Chapter 1

introduction to pipeline
systems

1.1 Introduction

Pipelines affect the daily lives of people in most parts of the world. Modern-day life is
based on structures in which energy fulfills a prevailing role. Oil and gas are major par-
ticipants in this energy supply [1]. The ever shifting trends in forms of energy [2], such as
coal, nuclear, hydro-electric, gas, oil and renewables (Fig. 1-1) will continue to dominate
energy usage in the future, depending on acceptability, safety, technical, environmental,
and economic issues. The rise of renewable types of energy replacing other forms of energy
means that hydrocarbons will also be affected although this will be at least partially offset
by increasing demand.
However, pipelines are the means by which many hydrocarbon-based forms of energy
are transported. It is no coincidence that wherever there is the largest pipeline network, there
is also the highest standard of living and technological progress. Compared with other forms
of transport, pipelines allow a safer, more continuous, stable, and high-capacity supply of
hydrocarbons to reach end-users. Pipeline transportation has the advantages of being well
established, efficient, cost-effective, and readily expandable. In spite of claims that pipe-
lines are not safe and environmentally damaging, pipelines have consistently maintained a
very high safety record that is superior to other types of hydrocarbon transportation.
Pipeline technology is mature and well understood. The capital cost of a pipeline
project is largely a function of its diameter and length, although other factors, such as geog-
raphy and topography, are also significant. Operating expenditures and self-consumption of
product are relatively minor and predictable. Economic feasibility of a pipeline is limited
by variables, such as volumes to be transported, supply–demand distance relationships,
operating pressure, projected reserve life, and various risk factors. These limitations are
more restrictive offshore than onshore.
The relative transportation cost for various petroleum products is depicted in Fig. 1-2.
Although pipelines have been the most cost-effective mode of energy transportation, it can
be inferred from Fig. 1-2 that cost of energy transportation by pipeline is distance- and
location- (offshore versus onshore) dependent [3].
Pipelines are mostly buried. In virtual silence, pipelines supported by pump and com-
pressor stations that carry billions of cubic meters of our energy needs. Unattended pump
stations push oil and petroleum products in large volumes and under high pressure. Simi-
larly, natural gas transmission systems supported by compressor stations move large vol-
umes of gas to multiple destinations.

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 2    ■    Pipeline Pumping and Compression Systems—A Practical Approach

Figure 1-1.  Trends in primary energy consumption [2].

5
Gas Pipeline - Offshore

4
Gas Pipeline
US$/MBtu

- Onshore
3

LNG
2

1
Oil Pipeline
Oil Tanker
0
800 1600 3200 4800 6400 8000
Distance km

Figure 1-2.  Representative costs of oil and gas transportation (US$/MBTU) (Mohitpour et al. [3]).

1.2 LIQUID PIPELINE SYSTEM

The liquid pipeline transportation system applies to a variety of liquid hydrocarbons, includ-
ing crude oil, refined petroleum products, liquid petroleum gas, gas to liquids, anhydrous
ammonia, alcohols, and carbon dioxide. Liquid pipelines, including generally consist of
laterals and mainlines which include tank farms, measurement facilities, pumping systems,
pressure reduction, control systems, and pipeline appurtenances (scraper traps, valves, etc.).
As can be seen from Fig. 1-3, pump stations are an integral component of this very exten-
sive network.
Liquid pipelines are used to transport liquids, such as crude and refined oil, from the
source of supply, such as a production area, to the market/demand locations, an export-
loading terminal, or to a processing unit (a refinery). Mainline pump stations are installed

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 Introduction to Pipeline Systems    ■    3

Figure 1-3.  Liquid petroleum systems from the wellhead to the consumer [4].

along the transmission pipelines at variable distances to compensate for the pipeline pres-
sure losses and elevation changes and to ensure a constant flow of liquid.
Scopes defining the limit of the pipeline system are well defined by applicable codes,
an example of which is shown in Fig. 1-4 [5]. Also included within the scope of the system
are:

§§ primary and associated auxiliary liquid petroleum and liquid anhydrous ammonia
piping at pipeline terminals (marine, rail, and truck), tank farms, pump stations,
pressure-reducing stations, and metering stations, including scraper traps, strainers,
and prover loops;
§§ storage and working tanks, including pipe-type storage fabricated from pipe and
fittings, and piping interconnecting these facilities;
§§ liquid petroleum and liquid anhydrous ammonia piping located on property which
has been set aside for such piping within petroleum refinery, natural gasoline, gas
processing, ammonia, and bulk plants; and
§§ those aspects of operation and maintenance of liquid pipeline systems relating to the
safety and protection of the general public, operating company personnel, environ-
ment, property, and the piping systems.

