Bipolar
junc-on
transistors


(BJTs)


Electronics
2.

DE
TTK


Sedra/Smith

Microelectronic
Circuits


Chapter
5



DE
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 1

5.Chapter 
 
 
 
 
 
Content


1.  
 Device
Structure
and
Physical
Opera-on

2.  
 Current‐Voltage
Characteris-cs

3.  
 The
BJT
as
an
Amplifier
and
as
a
Switch

4.  
 BJTcircuits
at
DC

5.  
 Biasing
in
BJT
Amplifier
Circuits

6.  
 Small‐signal
Opera-on
and
Models

7.  
 Single
Stage
BJT
Amplifiers

8.  
 The
BJT
Internal
Capacitances
and
High‐Frequency
Model

9.  
 Frequency
Response
of
the
Common‐EmiYer
Amplifier

10.  
 The
basic
BJT
Digital
Inverter

11.  
 SPICE
BJT
model


DE
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 2

 5.1 
Device
Structure
and
Physical
Opera8on


NPN
BJT


Electrons
and
holes
are
par-cipate

In
the
current‐conduc-on
process:

Bipolar
device



PNP
BJT


BJT
modes
of
opera-on:

Üzemmód
 EBJ
 CBJ





















Felhasználás:

Cutoff
 Reverse
 Reverse













Kapcsoló
üzem

Ac-ve
 Forward
 Reverse













Erősítő

Reverse
ac-ve
 Reverse
 Forward












Alig
használt

Satura-on
 Forward
 Forward












Kapcsoló
üzem

DE
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 3

 5.1.2
Opera8on
of
the
npn
transistor
inthe
ac8ve
mode


BE:
forward
biasing

CB:
reverse
biasng

Heavily
doped
EmiYer,

lightly
doped
and
narrow
Base


BE:
Two
current
component:


1.

E
electrons
injected
to
B
(majority
carriers)

2.

B
injects
holes
to
E
(minority
carriers)


The
electrons
in
the
Base
are
not
able
to
recombinate,
so
they
reach
the
reverse
biased
CB
diodes


deple-on
zone,
where
they
raise
the
satura-on
current


 
 
The
emiYer
current: 
 
 
 
The
collector
current:

α,
iE = iC + iB , iC = α • iE , β=
1− α

α:
common
base
current
gain
(
α
<
1,
≈0.99),


€ € β:
common
emiYer
current
gain
(50..200)

€

DE
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 4

Large
signal
model

Valid
only
in
the
ac-ve
mode


Ebers‐Moll
model


In
all
opera-ng
modes


DE
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 5

5.2
U‐I
characteris8cs


U‐I
rela-ons
in
ac-ve
mode:


v BE /VT iC  IS  v BE /VT
iC = IS e , iB = =  e ,
β β
iC  IS  v BE /VT
iE = =  e ,
BJT

 α α 
€
€
iE
iC = α • iE , iB = (1− α )iE = ,
β +1
€
iC = α • iE , iE = (β + 1)iB ,
€
€
α, β
BJT
biasing
 € β= € α= ,
1− α β +1
DE
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 6

 Example
5.1




β=100,
vBE=0.7V
IC=1mA‐nál.


Design
the
circuit:
Let
IC=2mA
and

VC=5V.

Solu-on:

VCBJ:
nega-ve,
ac-ve
mode.

RC=10V/2mA=5kΩ,

If
vBE=0.7V
at
IC=1mA


Than
at
2mA:

2
VBE = 0.7 + VT ln  = 0.717V,
1
VB=0V,
so
VE=
‐0.717V,

Then:


IE€=IC/α=2/101=2.02mA,

(IE=IC+IB=IC+2/β=2+2/100=2.02mA)


RE=(VE‐(‐15V)/IE=(‐0.717+15)/2.02=7.07kΩ,


DE
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 7

5.2.2
Grafical
representa-on
of
BJTs



iC = IS e v BE /VT ,

iE‐vBE
and
iB‐vBE


are
exponen-al
behaviors

€ ‐2mV/0C


Common
base
characteris-cs:


Notes:

• Breakdown
at
high
vBC,

• Moderate
slope
in
iC

(in
func-on
of
vCE)


DE
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 8

5.2.3
TheEarly
effect


A
karakterisz-ka
vonalak
nem
vízszintesek.

A
–vCE
tengelyen
van
egy
fesz,
érték
ahol
összefutnak.

A
jelenség
oka
a
kiüríteY
réteg
vCE
függése.

VA
-pikusan:
50...100
V
értékű.


DE
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 9

Grafical...

Common
emiYer

Characteris-cs:
 ΔiC
β AC = ,
ΔiB

DE
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 10

Satura-on
voltage
and
resistor




β
is
smaller
in
sat.
Mode
than
in
ac-ve
mode


The
reciprocal
value
of
the
slope:
RSAT
.

(1Ohm..10Ohm)


Circuit
model
in

Satura-on
mode:


DE
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 11

 5.3
The
BJT
as
an
amplifier
and
as
a
switch

5.3.1
Large
Signal
Opera8on
–
The
Transfer
Characteris8c


From
the
circuit:

vO = vCE = VCC − RC iC ,

In
detail:

€ 0
‹
vI
‹
0.5V:
The
device
is
in
Cutoff
mode.

v I › 0.5V:
Ac-ve
mode:
(from
Y
)


v I increases 
iC
increases

iC = IS e v BE /VT = IS e v I /VT ,
vO = vCE = VCC − RC IS e v I /VT ,

vO
also
decreases
(by
ex
func-on)
very
rapidly.

