Consolidation settlement in soils -1

ENB371: Geotechnical Engineering 2

Chaminda Gallage
Chapter 1.13 Chapter 7

BRAJA M. DAS
 Contents…

Review – Week 3: Elastic settlement in soils

Consolidation settlement: Introduction

Laboratory One-dimensional consolidation test

(Oedometer test)
• The apparatus and test procedure
• Interpretation of experimental results

Calculation of total primary consolidation

settlement of foundations
Review –Week 3

Calculation of elastic settlement in soils

Elastic settlement in sandy (granular) soils

• Equation- based on theory of elasticity
• Improved equation – based on theory of elasticity
• Use of strain influence factor

Elastic settlement in clay soils

• Saturated clay (Janbu et al. 1956)
Introduction (1)

Total settlement in soil due to loading

• Deformation of soil and
rock grains
Elastic Deformation
• Compression of air and (Immediate
water in voids settlement) (Se)
• Drainage of water and
air from voids allowing + Primary
compression of soil
skeleton
Consolidation (Sp)
• Creep movements –
plastic adjustment of soil
+ Secondary
fabric under a constant
effective stress
Compression (Ss)
Se+Sp+Ss= Total Settlement
Introduction (2)
Timing
1 week to several years log time
settlement

elastic - immediate - fully recoverable

secondary compression
creep of particles
inelastic
primary consolidation time--dependent
time
•due to removal of water unrecoverable
•Inelastic
•time
time--dependent
•partial recovery only 0.5yr 5yr 50yr
Introduction (3)

Excess Pore Water Pressure

excess pore
pressure hydraulic
+ ++++ gradient
hydrostatic
+ ++ + conditions

A critical question is how long does it take for the pore

pressures to stabilize?
Introduction (4)

Time for pore pressure stabilization

Volume of water • Applied pressure

to be expelled • Soil Compressibility

• Soil Permeability
Rate at which • Length of drainage path
water is expelled
• Soil compressibility
Introduction (5)

Primary consolidation settlement

Primary consolidation settlement of soil is the gradual
reduction in volume of voids upon loading. In saturated
soils (Clays), the reduction of void volume occurs due to
dissipation of excess pore-water pressure.
Primary consolidation settlement is:
• Inelastic
• Partial recoverable
• Time -dependent

hv1
h1 hv2 h v = Height of voids
h2
h s = Height of soil
hs hs
Introduction (6)
Consolidation of sand
• Permeability of sand is high
• Drainage occurs almost instantaneously - The
settlement is IMMEDIATE
• Elastic and consolidation processes cannot be
isolated
• Primary Consolidation is incorporated in the
elastic parameters
• Coarse-grained soils DO NOT undergo
consolidation settlement due to relatively high
hydraulic conductivity compared to clayey soils.
Instead, coarse-grained soils undergo
IMMEDIATE settlement.
Introduction (7)

Consolidation of clay
• Permeability of clay is low
• Drainage occurs slowly – therefore, the settlement and
strength gained are DELAYED
• Settlement can be separated (elastic, primary and
secondary consolidation)

• Clayey soils undergo consolidation settlement not only

under the action of “external” loads (surcharge loads) but
also under its own weight or weight of soils that exist
above the clay (geostatic loads)
• Clayey soils also undergo settlement when dewatered (e.g.,
ground water pumping) – because the effective stress on
the clay increases
Introduction (8)
Soil-water analogy :
Equilibrium
Overburden pressure, σv
Valve (closed
closed))

Hydrostatic
pressure, uo Pore water

Spring
(soil skeleton)
skeleton)
Introduction (8)
Soil-water analogy :
Application of surcharge, ∆σ, at t=0

σ'v + ∆σ
se Valve (closed)

Hydrostatic σ'v ∆σ
pressure, uo + ∆u

∆u
Small water
compression

Small spring
compression
Introduction (9)
Soil-water analogy :
Application of surcharge, ∆σ, at t>0
Water expulsion Valve (open
open))
sc
σv + ∆σ
Hydrostatic σ'v ∆σ
pressure, uo

t12 t∞ ∆u

Large spring
compression
Introduction (10)
σv + ∆σ Soil-water analogy
σ'v ∆σ
sand

2
t ∆u
3 t21 ∞

5
sand
 1- D Consolidation Test
• The main purpose of consolidation test is to obtain soil properties
which are used in predicting the rate and amount of consolidation
settlement of structures founded on clay.