Pipeline pumps are used for boosting pressures and for transferring product in both gath-
ering and mainline transmission systems. Centrifugal, reciprocating, and rotary-positive
displacement pumps are generally used for such pipeline applications.
In a pump station located on larger transmission lines, usually one or more high-capacity,
single, or multi-stage centrifugal pumps are installed. They can be driven most commonly
by electric motors usually in the 2–6 MW range but also sometimes by a gas turbine or
diesel engine.

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 4    ■    Pipeline Pumping and Compression Systems—A Practical Approach

Figure 1-4.  Liquid pipeline system definitions [5].

A unique aspect of a liquid pipeline system is that the product is pumped from the
wellhead into a storage tank. From there, the liquid is carried by a gathering system pipeline
(or flowline) to a larger set of storage tanks, also referred to as a terminal. The liquid is then
pumped to the next terminal. This process continues all along the pipeline system, a neces-
sary result of the fact that liquids are essentially incompressible.

1.3 GAS PIPELINE SYSTEM

Gas is usually considered to be any hydrocarbon-based gas or mixture of gases suitable for
domestic or industrial fuel that is transmitted or distributed to the user by a pipeline/piping

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 Introduction to Pipeline Systems    ■    5

system. The most common types are various compositions of natural gas but other gases
such as hydrogen and carbon dioxide are becoming more prevalent. A gas transmission and
distribution system (Fig. 1-5) consists of the following components:

§§ gas processing and treatment facilities to remove objectionable materials and

constituents
§§ gathering pipeline facilities
§§ production plants/compression
§§ receipt meter stations
§§ lateral lines
§§ mainlines
§§ mainline control valves to regulate pressure or flow
§§ mainline compression facilities
§§ delivery meter stations/custody transfer/city gate stations
§§ storage facilities used for peaking requirements (usually the pipeline itself)

The components include production wells, gathering lines within the production wells,
processing plants, transmission pipelines, compressor stations (periodically along the trans-
mission pipelines), storage wells and associated gathering pipelines, metering stations and
city gate at distribution centers, distribution piping, and meters at distribution sites (resi-
dential or industrial).
Compression facilities are the heart of gas pipeline systems. Compressor stations trans-
mit natural gas through a pipeline by compressing the gas at intervals along the system.
Compressing gas increases the mass flow and increased pressure is necessary to overcome
friction and elevation. Gas flows by expanding in the pipe from the discharge side (high
pressure point) from one station to the suction side (low pressure point) of the next.

Figure 1-5.  Natural gas pipeline systems from the wellhead to the consumer [4].

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 6    ■    Pipeline Pumping and Compression Systems—A Practical Approach

The use of compression equipment on or related to pipelines covers a wide field, rang-
ing from a small manually operated field compressor up to a large computer-controlled
installation involving many thousands of kilowatts. Compression equipment performs
one or more of the following major functions with respect to the gas pipeline industry in
general:
Transmission. Long-distance mainline transmission is designed with compressor sta-
tions spaced at intervals along the pipeline. The compression ratio across a station, resulting
from pipeline friction losses and typically ranging from 1.2–1.7, is established by the com-
pressor units as they are placed into operation or varied in load. These stations are usually
designed for fully automatic, remotely controlled operation to enable a complete pipeline
system to be operated from a central location.
Lateral Compression. Lateral pipeline transmission is designed to carry gas from one
or more sources to a main pipeline, or from a pipeline to a sales point or distribution system.
Operation varies from base load to “on–off” depending on the situation and can be subject
to large changes. Compression ratios are often higher than for a main line station, with
flows and power requirements being much less.
Field Compression. Field compression and gas gathering stations involve the boosting
of gas field well-head pressures up to a required plant inlet pressure or directly to a pipeline-
operating pressure. Compression ratios are often high, with a slowly declining suction pres-
sure (and therefore increasing pressure ratio) as the gas field becomes depleted.
Interchange Compression. Interchange compression is often required to transfer gas
between different pipeline systems. The operating conditions include variable suction and
discharge pressures, which may vary at random, unaffected by the compressor operation.
Gas Storage Compression. Gas storage compression is designed for injection and with-
drawal of gas from peak shaving or storage reservoirs. These compressor units operate
under a continually changing compression ratio, both on injection and withdrawal, and
would be considered as high-ratio, high-flow, and high-power units.
Booster Compression. Booster compression is designed to raise the pressure from a
low pressure transmission line, for example, to a high pressure line. The units would basi-
cally be considered as transmission units but operating under higher compression ratios.
Gas Recovery Compression. Gas recovery compression is used to raise associated gas
(gas in solution with crude oil) from very low pressures (down to almost atmospheric pres-
sure) up to pipeline transmission pressure. This is a very high-ratio service.