€ If
vCE
decreases
below
vBE
by
0.4V:
CBJ
switches
on:


The

transistor
get
into
the
satura-on
mode.
(at
Z
)

€ (Note:
We
can
control
by
iB
as
well)


DE
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 12

 5.3.2
Amplifier
Gain


Linear
amplifier:
at
Q
(Quescent
point).

We
should
bias
the
device.

At
Q:
VBE
–
VCE
–
IC
characterise
the
device.


Around
Q
:
the
transmission
(gain)
is
linear:

dv o
Av = ,
dv I v I = v BE

vO = VCC − RC IS e vBE /VT ,

€ dv o 1 I R
Av = =− IS e v BE /VT RC = − C C ,
dv I v I = v BE
VT VT
€
The
gain
is
nega-ve.


For
symmetrical
output
signal
swing:

VCE
≈
VCC/2

€

DE
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 13

5.3.3
Grafical
Analysis


Determining
IB



Determining
IC
és
UCE



DE
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 14

Grafical
Analysis


Determining
Vbe,
ib,
ic

 Determining
Vce



DE
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 15

 5.3.4
Opera8on
as
a
switch


The
BJT
works
in
cutoff
and
saturated
modes.


Cutoff
region:
(We
should
switch
off
the
BJT)


vBE
<
0.5V,



iB
=
0,
 iC
=
0,
 vc
=
VCC.


Saturated
region:
(We
should
switch
on
the
BJT)


At
Vi=0.5V
:only
small

iB
.
vBE
≈
0.7V
,
so:
Vi
>
0.7V

v I " v BE

 
 
Then:
 iB = ,
RB
iC = "iB ,  Only
for
ac-ve
mode:
-ll
the
CB
diode
is
closed.


While
CB
diode
is
open:
! vC
 ›v B 
 " 0.4V,

 
where: v
 C = 
VCC "

 RC i
C , 
(vCB
opens
at:
0.4V)

!
Obviosly:
If
vI
increases,
iB
also
increases,
then
vC
decreases.


If
vC
decreases
below
vB
by
0.4V:
We
have
reached
the
border
of
the
saturated
mode:

! !
V " 0.3 IC (EOS )
Then: iC (EOS
 ) = 
CC 
 , 
we
suppose
henceforward:
vBE
≈
0.7V

 iB (EOS ) = ,
RC "

 
 
 
 
EOS:
Edge
of
Satura-on

DE
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 16


! !
Opera8on
as
a
switch


The
controlling
voltage
at
EOS:
 VI (EOS ) = IB (EOS )RB + VBE ,

Raising
more
the
vI
the
BJT
gets
deeper
into
the
sat.
mode,
but
VCE
does
not
decreases
significantly.


Usual
assump-on:
 VCEsat ≅ 0.2V,

€
VCC − VCEsat
By
this: 
 
 iCsat
 = 
 
 , 
 
(also
does
not
changes
significantly)

RC
So
we
can
say:
Raising
i
€ B
,
Icsat
and
UCEsat
does
not
decreasing:
The
BJT
is
switched
off.

The
BJT
can
be
subs-tuted
by
R
€ sat
and
VCEoff
.

In
saturated
mode
the
BJT
is


in
forced
β
mode.

ICsat
β forced = ,
IB

This
is
lower
than
the
normal
β.


€ „Overdrive
factor”:
IB
/
IB(EOS)



DE
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 17

 Example
5.3


Lets
determine
RB! 
β:
50...150,
Overdrive
factor:
10


Solve:

VCC − VCEsat 10 − 0.2
VCEsat ≅ 0.2V, iCsat = = = 9.8mA,
RC 1
ICsat 9.8
IB = = = 0.196mA,
β min 50
€ €
With
overdrive
10:

v I − v BE 5 − 0.7
€ IB = 10 • 0.196 = 1.96mA, RB = = = 2.2kΩ,
iB 1.96

Exercise
5.21

€
Given: 

VCC=+5V,
vI=+5V,
R
€ B=RC=1kOhm,
β=100.

Ques-ons:
IB,
IC,
VC,
βforced,
in
saturated
mode.


 
RB
=?
at
EOS.



DE
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 18

5.4
BJT
circuits
at
DC

We
suppose
in
the
following
:
VBE=0.7V,
VSAT=0.2V,
there
is
no
Early‐effect.

(With
beYer
model,
it
can
be
reached
beYer
result,
but,
with
more
difficulty.)


Main
ques-on:


 
In
which
mode
is
the
BJT
opera-ng?



Procedure
to
decide:


1.  Assume:
It
is
in
ac-ve
mode

2.  Determine
the
U
and
I
values

3.  Check
the
consistency
of
the
result
with
the
ac-ve
mode
assump-on?


(VBE
=
0.7V,
VCB
›
‐0.4V
‐NPN),
Yes:
OK.

4.  If
not:

New
assump-on:
It
is
in
saturated
mode.

5.  Determine
the
new
U
and
I
values

6.  Check:
Is
the
BJT
in
saturated
mode?
(βforced
‹
βmin)


DE
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 19

Example
5.4
 Determine
the
U
and
I
values!










β=100


1.Assump-on:
BE
is
open


3.Assump-on:
ac-ve
mode

(VC
can
be
higher,
than
VB)


4.VC=5.3V,VB=4V:
really
ac-ve
mode


IC=αIE


α=β/(β+1)


DE
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 20

Example
5.5
 Determine
the
U
and
I
values!















