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Axler Ford 1996 PDF
Axler Ford 1996 PDF
Sheldon Axler
Many people made comments that helped improve this paper. I especially thank Marilyn Brouwer,
William Brown, Jonathan Hall, Paul Halmos, Richard Hill, Ben Lotto, and Wade Ramey.
Proof: To show that T (our linear operator on V) has an eigenvalue, fix any
non-zero vector v E V. The vectors v, Tv,T2v, . . ., Tnv cannot be linearlyinde-
pendent, because V has dimensionn and we have n + 1 vectors.Thus there exist
complexnumbersaO,. . ., an, not all 0, such that
aOv + alEv + *T +anTnv = O.
= c(T-r1I) *n (T-rmI)US
Proposition2.2. Non-zero
eigenvectors
corresponding
to distincteigenvalues
of Tare
linearlyindependent.
Apply the linear operator(T- A2I)(T- A3I) *Uv(T-AmI) to both sides of the
equationabove, getting
a1(Al-A2)(A1-A3) ***(A1-Am)v1 = 0.
Thus a1 = 0. In a similarfashion,aj = Ofor each j, as desired. O
The next result is the key tool we'll use to give a descriptionof the structureof a
linear operator.
Proposition3.4. Thegeneralizedeigenzsectors
of T span V.
al(T-AlI)k 1(T-A2I)
* (T-AmI) vl = O, (3.10)
where we have used Lemma3.1. If we rewrite(T-A2I)n ***(T-AmI)n in (3.10)
as
((T-A1I) + (A1 -A2) I) **((T-A1I) + (A1-Am) I) S
and then expandeach ((T - A1I) + (A1 - Aj)I)n using the binomialtheorem and
multiplyeverythingtogether,we get a sum of terms. Except for the term
(A1-A2) * (A1-Am) IS
each term in this sum includes a power of (T - A1I), which when combinedwith
the (T - A1I)k-l on the left and the v1 on the rightin (3.10) gives 0. Hence (3.10)
becomes the equation
The polynomial
aO + alz + a2z2 + * * * ak_lZk-l + Zk
Proof: Let Uj and CXjbe as in Theorem4.1, and let /3j equal the dimensionof Uj.
As we noted earlier,(Xj< /3j(by Lemma3.1 appliedto TlUj).Hence the character-
istic polynomial(5.1) is a polynomialmultiple of the minimal polynomial(4.2).
Thus the characteristicpolynomialmust annihilateT. O
Theorem6.2. LetA11
. . . SAmbe thedistincteigenvalues
of T. Thenthereis a basisof
V withrespectto whichthematrixof T has theform
A1 *
O
O A1
A2 *
.
O A2
Am *
* .
O Am
For many traditionaluses of the Jordanform, the theorem above can be used
instead. If Jordanform reallyis needed, then manystandardproofs show (without
determinants)that everynilpotentoperatorcan be put in Jordanform. The result
for general linear operatorsthen follows from Theorem3.11.
7. THE SPECTRiL THEOREM.In this section we assume that <, > is an inner
product on V. The nicest linear operatorson V are those for which there is an
orthonormalbasis of V consistingof eigenvectors.With respect to any such basis,
the matrix of the linear operator is diagonal, meaning that it is 0 everywhere
except along the main diagonal,which must containthe eigenvalues.The Spectral
Theorem,whichwe'll prove in this section, describespreciselythose linear opera-
tors for which there is an orthonormalbasis of V consistingof eigenvectors.
Recall that the adjointof T is the unique linear operator T* on V such that
<Tu,v> = <u,T*v>
for all u, v E V. The linear operator T is called nortnalif T commuteswith its
adjoint;in other words,T is normalif TT*= T*T. The linearoperatorT is called
self-adjoint if T= T*. Obviously,every self-adjointoperatoris normal.We'll see
eigenvector
Proposition7.2. Everygeneralized is an eigenvector
of a normaloperator
of theoperator.
Proof:Suppose T is normal.We will prove that
ker Tk = ker T (7.3)
for every positive integer k. This will complete the proof of the proposition,
because we can replace T in (7.3) by T - AI for arbitraryA E C.
We prove (7.3) by inductionon k. Clearly,the result holds for k = 1. Suppose
now that k is a positive integer such that (7.3) holds. Let v E ker Tk+1.Then
T(Tkv)= Tk+1v= O. In other words, Tkv E ker T, and so T*(Tkv)= O (by
Lemma7.1). Thus
The last proposition, together with Proposition 3.4, implies that a normal
operatorcan be diagonalizedby some basis. The next propositionwill be used to
show that this can be done by an orthonormalbasis.
to distincteigen-
of a normaloperatorcorresponding
Proposition7.4. Eigenvectors
valuesareorthogonal.
