MODULE 5

SATELLITE
COMMUNICATION

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 Satellite Communication
• Satellite technology is used for communication.
• Voice and video calling , internet, fax, television and
radio channels are the services.
• Long distances spanning and inoperable for other
forms of communication is possible.
• Comprises of transponder, antenna,comm payload,
switching systems, command and control system.
satellite
UP link Down link

Tx earth station Rx earth station

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 Principle Of Operation
• Transmission of signal from earth station to satellite
through channel : Up link.
• Repeater : a cicuit to increases the strength of
Received signal and then transmits it. It works as a
transponder.
• Transmission from satellite to earth station : Down
link.
• Uplink frequency : frequency at which the earth
station is communicating with satellite.
• To avoid interference between uplink & downlink,
downlink frequency spectrum should be kept
different from the uplink frequency spectrum. 3
• Transponder receives the signal from 1st earth
station and converts it to another frequency and
sends it down to the 2nd earth station.
• Downlink frequency : frequency at which the
satellite communicates with earth station.
• The satellite receives and retransmit the signals
back to the earth where they are Received by
other earth stations in the coverage area of the
satellite.

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 Features
• Satellites used in communication are in geostationary
orbit. Some of them are placed in highly elliptical
orbits.
• Provides global availability. Large distances can be
covered easily.
• Superior reliability.
• Superior performance ( uniformity, speed).
• High scalability.
• Deployment cost is high.
• Less vulnerable ( used in defense dept.)
• Provide weather information.
• Helpful during disasters as the services rarely fail.
• High amount of data Transmission is possible. 5
 Advantages / Disadvantages
Adv
• Area of coverage is more.
• Each and every corner can
be covered.
• Transmission cost is
independent of coverage
area.
• More bandwidth
• More broadcasting
possibilities.
Disadv
• Launching of satellites into
orbits is a costly process.
• Propagation delay is more.
• Repairing activities are
difficult.
• Free space loss is more.
• There can be congestion of
frequencies.
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 Applications
• Radio broadcasting and voice
communications.
• TV broadcasting (DTH).
• Internet applications ( GPS, internet surfing).
• Military applications and navigations.
• Remote sensing applications.
• Weather forecasting.

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 Multiple Access Techniques

• To accommodate a number of users, many traffic

channels need to be made available.
• In principle, following are the basic ways to have
many channels within an allocated bandwidth:
– Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
– Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
– Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
– Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

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z

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FDMA

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FDMA

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 FDMA
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Using well established • Inter-modulation noise in
technology. the transponder leads to
• No need for network interference with other
timing. links – satellite capacity
• No restriction regarding reduction.
the type of baseband or • Lack of flexibility in
the type of modulation. channel allocation.
• Requires up-link power
control to maintain
quality.
• Weak carrier tend to be
suppressed.
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TDMA

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TDMA

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CDMA

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CDMA

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 SDMA
(SPACE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS)

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 SDMA
(SPACE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS)

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Approach SDMA TDMA FDMA CDMA
Idea segment space into segment sending segment the spread the spectrum
cells/sectors time into disjoint frequency band into using orthogonal codes
time-slots, demand disjoint sub-bands
driven or fixed
patterns
Terminals only one terminal can all terminals are every terminal has its all terminals can be active
be active in one active for short own frequency, at the same place at the
cell/one sector periods of time on uninterrupted same moment,
the same frequency uninterrupted
Signal cell structure, directed synchronization in filtering in the code plus special
separation antennas the time domain frequency domain receivers

Advantages very simple, increases established, fully simple, established, flexible, less frequency
capacity per km² digital, flexible robust planning needed, soft
handover
Dis- inflexible, antennas guard space inflexible, complex receivers, needs
advantages typically fixed needed (multipath frequencies are a more complicated power
propagation), scarce resource control for senders
synchronization
difficult
Comment only in combination standard in fixed typically combined still faces some problems,
with TDMA, FDMA or networks, together with TDMA higher complexity,
CDMA useful with FDMA/SDMA (frequency hopping lowered expectations; will
used in many patterns) and SDMA be integrated with 24
mobile networks (frequency reuse) TDMA/FDMA
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 ADVANTAGES OF OFC