• The most important soil properties determined by a consolidation test

are:
– The pre-consolidation stress, σc’, This is the maximum stress that
the soil has been subjected in the past.
– The compression index, Cc , which indicates the compressibility of
a normally-consolidated soil.
– The recompression index, Cr (swelling index – Cs), which indicates
the compressibility of an over-consolidated soil.
– Coefficient of volume compressibility, mv ,volume change per unit
volume per unit increase in effective stress
– The coefficient of consolidation, cv , which indicates the rate of
compression under a load increment.
Oedometer (Consolidometer)
Oedometer (Consolidometer)
Laboratory Consolidation
Test
σ v’ 1 Place sample in ring
2 Apply load
3 Measure height change
Confining
4 Repeat for new load
stress

σ v’ ∆V
Vv Voids
Vv Voids
Vs Solids Vs Solids

Before After
 Test procedure
• Measure the inner diameter and height of the consolidation
ring (76 mm in diameter, 20 mm in height) and record its
mass
• Prepare a soil specimen for the test by placing the soil in
the ring and trimming
• Measure the mass of ring + soil
• Collect some excess soil for measuring moisture content
• Measure or assume Gs (specific gravity of soil)
• Place the lower porous stone on the base of the
consolidometer
• Place the sample (in the ring) on the lower porous stone
and and place the upper porous stone
• Apply seating stress on the sample and submerge the
sample in the water for saturation
• Apply a stress (e.g. 12.5 kPa) and record the change in
sample height
• Repeat for new stress value (e.g. 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800
and 1600 KPa
Civil Engineering - Texas Tech University
 height vs time plots
Height (mm)
Stress increment from σ1 to σ2 kPa

hv1
h1 : e1 h1
20
hs

19

18 hv2
h2
hs
h2 : e2
17
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750
time (mins)
Time – deformation plot during consolidation
for a given load increment

Mostly caused by preloading

Excess pore water pressure

is gradually transferred into
effective stress by the
expulsion of pore water

Occur after complete

dissipation of the excess
pore water pressure, this is
caused by the plastic
adjustment of soil fabric
 Successive load increments
ho
(h1 , σ 1 )

(h2 , σ 2 )
height

(h3 , σ 3 )

(h4 , σ 4 )

typically repeat for 12.5, 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800 and 1600 KPa

log time
 Void Ratio – Pressure Plots -1
After obtaining time-deformations plots for various loadings in the laboratory, it is
necessary to study the change in void ratio of the specimen with pressure

The height of solid soil, Hs

Ws
AH s = Where,
Gs γ w Ws = dry weight of the specimen
A = area of the specimen
Ws
Hs = Gs = specific gravity of solid soil
AGsγ w γ w = unit weight of water
 Void Ratio – Pressure Plots -2
The initial height of voids, Hv
H v = H − H s ......... (1)
The initial void ratio, e0
Vv H v A H v
e0 = = = ............... (2)
Vs H s A H s

The first incremental stress to, σ1 ,causes

deformation, ∆H1, the change in void ratio ∆e1

∆H1 ∆H1
∆e1 = ..............( 3) e1 = e0 − ∆e1 = e0 − ......... (4)
Hs Hs

∆H1 is obtained from initial and final dial

gauge readings for the loading. At this time ∆H 2
effective stress on the specimen is: e2 = e1 − ......... (5)
σ’=σ1=σ’1 Hs
Typical plot of e vs log σ’
 Plot of e vs. log σ’
loading – unloading - reloading

a
 
 b
Void Ratio, e


d 
 
c

f

g
1 10 100  1000
Effective stress, σ'(kPa) - log scale
 Normally Consolidated and Overconsolidated
q0
clays -1
GL • σ0’ is present effective
h overburden pressure at the
γ – unit weight
sample depth
• σc’ is preconsolidation
pressure – the maximum
effective overburden pressure
field
to which the soil at the sample
σ0’=q0+hγ depth has been subjected in
the past
If σ0’= σc’ : Normally consolidated soil (clay)
If σ0’< σc’ : Overconsolidated soil (clay)
Overconsolidation ratio (OCR), OCR = σ c '
σ0'
 Oversolidation mechanisms

1. Erosion of materials
2. Excavations
3. Removal of structures
4. Groundwater lowering
 q0Normally Consolidated and Overconsolidated clays - 2
GL a

