METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Math 212: Engineering Data Analysis

EE-2A

Data and Its Classifications

Definition (Data)
 Data are any information which is of interest to a person or group.
 Data can be classified as qualitative or quantitative.
 Qualitative data are variables which describes qualities of a subject.
 Quantitative data are numerical information about the subject.
 Data can also be classified as primary and secondary data.
 Primary data are those which are collected a fresh and for the first time and thus happen to be
original in character.
 Secondary data are those which have been collected by someone else, it can be either be
published or unpublished.
 Data can also be classified as nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio.
 Nominal variables are information that has no hierarchy of values.
 Ordinal variables are data that have ranks but have no definite difference.
 Interval variables are data that have meaningful difference between two values. And has no
clear definition of zero.
 Ratio variables are data that have meaningful difference and has a clear definition of zero.
 Nominal and ordinal values are also called categorical values.
 Interval and ratio data are also referred to as scale data.
 Numerical data can also be divided into discrete and continuous values.
 Discrete values have one-to-one correspondence with a subset of the naturals.
 Continuous values do not have the aforementioned correspondence.

Population and Sample

 Population pertains to the set of all elements to be studied. The population for a study usually
composed of two parts: target and accessible population.
 Target population compose of the entire group of people/objects to which the researcher
wishes to generalize the findings of the study.
 Accessible population compose of the aggregate cases that confirm to designated criteria and
also accessible as subjects for study.
 Sample refers to a representative of the population to be worked upon by researchers during
their study.
 When information is taken from all elements of population, the process is called census or total
enumeration.
 When information is taken from a sample, the procedure is referred to as sampling.
 Values derived from all elements of the population are called parameters.
 Values computed from a sample are called statistics.
It is to be noted that:
 Census pertains to humans while total enumeration is the general term for non-human
subjects.
 Parameters are constants while statistics are variables.
Difference between Sample and Population

1. Population- refers to the collection of all elements possessing common characteristics,that

comprises universe.
Sample- means a subgroup of the members of the population chosen for participation in the
study.
2. Population- each and every unit of the group.
Sample- only a handful of units of population.
3. Population- focus on identifying the characteristics.
Sample- focus on making inferences about population.

Sampling Procedures

 Sampling can be done in two ways - with or without replacement.

 Sampling can also be classified as either probabilistic or non-probabilistic.

Definition (Non-Probabilistic Sampling)

 Non-probabilistic sampling usually disregards the notion of chances. Meaning the odds of any
member being selected for a sample cannot be calculated. The selection process relies on the
subjective judgement of the researcher.

Kinds of Non-Probabilistic Sampling

 Quota Sampling: A sampling procedure usually employed when there is an existence of a very
rare category. The researcher takes sampling units until he/she fulfils the quota on the rare
case. The groups in the sample are proportional to the groups in the population.
 Snowball Sampling: A sampling procedure used when subjects are of an inner circle and
information are usually confidential. This method is particularly useful when participants might
be hard to find. Participants may recruit other member for the study.
 Convenience Sampling: This pertains to the procedure of selecting sampling units based on
their availability. This involves collecting a sample from somewhere convenient to you.
 Haphazard Sampling: This method allows researcher to choose items without plan, order, or
direction, trying to stimulate randomness. However, the result may not be random at all and is
often tainted by selection bias.
 Purposive Sampling: This allows the researcher to choose a sample based on their knowledge about
the population and the study itself.
 Expert Sampling: This method allows the researcher to draw sample from a list of experts in
the field.

Definition (Probabilistic Sampling)

 Probabilistic sampling considers chances when taking sample. It involves random selection.

Kinds of Probabilistic Sampling

 Simple Random Sampling: The simplest form of probabilistic sampling, each element of the
population has the same chance of being included in the sample.
 Stratified Random Sampling: Employed when a heterogeneous population is divided into
homogeneous subpopulations. Sampling units may be equally, proportionally, or cost-optimally
allocated.
  Systematic Random Sampling: Uses definite order and definite interval in extracting sampling
units.
 Cluster Sampling: This technique is employed when the population can be divided into
mutually exclusive groups. If some groups are similar, then one of these groups may represent
the other groups.
 Multistage Sampling: It is a procedure employed when sampling involves two or more stages.
It may be comprised of any of the probabilistic sampling methods discussed.

Data Collection Instruments (PRIMARY DATA)

 Survey Questionnaires
This is a set of written questions on a sheet with spaces provided for respondents to
reply to the questions. Questionnaires are frequently self-administered or they may be used
during an interview. A questionnaire is most useful when you want to collect a small amount of
clearly defined facts from a large number of people.
ADVANTAGES
 Low cost even geographical area is large
 Adequate time to think for answers
 Non approachable respondents may be conveniently contacted
 Large samples can be used so results are more reliable.
DISADVANTAGE
 Only people who can read and write can answer them (many street children are not literate)
 Less opportunity exists for street children to explain confusing answers.
 Low rate of questionnaire return
 High risk of missing data

 Observation
It is, perhaps, the technique most closely related to everyday life. It involves watching
and recording the behaviour of individuals or groups, or the events that occur in a particular
place.
ADVANTAGES
 No bias information
 Researcher gets current information
 Independent to respondent’s variable
DISADVANTAGES
 Expensive method (time requires more)
 Limited information
 Unforeseen factor
 Respondents opinion cannot be recorded

 Interviews
Interviewing is one of the commonest methods of collecting information from individuals
which involves presentation or oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. It
is not surprising, then, that interviewing takes several forms: Structured interviews, in which the
wording of the questions and their sequence is the same from one interview to another; the
respondents must choose from a limited number of answers that have been written in
advance. Semi-structured interviews, in which the interviewer asks important questions in the
same way each time but is free to alter the sequence of the questions and to probe for more
information; respondents can answer the questions in any way they choose. Unstructured
interviews, in which interviewers have a list of topics they want respondents to talk about but
 are free to phrase the questions as they wish; the respondents are free to answer in any way
they choose.
ADVANTAGES
 Information at greater depth
 Non response generally low
 Samples are controlled more effectively
 Personal information can be obtained
 Interviewer can collect supplementary information
DISADVANTAGE
 Expensive method
 Some executive people are not approachable so data collected may be inadequate
 Takes more time when samples are more

 Focus Groups
Some important points to remember about the focus group as a means of collecting
information:
a) This method is frequently used to explore a new issue in monitoring and evaluation
studies and to discover what a group of people or project workers might think or feel about a
question or problem.
b) The goal is to provide an opportunity for participants to talk to one another about a
specific topic.
c) The facilitator is there to guide the discussion but should avoid intervening in the
discussion.

Data Collection Instruments (SECONDARY DATA)

 Document Analysis
Document analysis is a very common method of collecting data because it relies on the
compilation and analysis of existing organisational records, documents and information. This
information is often already collected for internal management uses.

Sources of secondary data

 Publications
 Journals
 Books, magazines, newspapers
 Reports and publications of industry, bank, stock exchange
 Reports by research scholars
 Public records

Factors to be considered before using secondary data

 Reliability: who, when, which methods, at what time
 Suitability: object, scope and nature of original inquiry should be studied
 Adequacy: level of accuracy