1.4 PIPELINE SAFETY

1.4.1 Process Safety

1.4.1.1 Process Safety Management (PSM)
Pipeline facilities have an enviable safety record, particularly considering the hazardous
products at pump and compressor stations. Accidents or incidents that do occur are usu-
ally contained within the facility perimeter with no or limited consequences to the public.
In spite of the very low level of risk, pipeline transportation companies are increasingly
adopting the process safety management systems that are common in the highly hazardous
industries such as petrochemicals and process plants.
Process Safety is a disciplined management approach applied to systems containing
hazardous materials. It focuses on the prevention, detection, control and mitigation of
catastrophic incidents that have the potential to injure people or could have far-reaching
and long-lasting consequences. Process safety is about preventing loss of primary con-
tainment (LOPC) of a hazardous commodity and mitigating subsequent impacts to peo-
ple, environment, assets and reputation. Process safety incidents are extremely rare.

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 Introduction to Pipeline Systems    ■    7

However, their consequences have the potential to be severe (large releases), up to and
including company or industry ending impacts. Worker Safety incidents are much more
frequent but minor in comparison. Both are important, and all safety incidents must be
prevented.
More emphasis on Process Safety Management (as opposed to personal or occupa-
tional safety) is being placed with respect to managing risk and hazards in regulations such
as OSHA 1910.119 Process safety management of highly hazardous chemicals in the US
and the National Energy Board Regulations SOR/99-294 in Canada. While these regula-
tions require programs to be set up for managing risks and hazards, they are not prescriptive
as to how this should be accomplished.
To meet this need, the pipeline industry has published more specific guidance in API
RP1173 [6] that applies to both pipelines and facilities. The major topics it covers are:

§§ Leadership and Management Commitment

§§ Stakeholder Engagement
§§ Risk Management
§§ Operational Controls
§§ Incident Investigation, Evaluation, and Lessons Learned
§§ Safety Assurance
§§ Management Review and Continuous Improvement
§§ Emergency Preparedness and Response
§§ Competence, Awareness, and Training
§§ Documentation and Record Keeping

Further guidance is provided in national standards such as CAN/CSA Z662 [7] and
CAN/CSA Z767-17 [8]. There are also industry documents such as the recommended
practice on facility integrity [9] by the Canadian Energy Pipeline Association (CEPA).
The CEPA Recommended Practice provides a management systems approach in defining a
Facility Integrity Management Program (FIMP) with more detail on implementing a practi-
cal framework [10]. The main challenge in developing a framework for a FIMP lies in the
broad range of equipment and system types that the management system must encompass.
Equipment, in the context of Facilities Integrity Management, must encompass not only
station equipment (such as rotating equipment, valves, meters etc.,) but also categories such
as high pressure station piping and fuel lines.
The broad range of equipment types gives rise to three main parameters that needed to
be addressed [9]:

§§ Equipment specific considerations: while fundamental concepts for managing integ-

rity are essentially the same across all equipment types, the specific analysis meth-
odologies and tactics will vary widely.
§§ Differing levels of criticality, or risk levels, associated with various equipment
types: the criticality of different equipment types should correlate to the resources
(both time and budget) dedicated to managing the integrity of the equipment.
§§ Widely varying asset life: longer asset life would be expected to correlate with
maintenance dollars. Thus, in addition to potentially different time horizons for
analysis, an Operator would expect to spend more effort in managing aspects of its
system that have more significant cost implications.

1.4.1.2 Risk Assessment

A key component of applying Process Safety Management is identifying hazards and ana-
lyzing and evaluating risk or risk assessment. Many techniques are available for risk assess-
ment [11] with the most common techniques being:

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 8    ■    Pipeline Pumping and Compression Systems—A Practical Approach

§§ Hazard and operability (HAZOP) studies [12]

§§ What If/Checklists [11]
§§ Failure Modes and Effects Analysis [13]
§§ Fault Tree Analysis [14]
§§ bowtie diagrams [15]

A very effective method is the use of bowtie diagrams. Bowtie diagrams are a widely
used method for demonstrating the relationship between the causes and consequences of
hazardous events. They are particularly useful for illustrating how safeguarding meas-
ures protect against particular threats or mitigate the various consequences of an incident.
Figure 1-6 presents an example of a bowtie for a leaking flange at a pump station by show-
ing its key features:

§§ Hazard – a potential source of danger. For a pump station, this would be oil in the
pipe and for a compressor station, the high pressure natural gas in the main piping.
Existence of a hazard does not necessarily imply that an incident will occur.
§§ Top Event – the hazardous event at the center of the diagram. The normal top event
for a pump station would be a Loss of Primary Containment (LOPC), in this case
a flange leak.
§§ Threats – potential causes of the top event, on the left-hand side. One threat for a
flange leak could be a defective flange connection.
§§ Causes – the means by which a threat could result in a tope event. For a defec-
tive connection, causes could be a manufacturing defect in the flange or gasket or
improper installation.
§§ Prevention barriers – measures in place to prevent threats leading to the top event.
Quality inspections at the vendor or during installation could be barriers that would
prevent a cause from leading to a flange leak. There is the likelihood of gasket dete-
rioration as a barrier decay mechanism that would suggest regular replacement or
monitoring would be appropriate, especially for corrosive liquids.
§§ Mitigation barriers – measures in place to prevent the top event from leading to a
more serious consequence. Quick emergency response would be a mitigation bar-
rier and a barrier decay mechanism that would need to be considered is a storage
issue with the emergency response equipment.