Proof:Suppose T is normal and ce,A are distinct eigenvaluesof T, with corre-
sponding eigenvectors u,v. Thus (T-AI)v = O, and so (T*-AI)v = O (by
Lemma 7.1). In other words, v is also an eigenvectorof T*, with eigenvalue A.
Now
(a-A)<u, v) = <cgu,v>-<u, Av>
= <Tu,v>-<u,T*v>
= <Tu,v>-<Tu,v>
= O.
Thus <u, v > = O,as desired. z
The propositionbelow will be needed in the next section, when we prove the
SpectralTheoremfor real inner productspaces.
also a basis of the complexvector space Uc. Hence the dimensionof U as a real
vector space equals the dimensionof Uc as a complexvector space.
For S a linear operator on a real vector space U, the complexificationof S,
denoted Sc, is the linear operatoron Uc defined by
Sc(u + iv) = Su + isV
(U1 + irl, U2 + iV2) = (U1, U2) + (V1, V2) + i(Vl, U2)-i(Ul, V2).
Note that any orthonormalbasis of the real inner product space U is also an
orthonormalbasis of the complexinner productspace Uc.
If S is a self-adjointoperatoron U, then obviouslySc is self-adjointon Uc. We
can then applythe complexSpectralTheorem(Theorem7.5) to Sc and transferto
U, gettingthe real SpectralTheorem.The next theoremgivesthe formalstatement
of the result and the details of the proof.
on
Theorem8.3. SupposeU is a realinnerproductspaceandS is a linearoperator
basisof U consisting
U. Thenthereis an orthonormal of S if andonly
of eigenvectors
if S is self-adjoint.
Theorem9.1. An operator
asinvertible
if andonlyif its determinant
is non-zero.
Proof:Clearly,T is invertibleif and only if Ois not an eigenvalueof T, and this
happensif and only if det T si 0. O
Proposition9.2. Thecharacteristic
polyn,omaal
of T equalsdet(zI-T).
Proof:Let A1,.. ., Amdenote the eigenvaluesof T, with multiplicities,B1,. . .,wSm
Thus for z E C, the eigenvaluesof zI-T are z - A1,. . ., z-AmS with multiplici-
ties ,l31,*vvZl3mX Hence the determinantof zI-T is the product
whichequalsthe characteristicpolynomialof T. O
O an
al O
a2 ° ; (9 3)
an-1 0
here all entries of the matrix are O except for the upper right-handcorner and
along the line just below the main diagonal.Let's find the determinantof T. Note
that Tn= alS. . . SanI. Because the first columns of {I, T, . . . s Tn- l} are linearly
independent(assumingthat none of the aj is 0), no polynomialof degree less than
n can annihilateT. Thus zn - al *a- an iS the minimalpolynomialof T. Hence
We want to prove that det T = d(T). To do this, choose S so that STS-1 is in the
upper triangularform given by Theorem6.2. Now d(STS-l) equals the productof
the entries on the main diagonalof STS-1 (because only the identitypermutation
makes a non-zero contributionto the sum defining d(STS-l)). But the entries on
the main diagonalof STS-1are preciselythe eigenvaluesof T, countingmultiplic-
ity, so det T = d(STS-1).Thus to completethe proof,we need only show that d is
a similarityinvariant;then we will have det T = d(STS-l) = d(T).
To show that d is a similarityinvariant,first prove that d is multiplicative,
meaningthat d(AB) = d(A)d(B) for all n x n matricesA and B. The proof that
d is multiplicative,which will not be given here, consists of a straightforward
rearrangementof terms appearingin the formula defining d(AB) (see any text
that defines det(T) to be d(T) and then proves that det AB = (detA)(det B)).
The multiplicativityof d now leads to a proof that d is a similarityinvariant,as
follows:
d(STS-l) = d(ST)d(S-l) = d(S-l)d(ST) = d(S-lST) = d(T).
Thus det T = d(T), as claimed. O
All the usual propertiesof determinantscan be proved either from the (new)
definition or from Proposition9.5. In particular,the last proof shows that det is
multiplicative.
shows that
(det ) = det(S8S) = (det Se )(det S) = (det S)2.
The next lemmaprovidesthe tool we will use to reduce the questionof volume
change by a linear operator to the self-adjoint case. It is called the polar
decompositionof an operatorS, because it resemblesthe polar decompositionof a
Departmentof Mathematics
MichiganState University
East Lansing MI 48824
axler@math.msu.edu
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