β›50


b.figure

Assump-on:
ac-ve
mode

Calcula-on:

VC
‹
VB
:
wrong
assump-on


b.figure

Assump-on:
saturated
mode

Calcula-on:
on
figure

Check:
βforced=IC/IB=?


(βforced=1.5,
smaller
than
βmin
,

so
the
BJT
is
in
sat.
mode)


DE
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 21

Example
5.6
 Determine
the
U
and
I
values!




1:
VB
=
0,
E
is
connected
to
ground

BEJ
does
not
conduct
(Base‐EmiYer
Junc-on)

2:
VB
=
0,
C++

CBJ
nem
vezet







CUTOFF
mode


DE
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 22

Example
5.7
 Determine
the
U
and
I
values!
(PNP
transistor!)




Note
For
3.:

VC
can
be
nega-ve,
so
it
is
possible
that
it
is
in
ac-ve
mode.

At
this
case:
IC=αIE

β
=
?
 Assump-on:
β
=100.
(typical
value
50..200)


The
value
of
β
does
not
influence
the
the
design
parameters(IC,
IE
etc.)

General
design
rule:
the
design
is
as
insensi-ve
to
β
as
possible.


(varia-on
on
β
is
high) 
DE
TTK

 
This
is
a
good
design.
 23

Example
5.8
 Determine
the
U
and
I
values!










β=100


Notes:

1.BEJ
is
clearly
forward
biased

3.
Assume:
ac-ve
mode

Check:
VCB=0.7V
 ac-ve
mode,
but
the
value
of
IE
and
IC
depends
cri-cally
on
β.

If
β
raises
by
10%:
The
BJT
leaves
the
ac-ve
region.
(the
devia-on
of
β
is
high:
50..150)

This
is
a
bad
design!


DE
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 24

 Example
5.9
 U=?,
I=?
βmin=30



First:
Ac-ve
mode:
 Second:
Sturated
mode



VB≅0,
VE=0.7,
IE=
4.3mA

 1.
By
using
VB
as
a
parameter:

but
in
Ac-ve
mode:
 2.
Subs-tu-ng
the
2,4,7
equa-ons
into


ICmax=0.5mA
!
(VCB
reverse!)
 




IE
=
IC
+
IB
:
VB
=
3.13V

Impossible,
so
the
BJT
is
saturated!
 3.
With
this
value:






VE
=
3.83V,
VC
=
3.63V






IE
=
1.17mA,
IC
=
0.86mA,
IB=0.31mA






Check:
βforced=
IC/IB
=
0.86/0.31
≈
2.8


































(
‹‹
β
DE
TTK
 min
,
so
really
in
sat.
mode
)
 25

Example
5.10
 U=?,
I=?
β=100


1.  Simplifying
the
base
circuit:
Thevenin
equivalent


VBB=+15RB2/(RB1+RB2)=+5V,



RBB=RB1
x
RB2=33.3kOhm 


2.
 
Loop
equa-on
for
L:

I
VBB = IB RBB + VBE + IE RE , IB = E ,
β +1
Subs-tu-ng
and
rearranging:

VBB − VBE 1.29
IE = = 1.29mA, IB = = 0.0128mA,
€ RE ( RBB /(β + 1)) 101
€
VB = VBE + IE RE = 0.7 + 1.29 • 3 = 4.57V,
€ Assume:
ac-ve
mode:
 €

€
IC = α • IE = 0.99 •1.29 = 1.28mA,
VC = +15 − IC RC = 15 −1.28 • 5 = 8.6V

VC
›
VB
by
4.03V,
so
CBJ
closed:
ac-ve
mode


DE
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 26

Example
5.11
 U=?,
I=?



This
is
the
5.10
circuit
with
Q2
added.

VB1,
IE1,IB1,IC1,
the
same
as
before:


VB1=
+4.57V, 
IE1=
1.29mA,


IB1=
0.0128mA, 
IC1=
1.28mA


VC1
is
different:
because
of
IB2


Let
IB2
‹‹
IC1
0
(first
approx.)

VC1≅
15
‐
IC1RC1
=8.6V,

(Q1
in
ac-ve
mode)


DE
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 27

 Example
5.11


Q2
:

The
emiYer
is
connected
to
+15V:

Safe
to
assume:



the
EBJ
is
forward
biased

Then:

VE 2 = VC1 + VEBQ 2 ≅ 8.6 + 0.7 = 9.3V,
and

+15 − VE 2
IE 2 = = 2.85mA,
RE 2
€
The
collector
is
conn.
to
ground
via
RC2,

so
the
transistor
can
be
in
ac-ve
mode.

€ So:

 The
value
of
IB2:
(previous
assump-on:
0mA)

IC 2 = α 2 IE 2 = 0.99 • 2.85 = 2.82mA, (β = 100) IE 2 2.85
and
 IB 2 = = = 0.028mA,
β 2 +1 101
VC 2 = IC 2 RC 2 = 2.82 • 2.7 = 7.62V Really
much
smaller,
then
IC1.

€
This
value
is
lower,
then
VB2,
so
Q2
is
 We
can
calculate
the
U
–
I
values
again:

in
ac-ve
mode.
 €IRC1
=
1.252mA, 
 
VC1
=
8.74V,

€ VE2
=
9.44V, 
 
IE2

=
2.78mA,

IC2

=
2.75mA, 
 
VC2
=
7.43V,

IB2
NEW

=
0.0275mA
≅ IB2
prev.
(no
need
to
iterate
again)

DE
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 28

Example
5.12
 U=?,
I=?
β=100


The
transistors
Q1,
Q2
can
not
be
open
simultaneously.
(posi-ve
VBEQ1
closes
VBEQ2)


1.  Assump-on:
Q2
is
On
(and
Q1
is
Off):
A
current
should
flow
from
1k
to
the
Q2
EmiYer.

Thus
the
Q2
Base
will
be
at
a
nega-ve
voltage,
and
base
current
will
be
flowing
out
of
the
base


through
the
10k
resistor
into
the
+5V.