Figure 1-6.  Example of a bowtie diagram for a flange leak at a pump station.

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 Introduction to Pipeline Systems    ■    9

§§ Consequences – potential outcomes of the top event, on the right-hand side. For
a leaking flange, this would be an oil spill, usually contained with the facility
perimeter.
§§ Effects – actions that would have to be taken to deal with the consequences. In this
case, oil contamination would result and would have to be cleaned up.

1.4.1.3 Operational Hazards and Risk

Operational hazards at pump and compressor stations are similar in some cases and vary
for others, mainly due to the nature of the fluid being transported. Liquids may be volatile
and present the risk of contamination and explosion. Gas may catch fire although it does not
normally contaminate since it dissipates easily into the atmosphere.
Centrifugal pumps mostly used in the pipeline industry are for transportation of crude
(including heavy) oil—a mixture of liquid hydrocarbons, some with volatile at atmos-
pheric conditions such as condensate. Crude (particularly heavy oil) can be also warm
(60–80°C).
Crude oil can also contain contaminants, some toxic such as hydrogen sulfide, radio­
active such as strontium salts, or just water or grit. Additives may be introduced which have
toxic properties, although these would normally be only in low concentrations. Therefore,
hazard and risks associated with the pump operations must be considered and taken care of
in the design and selection stage as much as possible.
The hazards associated with a large centrifugal pump must be considered over its com-
plete operating/maintenance cycle. Operating range includes any abnormal and transient
situations and loads. Poor operation/excursions/drive system failures and emergencies also
are required to be covered.
The majority of hazards relate to the liquid being handled, either by a direct release, or
by the consequent effects on upstream and downstream systems from a pump failure:

§§ failure of static components through fatigue, erosion, or corrosion

§§ failure of dynamic components leading to high fatigue loads on other components
with potentially rapid catastrophic deterioration of seal or nozzles
§§ failure of the piping system due to extreme pressures or temperatures—either exter-
nally applied or generated by the operating pump or system, resulting from events
such as pressure surges, process density, or liquid property changes

The direct threats to personnel from a release can arise from:

§§ the possible flammable nature of fluid released—volatile/high vapor pressure com-

ponents, which would form a gas cloud with potential for explosion, or fire
§§ physical injury from a jet of fluid, or slips/falls from contaminated floor surfaces
§§ liquid which may well be hot, giving a scalding risk above 60–70°C range
§§ the liquid which may also evolve asphyxiating gases:
• the toxic nature of components or additives within process material (liquids con-
taining hydrogen sulfides are highly toxic)
• small traces of radioactive salts within the process material can accumulate
within a pump requiring appropriate handling precautions
• inappropriate operation of the pump can induce high temperatures and pressures
within a pump, giving rise to hazards from mechanical disintegration of the pump
• handling material with higher concentrations of water or solids which can lead to
higher pressure generation due to the effective increase in density

Hazards for compressors are due mainly to high pressure and the potential for fire when in a con-
fined space such as the unit building. Piping components are also critical to safety as the weld

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 10    ■    Pipeline Pumping and Compression Systems—A Practical Approach

failure of a flange on a station gate valve at Princess Compressor Station in Alberta, Canada
on February 23, 1980 showed (Fig. 1-7). High voltage electrical components are a hazard for
electric units. Hermetic compressors are fundamentally very safe due to their sealed design but,
as an incident revealed, the weak point is where the cable supplying the motor is not properly
sealed and process gas can leak back into the control building where it can explode as Fig. 1-8
illustrates [16]. It must be remembered, however, that these types of incidents are very rare.
Mechanical hazards from improper pump or compressor operation could include:

§§ dynamic instability—vibration leading to bearing and pump component damage

§§ liquid induced vibration—running outside best efficiency point
§§ over-speed and reverse rotation—mechanically or process-induced
§§ internal clearances
§§ bearing failure/lubrication
§§ seal failure

Figure 1-7.  Compressor station fire.

Figure 1-8.  Compressor station explosion [16].