Void Ratio, e
b
γ – unit weight h
d
c
f
g
field σ0’=
’=qq0 +hγ Effective stress, σ'(kPa) - log scale
• During soil sampling, the existing effective overburden pressure is released,
resulting some expansion.
• During consolidation test, a small amount of compression will occur when the
total pressure applied is less than the maximum overburden effective stress in
the field to which the soil has been subjected in the past ( a to b)
• When the total applied pressure on the specimen is greater than the maximum
effective past pressure, the change in void ratio is much larger, an the e – log
σ’ relationship is particularly linear with a steeper slopes (b
(b to c) or ((ff to g)
• This relationship can be verified in the laboratory by loading the specimen to
exceed the maximum effective overburden pressure, and then unloading and
reloading again. ( c – d – f – g)
Preconsolidation Pressure, σc’
Casagrande construction (1936)

Horizontal line

Bisector
A
(Rmin)
Tangent to A

Extension of virgin
consolidation line

1 10 σ c’ 100 1000
Civil Engineering
Effective- Texas σ’
Tech University
stress,
Compression Indices
Cc – Compression index

Cr Cr – Recompression
Or swelling index

Cc

Cr

1 10 100 1000
Civil Engineering
Effective- Texas σ’
Tech University
stress,
 Compression indices

Compression index, Cc
Virgin consolidation e1 − e2 ∆e
line Cc = =
log σ 2 '− log σ 1 ' σ2'
log 
Void Ratio, e

 σ1' 
e1

e2

σ1 σ 2’
’
Effective stress, σ'(kPa) - log scale
 Compression indices
Recompression (swell) Index , Cr
e1 − e2 ∆e
Cr = =
Recompression (swelling) log σ 2 '− log σ 1 ' σ2'
Void Ratio, e

log 
 σ1' 
curve
e1
e2

σ 1’ σ 2’
Effective stress, σ'(kPa) - log scale
 Coefficient of volume compressibility (mv)
The volume change per unit volume per unit increase in effective stress.
The units of mv are the inverse of pressure (m2/kN)

e The volume change can be expressed in terms

of either void ratio or specimen thickness

e0

1  e0 − e1  1  H 0 − H1 
e1 mv =   or mv =  
1 + e0  σ 1 '−σ 2 '  H 0  σ 1 '−σ 2 ' 
σ1'
σ'
σ0'

mv depends on the stress range, even for ranges on the linear part of the
e – log σ’

Cc will be the same for any stress range on the linear part of the e – log σ’
 Example 1:
Following are the results of a laboratory consolidation test on a soil
specimen obtained from the field. Dry mass of the specimen (ms) = 128 g,
height of the specimen at the beginning of the test (H) = 2.54 cm, Gs=2.75,
and area of the specimen (A) = 30.68 cm2
Pressure, σ’ [kPa] Final height of the specimen at
the end of consolidation [cm]
0 2.540
50 2.488
100 2.465
200 2.431
400 2.389
800 2.324
1600 2.225
3200 2.115

Make necessary calculations and draw an e vs. log σ’ curve and obtain
preconsolidation pressure, σc’
 Example 1:Solution
Calculation of Hs (soil height)
ms 128 g
Hs = = = 1.52 cm
AGs ρ w (30.68 cm )(2.75)(1 g / cm )
2 3
Void ratio, e
Calculation of Hv (height of voids)
Hv
Hv = H − Hs e=
Hs
Pressure, σ’ [kPa] Final height at the end of Hv [cm] Void ratio at the end of
consolidation, H consolidation, e
[cm]

0 2.540 1.02 0.671

50 2.488 0.968 0.637
100 2.465 0.945 0.622
200 2.431 0.911 0.599
400 2.389 0.869 0.572
800 2.324 0.804 0.529
1600 2.225 0.705 0.464
3200 2.115 0.595 0.391
 Example 1:Solution

0.70

0.65

0.60
Void ratio, e

0.55
A

0.50

0.45

0.40

0.35
1 10 100 1000

Effective pressure, σ' [kPa] - log scale

Preconsolidation pressure, σc’ = 600 kPa

 Example 2:

The laboratory consolidation data for an undisturbed clay sample are as

follows:
e1 = 1.1, σ1’ = 95 kPa
e2 = 0.9, σ2’ = 475 kPa

Calculate the coefficient of volume compressibility, mv.

