temperatures, and the lowest usable temperature varies between 1.2 and 4.2 K.
Pyrometer

When temperature being measured is very high and physical contact with the
medium to be measured is impossible or impractical, optical pyrometers
based on the principle of thermal radiation are used.

A pyrometer is a type of remote-sensing thermometer used to measure

the temperature of a surface. Various forms of pyrometers have historically existed.
In the modern usage, it is a device that from a distance determines the temperature
of a surface from the amount of the thermal radiation it emits, a process known as
pyrometry and sometimes radiometry.
The word pyrometer comes from the Greekword for fire, "πῦρ" (pyr), and meter,
meaning to measure. The word pyrometer was originally coined to denote a device
capable of measuring the temperature of an object by its incandescence, visible light
emitted by a body which is at least red-hot.[1] Modern pyrometers or infrared
thermometers also measure the temperature of cooler objects, down to room
temperature, by detecting their infrared radiation flux.

A modern pyrometer has an optical system and a detector. The optical system
focuses the thermal radiation onto the detector. The output signal of the detector

(temperature T) is related to the thermal radiation or irradiance of the target

object through the Stefan–Boltzmann law, the constant of proportionalityσ, called
the Stefan–Boltzmann constant and the emissivity ε of the object.

This output is used to infer the object's temperature from a distance, with no need for
the pyrometer to be in thermal contact with the object; most other thermometers
(e.g. thermocouples and resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)) are placed in
thermal contact with the object, and allowed to reach thermal equilibrium.
 Radiation pyrometers measures the radiant (energy) heat emit
d or reflected by a hot object. Thermal radiation is an electro magnetic radiation

emitted as a result of temperature and lies in the wavelength of 0.1 —100 μm.
According to the principle of thermal radiation, the energy radiated from a hot
body is a function of its temperature. Referring to Fig. 13.54, the heat radiated
by the hot body is focused on a radiation detector. The radiation detector is
blackened and it absorbs all or almost all radiation falling on it (if the temperature
is very small compared with that of hot body, then

Therefore, the heat received by the detector is proportional to the fourth power
of the absolute temperature of the hot body.
Radiation pyrometers are of two types.
1. Total Radiation Pyrometers
2. Infrared Pyrometers

Total Radiation Pyrometer (TRP)

The total radiation pyrometer receives virtually all the radiation from a hot body
and focuses on a hot body and focuses on a sensitive temperature
transducersuch as thermocouple, bolometer, thermopile, etc. Total radiation
includes both visible and infrared radiation.
The total radiation pyrometer consists of a radiation receiving element and a
measuring device to indicate the temperature directly. Figure 13.55 shows a
mirror type radiation pyrometer.

In this type of pyrometer, a diaphragm unit along with a mirror is used to focus
the radiation on a radiant energy sensing transducers. The lens (mirror) to the
transducer distance is adjusted for proper focus. The mirror arrangement has
an advantage that since there is no lens, both absorption and reflection are
absent.
Presence of any absorbing media between the target and the transducers,
reduces the radiation received and the pyrometer reads low.
Due to the fourth Power Law (q is proportional to T4) the characteristics of total
radiation pyrometer are non-linear and has poor sensitivity in lower temperature
ranges. Therefore, total radiation pyrometers cannot be used for measurement
of temperature lower than 600 °C, since errors are introduced at lower
temperatures.

Infrared Pyrometers
Infrared pyrometers are partial or selective radiation pyrometers. Above
temperatures of 550 °C, a surface starts to radiate visible light energy and
simultaneously there is a proportional increase in the infrared energy.
Infrared principles using thermocouples, thermopile and bolometers are used.
Also various types of photo-electric transducers are most commonly used for
infrared transducers. The most useful transducers used for industrial
application are the Photo-voltaic cells. These cells used in radiation pyrometers,
respond to wavelength in infrared region and may be used to measure
temperature down to 400 °C.
The infrared radiation is focused on a photo-voltaic cell as shown in Fig. 13.56.
It is necessary to ensure that the cell does not become overheated. The core of
radiation passing to the cell is defined by the area of the first diaphragm.

The protective window is made of thin glass and serves to protect the cell and
filter from physical damage. The filter is used on the range of 1000 °C to 1200
°C in order to reduce the infrared radiation passed to the photo cell. This help
in preventing the photo cell from being overheated.
All infrared systems depend on the transmission of the infrared radiant energy
being emitted by a heated body to a detector in the measuring system. The
sensor head is focused on the object whose temperature is being measured
and/or controlled.