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 Introduction to Pipeline Systems    ■    11

§§ joint failure
§§ loss of piping and pump restraints
§§ corrosion
§§ erosion
§§ failure of connections—overload and fatigue issues
§§ entrapment from contact with rotating shaft or other similar components

1.4.2 Dependability of Pipeline Systems

1.4.2.1 Dependability
In today’s competitive and changing environment, it is crucial that pipelines and associated
facilities create and sustain value for their stakeholders. This value can only be achieved by
incorporating dependability into the pipeline system, in whole or in part. Dependability charac-
teristics address not just availability and reliability as the probability of successful performance,
but also identify other potential risk exposures such as degradation and wear-out that advocate
the need for maintenance and logistic support to sustain “problem free” pipeline and facility
operation. Dependability engineering [17] provides practical means and measurable targets for
achieving value, which are then implemented by sound operational risk assessment practices.
The term “reliability” has the specific meaning as the probability that something may fail
within a certain time period but is also commonly used in a broader sense for the combined and
related concepts of availability, maintainability, supportability, maintenance, safety, integrity,
and a host of other terms. This has led to a proliferation of aggregate terms such as R&M (Reli-
ability and Maintainability), RAM (Reliability, Availability and Maintainability), RAMS where
the additional “S” is safety, and Dependability, which is used by international standards.
On the international scene, the IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) estab-
lished a TC (Technical Committee) 56 in 1967 to address reliability standardization. The
initial title of IEC/TC56 was “Reliability of electronic components and equipment.” In 1980,
the title was amended to “Reliability and Maintainability” to address reliability and associ-
ated characteristics applicable to products. In 1989, the title was changed to “Dependabil-
ity” to better reflect the technological evolution and business needs on a broader scope of
applications based on the concept of dependability as an umbrella term. In 1990, following
consultations with ISO (International Organization for Standardization), it was agreed that
the scope of TC56’s work should no longer be limited to the electrotechnical field, but should
address generic dependability issues across all disciplines. The scope of IEC/TC56 cov-
ers the generic aspects on dependability program management, testing and analytical tech-
niques, software and system dependability, life cycle costing and technical risk assessment.
This includes standards related to product issues from component reliability to guidance for
engineering dependability of systems, standards related to process issues from technical risk
assessment to integrated logistics support and standards related to management issues from
dependability management to managing for obsolescence.
Dependability provides critical value at the pipeline system level by ensuring that the
combination of pipe and pump/compressor stations can provide the capacity and avail-
ability to satisfy contractual requirements. For the pipe portion, dependability is normally
couched in terms of risk management or integrity management with the objective of public,
employee and contractor safety, avoidance of environmental damage, satisfying regulatory
requirements and managing cost. For facilities, dependability value is obtained by high
availability and reliability and low life cycle costs.
Due to fundamental differences in these assets—pipe being a structure and facilities
consisting of many types of equipment—it is natural that different approaches and tech-
niques are needed to ensure effective and dependable operation over their life cycle.
Dependability is the ability to perform as and when required. It applies to any physical
asset such as a system, product, process, or service and may involve hardware, software and

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 12    ■    Pipeline Pumping and Compression Systems—A Practical Approach

human aspects. Dependability is a collective set of time-related performance characteristics

that coexist with other requirements such as output, efficiency, quality, safety, and integrity.
The main dependability characteristics of a system consist of:

§§ availability for readiness of operation

§§ reliability for continuity of service provision
§§ maintainability for ease of preventive and corrective maintenance actions
§§ supportability for provision of maintenance support and logistics to perform main-
tenance tasks

The interrelationship between these characteristics is shown in Fig. 1-9. Availability is

the operational result of a combination of reliability, maintainability, and supportability. It is
directly related to production capability and assurance in the oil and gas industry [18]. Relia-
bility is inherent in the system design and must be sustained through the manufacturing and
installation to provide dependable operation. Maintainability is dependent on the system
design architecture and technology implementation guided by the maintenance strategies
to enhance reliable operation. Supportability is enabled by available maintenance support
resources to permit flexibility in logistic support management and outsourcing provision.
Performance requirements of equipment or a system can be divided into functional
and non-functional components where the functional requirements denote fundamen-
tal objectives of the system and the non-functional ones are essential criteria needed to
establish other requirements, such as safety, dependability, and usability. Dependability is
associated with the time-dependent aspect of the requirements of a system. For example,
the compression of natural gas is based on certain conditions of use to provide dependa-
ble compression capacity, safely and with minimum environmental impact. The resultant
functional requirements become performance specifications, such as head, flow, and effi-
ciency at a certain design point and operating range with the design carried out according
to specified standards. Non-functional requirements relate to safety requirements and
local and national regulations. The dependability characteristics relate to how this per-
formance can be maintained over time, such as a pump producing the required pressure
for a regulated flow to sustain operation without interruption or degradation with mini-
mum downtime. A system configuration and design example is shown in Fig. 1-10.