Impossible
since
if

the
base
is
nega-ve
current
comes
from
the
+5V
to
the
base.

So
the
original
assump-on
(Q2
is
On)
is
incorrect.

2.  Q1:
On.
Ac-ve
or
saturated? 


Obviously:
The
IB1
comes
from
+5V
and
flows
to
Q1
Base,
so
its
voltage
is
smaller,
than
+5V.

Thus
CBJ
of
Q1
is
reverse
biased:
Q1
is
in
ac-ve
mode.



From
this
point,
determining
the
U
and
I
values
are
easy.
(fig.b.,
Homework)

DE
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 29

5.5
Biasing
in
BJT
amplifier
circuits

Introduc-on


Opera-ng
point:
The
DC
U
and
I
values
on
the
device
without
signal
input


Mit
várunk
a
beállítástól?

• 
Independent
of
temperature
change

• 
Independent
of
change
of
β


• 
Maximal
output
swing


Wrong
Biasing
methods:


(a):
Constant
voltage
at
the
base









Small
change
in
U,
high
change
on
I
az

U‐I


(b):
Constant
current
at
the
base









Large
varia-on
on
β
results








High
U
and
I
changes.


DE
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 30

 5.5.1The
classical
circuits


Voltage
divider
and
RE
resistor.


A
Thevenin
equivalent:


R2 R1 • R2
VBB = VCC , RBB = ,
R1 + R2 R1 + R2

€ €
For
the
L
loop:

VBB − VBE
subs-tu-ng:
IE=(β+1)IB
into

 VBB
 + IB R
 B + VBE

 + IE R

 E = 0,
 
yields:
 IE = ,
RE + RB /(β + 1)
RB
IE
will
be
independent
of
changes
of
T
and
β
if:
 VBB ››VBE és RE ›› ,
β +1
€
€
Conflic-ng
requirements: 

 
VBB
:
the
bigger
the
beYer
(unfortunately
then
VCB
is
small)


 
 
 
 
 
We
want
VCB
to
be
large

(large
output
swing)

€

Usual
choice:
 VBB ≈ 1/3VCC , VCB (orVCE ) ≈ 1/3VCC , IC RC ≈ 1/3VCC

€ DE
TTK
 31

BJT
biasing


IE
will
be
independent
of
β,
if
RB
is
small.
 RB
RE ›› ,
β +1
It
will
be
fulfilled
if
R1
and
R2
are
small.
(At
very
small
values:
high
divider
current
and
low
Rin)


If
the
current
of
the
divider
high
enough
in
rela-on
of
I
€ B:






Usually:
 I0 ≅ IE ...0.1IE ,

The

RE
has

stabilising
effect:

€
Let
us
suppose
(any
reason):
 IE ↑⇒ VE ↑⇒ VB = áll.⇒ VBE ↓⇒ IC ↓⇒ IE ↓,
RE
provides
a
nega-ve
feedback:
stabilises
the
bias
current.




(nega-ve
feedback
:
later)

€

DE
TTK
 32

Example
5.13

Determine
the
values
of
the
biasing
resistors!

Data:
VCC=+12V,
IE=1mA,




Solu-on:

1.  „One
third
rule”:

 VR =1/3VCC ,VCE =1/3VCC ,U RC =1/3VCC
2.  So
VBB=+4V

3.  VE=4‐VBE≅3.3V

4.  RE=VE/RE=3.3/1=3.3kΩ

5.  If
I0=0.1IE=0.1x1=0.1mA,
(I0:current
of
the
divider)

6.  R1+R2=12/0.1=120kΩ
 €
7.  R2/(R1+R2)VCC=4V

8.  So:
R2=40kΩ,
R1=80kΩ

We
have
assumed:

IB=0,


If
IB≠0:
 VBB − VBE 4 − 0.7
9.  IE:
 IE = =
80x40
= 0.93mA,
RE + RB /(β + 1) 3.3 +
101
11.
 
Finishing:

reducing
RE
l:
RE=3kΩIE=1.01mA≅1mA

10.  If
I0=1mAR 2=4kΩ,
R1=8kΩ


RC=(12‐VC)/IC

€
Then:
 VBB − VBE 4 − 0.7
IE = = = 0.99mA ≅ 1mA, 
IC=αIE=0.991mA≅1mA

RE + RB /(β + 1) 3.3 + 0.027

RC=4kΩ

DE
TTK
 33

€
5.5.2
Two
power
supply
version
of
classical
bias
arrangement


For
the
L
loop:


IBRB+VBE+IERE‐VEE=0

‐ből:


VEE − VBE
IE = ,
RE + RB /(β + 1)

RB
:
only
for
signal
coupling.

€

We
can
neglect
it
for
the
biasing
(RB=0)

It
is
the
case
for
CB
mplifier.


DE
TTK
 34

5.5.3

Biasing
using
CB
feedback
resistor


Only
for
CE
amplifier!


Detailed
analisis.
Book!


DE
TTK
 35

5.5.4
Biasing
using
constant
current
source


BeYer
than
the
previous:


IE
independent
of
changes
of
β
and
RB
,

RB
can
be
high
(high
RIN)
without
reducing


the
stability
of
biasing.