What will be the void ratio for a pressure of 600 kPa ? (Note: σc’< 95 kPa)
Example 2: Solution

1  e0 − e1  1  1.1 − 0.9 
mv =   =   = 0 .000251 m 2
/ kN
1 + e0  σ 1 '−σ 0 '  2.1  475 − 95 

e1 − e2 e1 − e2
Cc = =
(log σ 2 '− log σ 1 ' ) log(σ 2 ' / σ 1 ' )
1 .1 − 0 .9
Cc = = 0.286
log(475 / 95)

e1 − e3
Cc =
log(σ 3 ' / σ 1 ' )
e1 − e3 = Cc (log(σ 3 ' / σ 1 ' )
e3 = 1.1 − 0.286 * log(600 / 95) = 0.87
Total primary consolidation Settlement, (Sp) from
one-dimensional primary consolidation -1
Consider a saturated clay layer of:
Thickness = H
Cross-section area = A
Average effective overburden pressure = σ0’
Increase of pressure = ∆σ
Total primary consolidation settlement = Sp
At the end of consolidation, ∆σ’ = ∆σ
 Total primary consolidation Settlement, (Sp) from
one-dimensional primary consolidation -2
Vv V0 − Vs
e0 = =
Vs Vs
Vs e0 = V0 − Vs
V0 AH
Vs = = ............................(4)
1 + e0 1 + e0

∆V = V0 − V1 = HA − ( H − S p ) A = S p A .........................(1)
AH
∆V = S p A = ∆eVs = ∆e
∆V = S p A = Vv 0 − Vv1 = ∆Vv .........................(2) 1 + e0

Vv
∆e
e=
Vs

∆e =
∆Vv
Vs
⇒ ∆Vv = ∆eVs ...........................(3) Sp = H
1+ e0
 How do we compute total primary
consolidation settlement, Sp ?
∆e
Sp = H
1+ e0
There are basically two methods.

1. Using e-log σ’ plot

Cc and Cr

2. Using mv – coefficient of volume

compressibility
 Method 1- Using e-log σ’ plot
For normally consolidated clays
By definition,
∆e  σ '+ ∆σ ' 
Cc = ⇒ ∆e = Cc log 0 
σ '  σ ' 
log 2 
 σ 0 '+ ∆σ ' 
0

 σ1'  Cc H
S p= log 
Sp =
∆e
H
1 + e0  σ0' 
1+ e0
For a thicker clay layer, more accurate calculation of consolidation
settlement can be made if the layer is divided into number of sub-layers
and calculations are made for each sub-layer
Cc H ( i )  σ 0(i ) '+ ∆σ (i ) ' 
S p= ∑ log 
1 + e0  σ ' 
 0 ( i ) 
Where
H (i ) = thickness of sublayer i
σ 0(i ) ' = initial average effective overburden pressure for sublayer i
∆σ ( i ) ' = increase of vertical pressure for sublayer i
 Method 1- Using e-log σ’ plot
∆e
For overconsolidated clays Sp = H
1+ e0
Cr 1.2
1.1
1 if σ 0 '+ ∆σ ' ≤ σ c '
0.9
Cr H  σ 0 '+ ∆σ ' 
e 0.8 S p= log 
0.7 Clay 1 + e0  σ0' 
0.6
Cc
0.5
σ′0 σ ′c σ′f
0.4 100 σ ’v
10 1000
∆σ’ if σ 0 '+ ∆σ ' > σ c '
Cr H  σ c '  Cc H  σ 0 '+ ∆σ ' 
S p= log  + log 
1 + e0  σ 0 '  1 + ec  σc' 
 Example -1
The vertical soil profile shown below is loaded with a uniform surcharged
pressure of 60 kPa on the ground surface. If the water table is at the
ground surface, calculate the total consolidation settlement at the ground
surface.

Sand Clay Properties from laboratory

γ sat = 20 kN / m 2
consolidation on clay sample taken
1 γ sat = 20 kN / m 2
Clay layer -1
from these clay layers

σ’c=80 kPa,

Sand Cc/(1+eo)=0.1 Cr /(1+ec)=0.01

γ sat = 20 kN / m 2

Clay layer -2 γ sat = 20 kN / m 2

γ sat = 20 kN / m 2
Sand

Rock
 Example -1
Clay layer -1 (consider mid depth)
σ’0=20x3-9.8x3=30.6 kPa, σ c’ > σ 0 ’ Overconsolidated clay

∆σ’
σ’0+∆σ
∆σ =30.6+60=90.6 kPa

Cr H  σ c '  Cc H  σ 0 '+ ∆σ ' 

σ 0 '+ ∆σ ' > σ c ' S p= log  + log 
1 + e0  σ 0 '  1 + ec  σc' 