1.4.2.2 The Value of Dependability for Pipelines

The general value of dependability is related to the ability of functional requirements to
be satisfied from a time perspective. The value created by dependable operation is both

Availability

Reliability Maintainability Supportability

Maintenance Logistic
support support

Figure 1-9.  Interrelationship between dependability characteristics [19].

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 Introduction to Pipeline Systems    ■    13

Need:
Compression of natural gas

Requirement: System/equipment:
Conditions of use:
Provide dependable Gas compressor including motor
Fluid: clean natural gas
compression capacity, safely driver, centrifugal compressor,
Environment: Tropical up
and with minimum controls and instrumentation,
to 40rC ambient
environmental impact sealing and pressurized oil system

Dependability Requirements:
Functional Requirements:
Operational Availability = 98%
Specified head, flow and Time-dependent aspects Reliability (yearly) = 99%
efficiency design point
Maintainability: High
Design according to specified
Maintenance Support: Routine
standards
maintenance done by local staff, major
Electrical and other safety
maintenance with vendor support
requirements as per
Note: this is only an Able to restore to service within a
specified standards
illustrative example to maximum of 3 days
Local and national safety and
clarify the interrelationships Durability: Life of at least 20 years
environmental regulations
between these concepts. Low life cycle cost

Figure 1-10.  Functional and non-functional requirements [19].

positive in enhancing availability and reliability but also negative in the sense of avoidance
of the consequences caused by cessation of required functions.
In general, dependability value can be expressed in the following ways:

1. Safety is enhanced: In many industries such as transportation, safe execution of the

service is of paramount importance. Great lengths are taken to ensure no injuries
or deaths are incurred although hopefully no one is under the illusion that all risk is
eliminated. Moreover, there may be different acceptable safety levels for the public
as opposed to employees.
2. Customer or user satisfaction is achieved: In particular for customer products and
services, satisfaction is the measure of success even though likely not everyone
will be equally satisfied. This satisfaction will be linked to the performance of the
product or the service and whether any product failures or service interruptions are
experienced. Availability upon demand is also important to the user or customer.
3. Life cycle cost is minimized: Life cycle cost is influenced by initial acquisition costs
and the cost of operation and downtime or unavailability due to failures and the need for
maintenance. Some costs may be inherent to the design while others can be minimized
by good operating and maintenance practices. Sometimes long-term life cycle cost is
compromised in the short term to achieve objectives. Costs and benefits may include
not only those of the actual asset but ones related to achieved or lost production.
4. Maximum asset life can be attained: Dependable products and systems are much
more likely to have a long life, something that is most important for infrastructure
and very expensive assets. As long as the failure rate is not increasing dramatically,
longer operation reduces life cycle costs.
5. Environmental impact is minimized: Failures can seriously impact emissions and
environmental damage due to loss of containment of hazardous substances.
6. Reputation is maintained or enhanced: This is more problematic to quantify but a
loss of reputation can impact business value such as the stock price and may result
in a loss of market for products that could even lead to the end of an organization.

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 14    ■    Pipeline Pumping and Compression Systems—A Practical Approach

System
life cycle Concept/
Concept/de Design/
Design/develo Realizaon/impl
Realizaon/ Operaon/
Operaon/m
Enhancement Rerement
process finion
definion pment
development ementaon
implementaon aintenance
maintenance

Value scenario

Value Operaon/maintenanc
Operaon/
creaon maintenance
e value value
•Risk assessment and
Design value
management plans
Opportunity for •System design for Enhancement value
Manufacturing/inst
Manufacturing/ •Operaon within
value availability •Increased
installaon
allaon value
value design limits
•Demand •Opmizaon of dependability
•Quality control of •Monitoring and
forecasng pipe vs. facilies •Enhanced
manufacturing inspecon of pipelines
•Inial contracts •Reliability-based performance,
•Quality control of •Prevenve and
•Esmated cost pipeline design efficiency
installaon predicve
vs. revenue •Design facilies •Increased cost
•Commissioning maintenance of
•Risk evaluaon for reliability and effecveness
facilies
maintainability •Reduced risk
•Measurement of
•Life cycle cosng
dependability
performance

Figure 1-11.  Dependability framework over the life cycle for pipelines [19].

The value of pipelines can be represented by the sequence of life cycle stages, which
constitutes the primary process for value creation. Each life cycle stage from concept
initiation to in-service operation adds value to the process. Figure 1-11 illustrates the
general value creation framework for the system life cycle as applied to pipelines and
facilities.