Current
generator:

L
loop:

‐VCC+IREFR+VBE‐VEE=0
 L

VCC − (−VEE ) − VBE
IREF =
R


Q1
and
Q2
are
:

€
VCC + VEE − VBE
I = IREF =
R

This
is
a
„current
mirror”.



€

DE
TTK
 36

5.5
Small
signal
opera8on
and
models

DC
U
and
I
with
input
signal
 
 
Only
the
DC
biasing


Repeat:
 IC = IS eVBE /VT ,

U
and
I
rela-ons
at
DC:
 IC
IE = , IC = α • IE ,
α
(ac-ve
region,
-ll

VC
≥
VB‐0.4)
 € IC
IB = , IC = β • IB ,
β
€
€ VC = VCE = VCC − IC RC ,
€
€ DE
TTK
 37

5.6.1
The
collector
current
and
the
transconductance


The
total
vBE:
 v BE = VBE + v be ,

Subs-tu-ng
to
iC:
 iC = IS eVBE /VT = IS e(VBE +v be ) /VT = IS e(VBE ) /VT • e( v be ) /VT ,

€
New
form:
 iC = IC e( v be ) /VT ,
I By
approxima-ng
the
func-on
ex

by

vbe
‹‹
VT
small
signal:
 € iC ≅ IC + C v be , using
only
the
first
two
terms

approx.
 VT
(small
signal
approx.)

(DC
és
AC
components)
 € I
ic = C v be = gm v be ,
VT gm:
transconductance

AC
component:

€
IC
gm = , propor-onal
to:
IC
e.g.
IC=1mA,
gm=?

€ VT
keep:
(small
signal
approx.)



 
vbe
‹‹
VT


€ The
transistor
can
be
modelled
as
a

voltage
controlled
current
source.


DE
TTK
 38

5.6.2
The
Base
current
and
the
input
resistance
at
the
Base


iC IC 1 IC DC
komponent
of
iB
:

 I = IC ,
iB = = + v be , B
β β β VT β
1 IC
AC
komponent
of
iB
:

 ib = v be ,
β VT

€ IC € g
From
the
previous: 
 m 
 V 
,
g = 
# ib = m v be ,
T € β
v be β V
The
small
signal
input
resistance:
 rπ =
 =
 , 


other
form:
 rπ = T ,
ib gm IB
5.6.2
EmiYer
current
and
the
input
resistance
at
the
EmiYer

€ €
iC IC 1 IC DC
komponent
of
iB
:

 € I = IC ,
iE = = + v be€
, E
α α α VT α 1 I
AC
komponent
of
iB
:

 ie = C
v be ,
α VT

€ €
The
small
signal
input
resistance:
 r =
 v be =
 α ≅
 1 , 




other
form:
r = VT ,
e
ie gm€ gm
e
IE

DE
TTK
 39

€ €
 5.6.4
Voltage
Gain


The
whole
(AC+DC)
vC:
 vC = VCC − iC RC ,

vC = VCC − (IC + ic )RC = (VCC − IC RC ) + ic RC = VC − ic RC , VC:
Collector
voltage


€ C.
(Uout):

The
AC
component
of
v
v c = −ic RC = −gm v be RC = −(gm RC )v be ,
€
The
gain:

vc I

 
 
 A
v = 
 m RC
 ,

 = −g 
other
form
 
 Av
 = − 
 C RC
, 
(as
earlier)
 

€ 
 

 v be VT

Exercise
5.38

€ €
What
is
the
voltage
gain,
vC,
iB?


Data:
 
IC=1mA,
VCC=15V,
RC=10kΩ,
β=100,


 
vbe=0.005sin(ωt),

DE
TTK
 40

5.6.5
Separa-ng
the
Signal
and
the
DC
quan--es


It
is
obvious:
On
a
BJT
circuit
the
measured
U
and
I
values
consists
of


two
parts
:

• DC
I
and
U:
biasing 
 
 
„put
on
a
DC
glass”

• AC
I
and
U:
signal
transmission 
„put
on
an
AC
glass”


The
U‐I
values
can
be
calculated
by
different
equa-ons.



From
the
AC
signal
transmission
point
of
view:
new
circuit
:

This
is
the
small
signal
model.



Making
the
model:

We
subs-tute
the
DC
voltage
generators
with


shorts.
Why?
(easy
to
understand)


There
are
two
types
of
models:
„π”
and
„T”,

Two
varia-ons
at
each
model.


DE
TTK
 41

5.6.6
The
hibrid
π
model


Voltage
controlled
current
generator: 
 
 
 
Current
controlled
current
generator:



 
 
 
 



valid
for
the
NPN
and
PNP
transistors
as
well 



DE
TTK
 42

5.6.7
Tha
T
model


Voltage
controlled
current
generator: 
 
 
 
Current
controlled
current
generator:



 
 
 
 



valid
for
the
NPN
and
PNP
transistors
as
well 



DE
TTK
 43

 5.6.8
Applica-on
of
the
Small
Signal
Equivalent
Circuits


By
using
this
method,
the
modling
and
calcula-ng
a
BJT
circuit
becomes
a
systema-c
procedure.


1.  Determine
the
DC
opera-ng
point
for
the
BJT,
mainly
IC! 



2.  Calculate
the
small
signal
model
parameters:

gm=IC/VT,
rπ=β/gm,
re=VT/IE=α/gm.


