Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Classification of solids
1.Intrinsic semiconductors:
N-Type semiconductor:
The n-type is created by introducing those impurity elements that have five valence
electrons (pentavalent), such as antimony, arsenic, and phosphorus etc.,
Each antimony atom forms covalent bonds with surrounding four silicon atoms
with the help four of its five electrons. The fifth electron is superfluous and is
loosely bound to the antimony atom. Hence it is easily excited from the valance
band to the conduction band by the application of electric field or increase in its
thermal energy. Thus practically every antimony atom introduced in to the silicon
lattice contributes one conduction electron without creating a positive hole. This
type of semiconductor is called n-type semiconductor. Antimony is called donor
impurity because they donate free electrons to the semiconductor crystal. After
donation of the one electron, the antimony becomes positive donor ion.
In addition to the free electrons, some electron hole pairs are generated with
the application of electric field. In n-type semiconductor the number of electrons
are more than holes. The electrons constitutes majority carriers while hole
constitutes minority carriers.
P-Type semiconductor:
When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to pure semiconductor, it is known as a
P-Type semiconductor. Examples of trivalent impurities are 3rd group elements i.e., Boron,
Gallium etc. In case of the three valance electrons of boron atom form
covalent bonds with four surrounding silicon atoms but on bond is left incomplete and gives
rise a hole.
The p-type material is formed by doping a pure
germanium or silicon crystal with impurity atoms
having three valence electrons. The elements
most frequently used for this purpose are boron,
gallium, and indium. The effect of one of these
elements, boron, on a base of silicon is indicated
in Figure.
Note that there is now an insufficient number
of electrons to complete the covalent bonds of
the newly formed lattice. The resulting vacancy
is called a hole and is represented by a small
circle or positive sign due to the absence of a
negative charge. Since the resulting vacancy will
readily accept a “free” electron:
Majority and Minority Carriers
In an n-type material, the electron is called the majority carrier and the hole
the minority carrier.
In a p-type material the hole is the majority carrier and the electron is the
minority carrier.
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
Under no-bias (no applied voltage) conditions, any minority carriers (holes) in the
n-type material that find themselves within the depletion region will pass directly
into the p-type material
In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the net flow of charge in any one
direction for a semiconductor diode is zero.
If an external potential of V volts is applied
across the p-n junction such that the positive
terminal is connected to the n-type material
and the negative terminal is connected to the
p-type material as shown in Fig. the number of
uncovered positive ions in the depletion region
of the n-type material will increase due to the
large number of “free” electrons drawn to the
positive potential of the applied voltage.
For similar reasons, the number of uncovered negative ions will increase in the p-
type material. The net effect, therefore, is a widening of the depletion region. This
widening of the depletion region will establish too great a barrier for the majority
carriers to overcome, effectively reducing the majority carrier flow to zero as shown
in Fig
A diode is said to be an Ideal Diode when it is forward biased and acts like a perfect
conductor, with zero voltage across it. Similarly, when the diode is reversed biased,
it acts as a perfect insulator with zero current through it.
Ideal diodes act as perfect conductor and perfect Practical diodes cannot act as perfect conductor and
insulator. perfect insulator.
Ideal diode offers infinite resistance when reverse Practical diode offers very high resistance when reverse
biased. biased.
Ideal diode has zero voltage drops across its junction It has very low voltage drop across it, when forward
when forward biased. biased.
Diode Applications
Drift Current and Diffusion Current:
Drift Current: Under the action of electric field the charge carriers ( electrons and holes)
in the semiconductor material stops moving randomly and start drifting towards or away
the applied electric field depends upon their nature. This drift of charge carriers produces
drift current. For drift current external electric field is essential.
Diffusion Current: In semiconductor there may arise a situation where the concentration of
charge carriers within the crystal becomes different and hence producing concentration gradient,
due to which charge carriers cross the surface to maintain equilibrium and constitute a current
which is known as diffusion current. or diffusion current external field is not required any
external energy may stimulate this process. It depends upon rate of charge of carrier
concentration per unit length.
Single Phase Half-wave rectifier:
It converts alternating voltage into unidirectional pulsating voltage, using one half
cycles of the applied voltage, the other half cycles being suppressed because it
conducts only in one direction. This is called half-wave rectifier.
DC output current The average or dc value of output current is given as
RMS Value of output Voltage
Ripple Factor
Ripple Factor is defined as the ratio of rms value of ac component to the dc component
in the output.
Form Factor
Efficiency=P dc / P ac
=0.406
=40.6%
FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER
In half-wave rectifier only one half cycle of the input are utilized but in
full-wave rectifiers both half cycles of the input are utilized.
There are two types of full-wave rectifier circuits namely
1.centre-tap rectifier and
2.bridge rectifier.
FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER
In half-wave rectifier only one half cycle of the input are utilized but in
full-wave rectifiers both half cycles of the input are utilized.
There are two types of full-wave rectifier circuits namely
1.centre-tap rectifier and
2.bridge rectifier.
Efficiency=P dc / P ac
=0.812
=81.2%
Half Wave Rectifier With filter
Full wave rectifier with filter