1.4.2.3  Dependability for Pumping and Compression

Satisfying dependability performance for a pipeline happens at several levels, starting with
the pipeline system as a whole and being supported by specific and different approaches
for the pipe portion and the compression or pumping facilities. The pipeline system level
is essentially a network consisting of pipe and facilities with input and delivery points. The
delivery is naturally also dependent on adequate supply volumes but this has to be assumed
so it will not be considered further.
Delivery from a pipeline system is measured by availability as a function of flow
with expectation by the customer that contracted volumes will be met. For a gas pipeline,
even with loss of compression, expected volumes can often be made up due to changeable
linepack and delivery requirements satisfied unless downtime is extensive. For oil pipe-
lines, unless it is operating well below capacity, this may not be possible. For this reason,
redundancy for pumping is more crucial than for compression.
Compared to pipe, compressors are less reliable and require downtime for mainte-
nance. This would argue for less compression and larger pipe diameters except for the fact
that installing pipe is considerably more costly than compression. Determining the most
effective tradeoff options can be conducted by dependability analyses.
For pumping and compression facilities, the major dependability-related features are that:

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 Introduction to Pipeline Systems    ■    15

§§ equipment consists of many different types of components with differing failure

modes and failure rates
§§ failure rates are relatively higher
§§ consequences are generally from low to medium
§§ regular preventive maintenance is needed along with condition-based maintenance
§§ public safety or environmental damage is a not primary concern
§§ regulatory requirements are less stringent
§§ maintenance and replacement are technology driven and are continuously being
improved

During the design phase, considering reliability and maintainability are particularly
important and quite a few techniques exist to facilitate these as well as extensive standards,
including international ones by IEC/TC56 [20].
Detailed pipeline system operational capability, reliability, and availability assessment
of a system are described by Mohitpour et al. [21]. In this reference, applicable codes and
standards providing guidelines for assessment of pipeline systems reliability, and avail-
ability/dependability are provided. Fundamentals and techniques are described, and typical
pipeline component failure data are provided. Reliability/availability assessment applica-
tion is then detailed.
Creating value from dependability for compression or pumping facilities leads prima-
rily to these benefits: improved safety, high availability, and reduced costs. Improved safety
applies mainly to employees and contractors and not so much the public so it is less critical
than for pipelines.
Availability is linked to meeting delivery contract requirements and providing cus-
tomer satisfaction. The impact of compressor/pump downtime is very dependent on the
number of stand-by units installed and, especially for gas pipelines, the flexibility of the
pipeline itself in handling short term downtime which will guide the tradeoff between avail-
ability and capital and operating costs.
Reduced costs may range from short-term cost comparisons to long-term life cycle
costing (LCC is also known as TCO or total cost of ownership). LCC studies are best done
during equipment acquisition and used to compare alternatives.
The major steps in a LCC analysis are:

§§ preparing a breakdown structure for applicable costs

§§ determining costs for each breakdown element
§§ collecting failure and repair data (MTBF/MTTR or Weibull) from industry sources
§§ actual experience
§§ analyzing system availability and reliability
§§ selecting an LCC model (e.g. LCC = Acquisition cost + Operating cost + Failure
cost + Support cost – Net disposal value)
§§ estimating costs for each component of the LCC model
§§ applying discounting over the time period of the study
§§ determining the final LCC based on Net Present Value (NPV)
§§ comparing alternatives

1.4.2.4 Reliability, Availability and Maintainability Models in Pipeline Systems


Reliability, Availability and Maintainability (RAM) models have contributed to capital cost
avoidance while maintaining or improving the reliable design and operation of the pipeline
system [22]. These models constitute a very effective, factual and dependable tool to assess
the throughput performance of a pipeline system over its entire life cycle or a specified time
of interest. In addition, the RAM model cost is a small fraction of the overall monetary ben-
efit, in the order of 1%, hence making RAM models a highly leveraged activity.

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 16    ■    Pipeline Pumping and Compression Systems—A Practical Approach

The concept of a RAM model stems from Reliability Block Diagram methods [23].
Interaction of large, complex and multi layered systems can then be analyzed using the
Monte Carlo simulation methods (or Stochastic Discrete Event Simulation) hence quanti-
fying the output of the entire system with greater accuracy than other estimating tools or
methods. Over 10 years, the company has developed its own failure database for equipment
and operational events, so consequently almost all model inputs are based on in-house
data rather than industry generic data, making the model output more robust, accurate and
appropriate for internal use [22].
Initially, RAM models were mainly built to assess and confirm the design capabilities of
future pipeline designs and assist in the optimal selection of specific design options. Because
of the effectiveness of the tool combined with the current cost constrained business environ-
ment, the company is moving towards building RAM models for assets already in operation in
order to optimize their performance. This is proving to be an extremely cost effective addition
to internal decision making processes. The approach has been used in risk-based budgeting,
asset maintenance, design modifications and throughput optimization initiatives.
RAM models are usually built for two types of systems depending on size and
complexity:

§§ simple sub-systems, which typically include a subset of a pumping facility or a

terminal, typically including from 50 to 200 blocks with fixed flows.
§§ complex systems such as an entire pipeline can reach 5,000 blocks because they
include terminals, pump stations as well as injections and delivery points with
mechanical, electrical and control systems. These models include hydraulic capa-
bilities of the pipeline under different pump or station outage states. Each state
needs to be calculated using an external hydraulic model that feeds into the model.