 80   90.6 
S p1 = 0.01× 1.0 × log  + 0.1× 1.0 × log  = 0.004 + 0.0054 = 0.0094 m = 9.4 mm
 30.6   80 
 Example -1

Clay layer -2 (consider mid depth)

σ’0=20x10-9.8x10=102 kPa, σ c’ < σ 0 ’ Normally consolidated
clay
∆σ’
σ’0+∆σ
∆σ =102+60=162 kPa

Cc H  σ 0 '+ ∆σ ' 
S p= log 
1 + e0  σ0' 
 162 
S p2 = 0.1×1.0 × log  = 0.02 m = 20 mm
 102 

Total consolidation settlement at the ground surface = Sp1+Sp2

= 29.4 mm
 Method 2- Using mv
By definition,
1  H 0 − H1  1  e0 − e1 
dV / V mv =   OR mv =  
mv = H 0  σ 1 '−σ 0 '  1 + e0  σ 1 '−σ 0 ' 
dσ ′

∆e ∆e
Sp =
1+ e0
H mv (∆σ ') =
1 + e0
S p = mv ∆σ ' H
The value of mv for a particular soil is σ ′f
not constant but depends on the stress
range over which it is calculated
S p = ∑ mv H∆σ ′
σ o′
 Empirical methods to obtain
Compression Index (Cc) and Recompression (swell) Index (Cr)
In the absence of laboratory consolidation data, the following empirical
expressions suggested by researchers can be used to determine Cc and Cr

Skempton (1944)
Cc = 0.009( LL − 10) For undisturbed calys Park and Koumoto(2004)
Cc = 0.007( LL − 10) For remolded clays n0
Cc =
LL = liquid limit (%) 371.747 − 4.275n0
n0 = in situ porosity of clay
Wroth and Wood (1978)
Cc ≈ 0.5Gs
[PI [%]]
100
Kulhawy and Mayne(1990)
PI = plasticity index

Rendon-Herrero(1983) PI [%]
Cc ≈
2.38 370
1.2  1 + e0 
Cc = 0.141Gs   PI = plasticity index
 Gs 
Gs = specific gravity of clay
e0 = in situ void ration
Features of 1-D consolidation

Fill

2D or 3D 1D consolidation
consolidation
 Skempton-Bjerrum modification for
consolidation settlement-1
Prediction of consolidation using the one-dimensional method are based
on the results of oedoemeter test using a representative sample of clay

∆e
Sp = H Using:
1+ e0 e – log σ’ OR mv – volume compressibility
In oedometer test:
Zero lateral strain in the test specimen (due to confining ring)
Therefore, just after loading:
the pore water pressure coefficient,
Loading cap A, is unity
the initial excess pore - water pressure, ui
Soil sample
Confining ring A=
the increase in total vertical stress, ∆σ v

In practice the condition of zero lateral strain is approximately satisfied:

* Thin clay layers
* clay layers under loaded areas which are large compared with clay layer
thickness
 Skempton-Bjerrum modification for
consolidation settlement - 2
In many practical situations:
* Significant lateral strain will occur
* Pore water pressure coefficient, A , is not equal to unity

 ∆σ 3 
ui = ∆σ 1  A + (1 − A)
 ∆σ 1 
where ui = initial pore water pressure,
∆σ 1 , and ∆σ 2 are the total principal stress increments

Pore pressure coefficient, A, depends on:

- Type of clay
- Stress level
- Stress system
The effect of lateral strain could not be neglected and the vertical
consolidation settlement calculated using oedometer test results should
be corrected for lateral strain
 Skempton-Bjerrum modification for
consolidation settlement - 3
A settlement coefficient µ is introduced such that

S p ( corrected ) = µS p ( oedo )
µ = A + (1 − A)α
The value of α depends on:
- the shape of loaded area
- thickness of clay layer

For strip foundation, plane strain conditions apply and a pore pressure
coefficient corrected as shown below should be used

As = 0.866 A + 0.221
 Skempton-Bjerrum modification for
consolidation settlement - 4
µ for circular and strip footings, in terms of A and the ratio of layer
thickness/width of footing (H/B) are given in the chart
For square and rectangular footings,
B = Be (equivalent diameter)

4 BL
Be =
π

Typical values for µ

Soft clays 1.0 – 1.2
Normally consolidated 0.7 – 1.0
clays
Lightly over consolidated 0.5 – 0.7
clays
Heavily overconsolidated 0.2 – 0.5
clays
Consolidation vs. Compaction
End