1) Wider bandwidth and greater information capacity

2) Immunity to crosstalk
3) Immunity to static interference
4) Environmental immunity
5) Durability and reliability
6) Safety and convenience
7) Lower transmission loss
8) Security
9) Economics
 DISADVANTAGES OF OFC

1) Interfacing costs
2) Strength
3) Remote electrical power
4) Optical fiber cables are more susceptible to losses
introduced by bending the cable
5) Specialized tools, equipment and training
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• The light beam pulses are then fed into a fiber
– optic cable where they are transmitted over
long distances.
• At the receiving end, a light sensitive device
known as a photocell or light detector is used
to detect the light pulses.
• This photocell or photo detector converts the
light pulses into an electrical signal.
• The electrical pulses are amplified and
reshaped back into digital form.

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Countd.
• Both the light sources at the sending end and the
light detectors on the receiving end must be
capable of operating at the same data rate.
• The circuitry that drives the light source and the
circuitry that amplifies and processes the detected
light must both have suitable high-frequency
response.
• The fiber itself must not distort the high-speed light
pulses used in the data transmission.
• They are fed to a decoder, such as a Digital – to –
Analog converter (D/A), where the original voice or
video is recovered.
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Countd.
• In very long transmission systems, repeater units
must be used along the way.
• Since the light is greatly attenuated when it travels
over long distances, at some point it may be too
weak to be received reliably.
• To overcome this problem, special relay stations are
used to pick up light beam, convert it back into
electrical pulses that are amplified and then
retransmit the pulses on another beam.
• Several stages of repeaters may be needed over
very long distances.
• But despite the attenuation problem, the loss is less
than the loss that occurs with the electric cables.
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 Optical Sources
• Light sources used for optical fiber systems must be
at wavelengths efficiently propagated by the optical
fiber.
• In addition, the range of wavelengths must be
considered because the wider the range, the more
likely the chance that chromatic dispersion will occur
• Lightsources must also produce sufficient power to
allow the light to propagate through the fiber without
causing distortion in the cable itself or in the receiver.
•Light sources must be constructed so that their
outputs can be efficiently coupled into and out of the
optical cable 40
• There are essentially only two types of practical
light sources used to generate light for optical fiber
communications systems: LEDs and ILDs (injection
laser diode).
• Both devices are constructed from semiconductor
materials and have advantages and disadvantages.
• Selection of one light-emitting device over the other
is determined by system economic and performance
requirements. The higher cost of laser diodes is offset
by higher performance.
• LEDs typically have a lower cost and a
corresponding lower performance. However, LEDs are
typically more reliable. 41
• An LED is a p-njunction diode, usually made
from a semiconductor material such as
aluminium gallium- arsenide (AlGaAs) or
gallium-arsenide phosphide (GaAsP).
• LEDs emit light by spontaneous emission - light
is emitted as a result of the recombination of
electrons and holes.
• When forward biased, minority carriers are
injected across the p-n junction. Once across the
junction, these minority carriers recombine with
majority carriers and give up energy in the form
of light 42
 Homojunction LEDs
• A p-n junction made from two different
mixtures of the same types of atoms is called a
homojunction structure. implest LED
structures are homojunction and epitaxially
grown, or they are single-diffused
semiconductor devices.
• Light waves from homojunction sources do
not produce a very useful light for an optical
fiber. Light is emitted in all directions equally;
therefore, only a small amount of the total
light produced is coupled into the fiber. 43
• Homojunction devices are often called
surface emitters.

• The primary disadvantage of homojunction

LEDs is the nondirectionality of their light
emission, which makes them a poor choice
as a light source for optical fiber systems.

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 Heterojunction LEDs

• Heterojunction LEDs are made from a p-type

semiconductor material of one set of atoms and
an n-type semiconductor material from another
set.