The RAM process model for a complex system with inputs and outputs usually required
is shown in Fig. 1-12. Not all inputs or outputs may be required. Also, if they are required,
they may be quite simple. For example, flow inputs for one booster pump model may only
have 3 states i.e. off, nominal or design flow. Whereas a 1,000 km pipeline may have 150-
200 states, one for each combination of pump or station outage on the pipeline.
Outputs from the model can be customized both in types of data and formats. As an
example, Fig. 1-13 shows overall throughput performance and the probability distribution
of achievement.

Figure 1-12.  RAM process flow model [22].

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 Introduction to Pipeline Systems    ■    17

Figure 1-13.  RAM process flow model [22].

REFERENCES
  [1] Mohitpour, M., 2008. Energy Supply and Pipeline Transportation—Challenges and Opportunities,
ASME Press, New York.
  [2] BP Energy Outlook, 2018. BP p.l.c. 2018, https://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/energy-economics
/energy-outlook.html, p. 68.
  [3] Mohitpour, M., Dawson, J., Babuk, T. and Jenkins, A., 2000. “Concepts for Increased Natural Gas
Supply—a Pipeline Perspective,” Presented at Forum 11, 16th World Petroleum Congress, June 11–15,
Calgary, AB, Canada.
  [4] Pipeline & Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, “About
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  [5] ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers), 2016. “Pipeline Transportation Systems for
Liquid Hydrocarbons and Slurries,” ASME Code for Pressure Piping, B31.4, An American National
Standard.
  [6] API Recommended Practice 1173, 2015. “Pipeline Safety Management Systems,” American Petro-
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  [7] CAN/CSA Z662-15, 2015. “Oil and Gas Pipeline Systems,” Canadian Standards Association, 868
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  [8] CAN/CSA-Z767-17, 2017. “Process safety management,” Canadian Standards Association, 48
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  [9] Canadian Energy Pipeline Association, 2013. “Facilities Integrity Management Program Recom-
mended Practice,” 1st Edition, May 2013 (www.cepa.com).
[10] Sahney, R., Reed, M. and Skibinsky, D., 2014. “The Development of a Facilities Integrity Management
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Pipeline Conference, IPC2014-33746, Sept. 29–Oct. 3, 2014, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, 9 pages.
[11] IEC/ISO 31010:2009. “Risk management - Risk assessment techniques,” Edition 1.0, 2009-11-27, 188
pages.
[12] IEC 61882:2016. “Hazard and operability studies (HAZOP studies)—Application guide,” Edition 2.0,
International Electrotechnical Committee, 2016-03-10, 124 pages.

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 18    ■    Pipeline Pumping and Compression Systems—A Practical Approach

[13] IEC 60812:2006. “Analysis techniques for system reliability—Procedure for failure mode and effects
analysis (FMEA),” International Electrotechnical Committee, 2006-01-25, 93 pages.
[14] IEC 61025:2006. “Fault tree analysis (FTA),” Edition 2.0, International Electrotechnical Committee,
2006-12-13, 103 pages.
[15] Pettitt, G. and Pennicott, P., 2016. “Use of Bowties for Pipeline Safety Management,” Proceedings
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[16] Pipeline Investigation Report P00H0061, 2000. “Natural Gas Compressor Station Occurrence,” Trans-
portation Safety Board of Canada, 71 pages.
[17] Van Hardeveld, T. and Kiang, T.D., 2012. “Practical Application of Dependability Engineering,”
ASME Press, New York.
[18] ISO 20815:2008. “Petroleum, petrochemical and natural gas industries—Production assurance and
reliability management,” First Edition, 2008-06-01.
[19] Van Hardeveld, T. and Kiang, T.D., 2012. “Achieving Dependability Value for Pipelines and Facili-
ties,” Proceedings of the 9th International Pipeline Conference, IPC 2012, September 24–28, 2012,
Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
[20] IEC/TC56 website, http://tc56.iec.ch/index-tc56.html, accessed March 9, 2018.
[21] Mohitpour, M., Szabo, J. and Van Hardeveld, T., 2004. Pipeline Operation and Maintenance—A Practi-
cal Approach, ASME Press, New York, pp. 565–606.
[22] Jones, B.M. and Ferrari, A.-M., 2016. “Reliability, Availability and Maintainability (RAM) Simulation
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64205, Sept. 26–30, 2016, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, 10 pages.
[23] IEC 61078:2016. “Reliability block diagrams,” Edition 3.0, International Electrotechnical Committee,
2016-08-12, 250 pages.

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