3.  Subs-tute
the
DC
generators:
 
Voltage
gen.
:
 
short




 
 
 
 
 
 
Current
gen.
: 
open


 
 
 
 
 
 


4.  Subs-tute
the
BJT
with
its
small
signal
model!
(Use
the
best
one,
from
the
circuits

point
of
view!)


5.  Make
circuit
analisys
for
determining
the
parameters
needed
(gains,
resistors)!


The
next
examples
are
very
useful.



DE
TTK
 44

Example
5.14


Try
to
find
the
gain!










β=100,


Solu-on:
(By
using
the
method)


IB=(VBB‐VBE)/RBB=(3‐0.7)/100k=0.023mA,


IC=
βIB=100x0.023mA=2.3mA,


VC=VCC‐ICRC=10‐2.3x3=3.1V


Then:


re=VT/IE=25mV/(2.3/0.99)mA=10.8Ohm,


gm=IC/VT=2.3mA/25mV=92mA/V,



rπ=β/gm=100/92=1.09kOhm,


The
values
are
on
the
figure:



DE
TTK
 45

Example
5.14

The
model:


The
voltage
sources
are
subs-tuted
by
shorts!


Analysis:
 rπ 1.09
v be = v i = vi = 0.011v i ,
rπ + RBB 101.09

v o = −gm v be RC = −92 • 0.011v i • 3 = −3.04v i ,

€
vo
Av = = −3.04, (Minus
signe:
phase
inver-ng)

€ vi
DE
TTK
 46


€
 Example
5.16

What
is
the
gain?
What
are
the
signal
shapes?



Solu-on:

DC
biasing

(C:open)


By
using
the
T
model


(C:short)


DC
biasing:
 α=0.99

IE=(10‐VE)/RE=(10‐0.7)/10=0.93mA
 re=VT/IE=25mV/0.93mA=27Ohm,

Let:
β=100α=0.99,
 Av=vo/vi=183.3
(posi-ve)

IC=0.99IE=0.92mA

VC=‐10+ICRC=‐10+0.92x5=‐5.4V

(Check:
Is
it
in
acˆve
mode?)

Change
on
VC
in
ac-ve
mode:‐5.4V...+0.4V
(sat.limit)

and:
‐5.4V...‐10V.
 DE
TTK
 47

Example
5.16


The
output
swing

to
the
satura-on
and
cut‐off

limits
of
the
BJT.

(At
the
limit:

We
are
over
the
small
signal
limit,

there
is
no
linear
transmission.)


The
small
signal
limit
at
the
input
:

abouth
10mV
peak.


The
output
signal
with
the


given
gain:
(183.3)


DE
TTK
 48

5.6.10
The
Early‐effect
on
the
model


There
are
nonideal
current
generators
:


(VA + VCE ) VA
ro = ≅ ,
IC IC

The
output
voltage
will
change:

€
v o = −gm v be (RC ro ),

€ DE
TTK
 49

Example
5.40


data:

I=100mA,
β=100,
VA=100V,
Rsig=2k,
RL=8k,


Ques-ons:

a.:
VB,
VE,
VC
:?


b.:
gm,
rπ,
ro

:?

c.:
determine
the
π
model
(a.
var.),
in
case
Z
is
grounded.

Given:
source
resistance
at
the
input
and
load
at
the
output

d.:
What
is
the
full
voltage
gain?
(vy/vsig)

e.:
What
is
the
error
on
gain
by
neglec-ng
ro?


Homework
1.

Everybody
must
solve
and
give
to
me!


DE
TTK
 50

5.7
Single‐stage
BJT
amplifiers


Three
possibility
for
the
structure:


1.  Common
emiYer

2.  Common
base

3.  Common
collector


The
biasing
scheme
are
the
same
at
all
three
structures.


5.7.1
The
basic
structure
–
the
same
biasing
network


If

I,
RB,
RC,
β
are
known,
everithing
can
be
calculated.



DE
TTK
 51

 Exercise
5.41


Find
the
DC
U
and
I
values!

What
is
the
voltage
swing

at
the
collector? 
 
 
 
Given:
RC=8kΩ,
RB=100kΩ,
VCC=+10V,

VEE=‐10V,

Find
the
values
of
the
BJT
small
signal
parameters!
(π
és
T) 
 



VA=100V
(Early
voltage)

a.  β=100,

b.  β=

50,


Homework
!

c.  β=200,


Homework
!


Solu-on:
Subs-tu-ng
the
equa-ons
on
the
previous
figure:


The
circuit
equa-ons:
 
 
 
The
U
and
I
at
β=100:
 
 
VC
swing:


+
direc-on:

VC
raises:
Till
the
tr.
will
open,

Vcmax=+10V
ΔVC=
8V


‐
direc-on:

VC
decreases:
Till
the
tr.
will


saturate
(VCB
opens
to
0.4V),

Vcmin=‐0.6V
ΔVC=
3.4V


DE
TTK
 52

Exercise
5.41


Small
signal
models
(
π
és
T
)


From
the
5.4
table:

IC V
gm = = 40mA /V, re = T = 25Ω,
VT IE

VT V
rπ = = 2.5kΩ, ro = A = 100kΩ,
€ IB IC

DE
TTK
 53

€
 5.7.2
Characterising
BJT
amplifiers

The
amplifier
with
load
and
signal
source:


Defini-ons:


DE
TTK
 54

Characterising
BJT
amplifiers


DE
TTK
 55

Eqivalent
circuits

Rela-onships:


Ri,
Ro,
Avo,
Ais,
Gm
:
proper
values
of
the
amplifier:
independents
of
Rsig,
and
RL
.