• With heterojunction devices, light is emitted

to a much smaller area from the edge of the
material and are therefore often called edge
emitters.
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 Heterojunction LEDs
Heterojunction devices have the following
advantages over homojunction devices:
• The increase in current density generates a
more brilliant light spot.
• The smaller emitting area makes it easier to
couple its emitted light into a fiber.
• The small effective area has a smaller
capacitance, which allows the heterojunction
LED to be used at higher speeds
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These devices are more efficient than the
standard surface emitters, and they allow more
power to be coupled into the optical fiber, but
they are also more difficult and expensive to
manufacture. 47
Edge-Emitting LED

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 ILD
• Lasers are constructed from many different
materials, most often for fiberoptic communications is
the semiconductor laser.
• The ILD is similar to the LED. In fact, below a certain
threshold current, an ILD acts similarly to an LED.
Above the threshold current, an ILD oscillates; lasing
occurs.
• The construction of an ILD is similar to that of an
LED except that the ends are highly polished. The
mirror like ends trap the photons in the active region
and, as they reflect back and forth, stimulate free
electrons to recombine with holes at a higher energy
level. This process is called lasing. 49
• It can be seen that very little output power
is realized until the threshold current is
reached; then lasing occurs. After lasing
begins, the optical output power increases
dramatically, with small increases in drive
current.

• It can also be seen that the magnitude of the

optical output power of the ILD is more
dependent on operating temperature than is
the LED.
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ILD- advantages
• ILDs emit coherent (orderly) light, whereas LEDs
emit incoherent (disorderly) light. Therefore, ILDs
have a more direct radian pattern, making it easier to
couple light emitted by the ILD into an optical fiber
cable. This reduces the coupling losses and allows
smaller fibers to be used.
• The radiant output power from an ILD is greater
than that for an LED. This allows ILDs to provide a
higher drive power and to be used for systems that
operate over longer distances.
• ILDs can be used at higher bit rates than LEDs.
• ILDs generate monochromatic light, which reduces
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chromatic or wavelength dispersion.
ILD- Disadvantages
• ILDs are typically 10 times more expensive
than LEDs.
• Because ILDs operate at higher powers, they
typically have a much shorter lifetime than
LEDs.
• ILDs are more temperature dependent than
LEDs.

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 Light Detectors
PIN Diode:
A PIN diode is a depletion-layer photodiode and is
probably the most common device used as a light
detector in fiberoptic communications systems.
A very lightly doped (almost pure or intrinsic) layer of
n-type semiconductor material is sandwiched
between the junction of the two heavily doped n- and
p-type contact areas.
The intrinsic material is made thick enough so that
most of the photons that enter the device are
absorbed by this layer.
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The PIN photodiode operates just the opposite of an
Photoelectric effect: Light entering through the window of a
PIN diode is absorbed by the intrinsic material and adds
enough energy to cause electronics to move from the valence
band into the conduction band.

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Avalanche Photo Diode
An APD has a pipn structure. Light enters the diode
and is absorbed by the thin, heavily doped n-layer.
A high electric field intensity developed across the i-p-
n junction by reverse bias causes impact ionization to
occur.
During impact ionization, a carrier can gain sufficient
energy to ionize other bound electrons.
These ionized carriers, in turn, cause more ionizations
to occur.
The process continues as in an avalanche and is,
effectively, equivalent to carrier multiplication. 56
APDs are more sensitive than PIN diodes and require
less additional amplification.
The disadvantages of APDs are relatively long transit
times and additional internally generated noise due to
the avalanche multiplication factor

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Characteristics of Light Detector

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 Digital filters
• An optical filter is a device that
selectively transmits light of
different wavelengths
• The optical properties of filters are completely
described by their frequency response, which
specifies how the magnitude and phase of
each frequency component of an incoming
signal is modified by the filter.

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 Types
• Band pass filters - Light of a certain wavelengths can pass
through these filters
• Long pass filters - Long wavelengths of light can pass through
these filters
• Short pass filters - Short wavelengths of light can pass through
these filters
• Neutral density filters - These filters have almost constant
attenuation inside the visible spectrum
• Contrast enhancement filters - Specially developed filters for
display applications that deliver clarity (green displays) and true
color rendition in full color displays
• Multiband filter - Light of several bands of wavelengths can
pass through this filter
• Photo filters - UVW-365, Yellow 490, Grey filter 25 & 50, Orange
565, Red 600 & 625, Yellow-Orange 550 60
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