Rin,
Rout,
Av,
Ai,
Gvo,
Gv
:
depend
one
or
both
of
them:
Rsig,
and
RL.

DE
TTK
 56

What
model
to
use,
which
parameter
to
determine?



It
can
be
answered
by
the
full
circuit
and
its
connec-ng
circuits.


The
models
are
equivalents.
The
same
result
whatever
type
we
use.


Parameter
determina-ons:

Some-mes
we
need
only
the
proper
values.
(design)

Some-me
we
need
the
full
amplifier
values.
(using)


DE
TTK
 57

 5.7.3
The
Common‐EmiYer
(CE)
Amplifier


The
circuit:

CC1,
CC2:
in
and
out
coupling.

DC:
open,
AC:
short


CE:
bypass
capacitor:

AC:
shortgood
ground
at
E


(it
will
shunt
the
infinite
resistor
of
current
gen.
)

prac-cal
value:1..10..100μF


Examina-on
of
the
effect
on
the
circuit:
later


Ekvivalent
circuit
with
the
π
model:


Put
on
the:
„AC
glass”


DE
TTK
 58

Terminal
parameters
of
the
CE
amplifiers


vi
Input
resistance:
 Rin = = RB Rib = RB rπ , ha RB ››rπ : Rin ≅ rπ ,
ii
vo
Voltage
gain
(proper):
 Av = = −gm (ro RC RL ),
vi €
€ v
Open
loop
gain:
 Avo = o = −gm (ro RC ), ha ro ››RC : Avo = −gm RC ,














RL=∞
 v i R =∞
L

€
vo
Output
resistance:
 Rout = = RC ro , ha ro ››RC : Rout ≅ RC ,
io v sig=0
€
€

DE
TTK
 59

€
€
 5.7.5
The
Common‐Base
(CB)
amplifier


v vo
Input
resistance:
 Rin = i = re , A
kimene-
ellenállás:
 Rout = = RC ,
ii io v sig=0

v o −α ie (RC RL ) α
Volage
gain
(proper): 
Av = 
 =
 
 
 

= 
 C R
 L ) =
 gm (R
(R 
 C RL
 ), 


vi −ie re re
€ €
v
Open
loop
gain:
 Avo = o = gm RC ,














RL=∞
 vi R L =∞ DE
TTK
 60

€
5.7.6
The
Common‐Collector
(CC)
amplifier
or
EmiYer
Follower


The
circuit:


The
T
model:
 ro
is
paralel
with
RL


DE
TTK
 61

CC
amplifier


The
simplified
T
model:


Calcula-on
of
the
parameters
are

complex!


For
the
calcula-on:


At
the
input
ib,
at
the
output
ie
flows.


By
the
Thevenin


theorem:


DE
TTK
 62

 Tha
analysis
of
the
CC
amplifier


vo RB (ro RL )
Full
amplifier
gain:
 Gv = = ,
v sig Rsig + RB Rsig + RB
+ re + (ro RL )
β +1
RL
if RB ››Rsig and ro ››RL , Gv ≅ ,
Rsig
+ re + RL
€ β +1

€ RB ro
if RL = ∞, Gvo = ,
Rsig + RB Rsig RB
€ + re + ro
β +1
If
in
the
denominator:
components
next
to
the
RL
and
re
are
small:

€
The
voltage
gain
≅ 1.
(typical
value
of
the
FC
amplifier)

€
The
output
resistance:


v  Rsig RB   Rsig RB 
Rout = o = ro  re + , because
ro
high:
 Rout =  re + ,
io  β + 1  β + 1 
   
DE
TTK
 63

5.7.7
Summary
and
Comparison


1.  The
CE
has
high
voltage
gain.
They
give
the
bulk
of
an
amplifier
chain.

2.  Using
emiYer
resistance:
beYer
parameters,


with
gain
reduc-on.

3.  The
CB
amplifier
has
low
input
resistance.


Good
high
frequency
response.

4.  Applica-on
for
Voltage
follower:
isola-ng
the
signal
source
from
the
load.


DE
TTK
 64

5.8
The
BJT
internal
capacitances
and
high‐frequency
model

High
frequency
π
model:

Cμ:
CB
deple-on
region
capacitance


Cπ
=
Cde
+
Cje,


Cde:
Diffusion
capacitance
of
the
base

Cje:
Capacitance
of
the
BE
region


The
values
of
the
Cμ
and
Cπ
are
not
know
but
they
can
be
calc.
from
the
freq.
response
of
hFE
(β)


Without
analysis: 
 
 
 
 
 
The
cutoff
frequency:


β0 1
h fe = β = , ωβ = ,
1+ s(Cπ + Cπ )rπ (Cπ + Cπ )rπ

€ €
Unity
Gain
bandwidth:



ωT = β 0ω β ,

DE
TTK
 fT:

100MHz...10GHz
 65


€
5.9
Frequency
response
of
the
CE
amplifier


capaci-ve
coupled
amplifier


The
freq.
response:


3
band


Bandwith:
(BW)

from
the
midband
‐3dB


BW
=
fH
–
fL

In
prac-ce:

BW
≅
fH
,
(fH
››
fL)


DE
TTK
 66

CE
frequency
response


At
midband:
The
capacitors
can
be
neglected,
frequency
independent
response.


At
high
frequency:
The
coupling
capacitors
are
shorts.


High
frequency
model:


AŒer
simplifica-on:


DE
TTK
 67

 High
frequency
response
of
the
CE
amplifier


Subs-tu-ng
Cμ
:


During
the
process
Cμ

will
be


transformed
to
the
input.


Cμ
at
the
input
will
be
higher
by

the
factor
(1+gmRL).

(gm
:
gain
at
midband)


This
is
the
Miller
effect.


Transformed
capacitor
(C):
Miller
capacitance


The
HF
response
with
the
Miller
capacitance:

Vo AM
= ,
Vsig 1+ s
ω0
ω 1
fH = 0 = ,
,
2π 2πCin Rsig
€
The
fH
is
small
because
of
the
Miller
capacitance.

€(100KHz..MHz)

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 Example
5.18


Determine
the
Gain
at
midband
and
fH
!


data:
VCC=VEE=10V,
I=1mA,
RB=100kΩ,

RC=8kΩ,
Rsig=5kΩ,
RL=5kΩ,
β0=100,
VA=100V,

Cμ=1pF,
fT=800MHz,
rx=50Ω.


Solu-on:

Parameters
of
π
model:

IC 1mA β0 100 VA 100V
gm = = 40mA /V, rπ = = = 2.5kΩ, ro = = = 100kΩ,
VT 25mV gm 40mA /V IC 1mA

gm Cµ = 1pF,
Cπ + Cµ = = 8 pF,
ωT
€ € Cµ = 7 pF, €

Gain
at
midband:
 €
RB rπ
€ AM = − gm RL, , RL, = ro RC RL = 3kΩ, AM = −39,
€ RB + Rsig rπ + rx + ( RB Rsig )

fH:
 Cin = Cπ + Cin (1+ gm RL, ) = 128 pF, 1

€ fH = , €
= 754Hz,
€ 2π Cin Rsig
[ ]
Rsig = rπ rx + ( RB Rsig ) = 1.65kΩ,
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 69

€
€
5.9.3
The
low‐frequency
response


The
circuit
aŒer
elimina-ng
DC
sources
:

(Igen
:
open


VCC
:
short

)


Analysis
by
separa-ng
C‐s:


1:
Effect
of
CC1



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 70

The
low‐frequency
response


2:
Effect
of
CCE



3:
Effect
of
CC2



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 71

The
low‐frequency
response


Summa-on:


Vo  s  s  s 
The
transmission:
 = −AM    ,
Vsig  s + ω P1  s + ω P 2  s + ω P3 

Generaly
CE
gives
the
highest
fP

€ 1  1 1 1 
For
calcula-ng
the
‐3dB

fL
value
(approx.):
 fL ≅  + + ,
2π CC1RC1 CE RE CC 2 RC 2 

(RC1
and
RC2:
seen
by
CC1
and
CC2
)


€
Ekvivalent
: 

 f L = f P1 + f P 2 + f P 3 ,

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€ 72

Example
5.19

Given:
CE
amplifier
(example
5.18
).


RB=100kΩ,
RC=8kΩ,
RL=5kΩ,
Rsig=5kΩ,
β0=100,
gm=40mA/V,
rπ=2.5kΩ

determine:
the
values
of
CC1,
CC2,
CE
,
to
reach:
fL=100Hz.


Solu-on:

1:
R‐s
seen
by
C‐s:
 RC1 = ( RB rπ ) + Rsig = 7.44kΩ,
R R
RE = re + B sig = 72Ω,
β +1
€ RC 2 = RC + RL = 13kΩ,
2:
Suppose
:
CE
is
the
dominant
and
contributes
80%
of
the
value
fL:

€ 1
= 0.8 • 2π •100, → CE = 27.6µF,
€ CE • RE
3:
CC1
contributes
10%
of
fL:

1
= 0.1• 2π •100, → CC1 = 2.1µF,
€ CC1 • RC1
3:
CC2
contributes
10%
of
fL:

1
= 0.1• 2π •100, → CC 2 = 1.2µF,
€ CC 2 • RC 2

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 




(
choose
C
from
standardised
values:
fL‹100Hz
)

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5.11
SPICE
BJT
models
and
simula-on 
 (Wikipedia
transistor models)
Types
of
models:


Models
for
device
design:


They
can
simulate
the
physical
and
chemical
processes
during
the
manufacturing

Models
for
circuit
design:

Large
signal,
nonlinear
models:

• Physical





(Based
on
the
physical
working)

• Empirical


(Based
on
measured
data)

• Table









(Data
on
tables
and
extrapola-ng)

Small
signal
models:
(for
circuit
with
linear
behavier)

• Ebers–Moll
model

• Gummel–Poon
model

• BSIM3
(see
BSIM)

• BSIM4

• BSIMSOI

• EKV
MOSFET
Model
(its
web
site
at
EPFL)

• PSP

• HICUM

• MEXTRAM.

• Hybrid‐pi
model

• H‐parameter
model


74

 BJT
SPICE
Ebers‐Moll
model


IS v BE
iBE =
βF
(e n F VT
−1),

IS v BC
iBC =
βR
(e n R VT
−1),
€
iCE = IS (e v BE n F VT
− e v BC n R VT
),
€
iB = iBE + iBC ,
€ iC = iCE − iBC ,
iE = iCE + iBE ,
€
Handling
of
Special
effects:
 €
eg:
Early‐effect

€
 v BC 
iCE = IS (e v BE n F VT
− e v BC n R VT
)1− V ,
A

VA : Early voltage (15 V to 150 V

75


€
Ebers‐Moll
model
with
capacitances


BeYer
model:



Gummel‐Poon
model


76

Parameters
of
Model


Typical
values:


77

Simula-ng
by
Tina
‐
demo 


78