Maxwell's Equations for Nanotechnology

Milan Perkovac
I. Technical School TESLA, Klaiceva 7, Zagreb
milan@drives.hr

Abstract - Classical physics, which includes Maxwell's
equations, a hundred years ago couldn’t explain the
stability of atoms, the periodic table of elements, the
chemical bond, the discrete excitation energies of
atoms and their energetic state, the ionization of
atoms, the spectra, including its fine structure and
transition rules, experimental evidence about x-ray
spectra and the behavior of atoms in electric and
magnetic fields, the properties of the matter in solid
state. That was the reason why classical physics fails
when applied to the atomic area, i.e. to the area of
nanometers or below. Now the situation has changed.
It's because within the framework of classical physics,
with the help of Maxwell's equations, we can derive
Schrödinger's equation, which is the foundation of
quantum physics. With this new knowledge all of the
above can now be explained within the framework of
classical physics. This article describes the procedure
for obtaining the equation, which replaces the
Schrödinger's equation using classical physics.
I. INTRODUCTION
The whole twentieth century in physics is
mostly passed in the search for answers to
fundamental questions of matter, primarily on the
relationship between waves and particles.
Discussions about this are still going on. All the
studies are based on unique natural laws that apply
universally in the universe and the atom. But this
general approach to the macroscopic and
microscopic scale seemed questionable in the case
of Maxwell's equations. In fact, Maxwell's
equations have reached excellent results in the
macroscopic scale. Their application in the
microscopic scale at first glance seemed
disappointed. Namely, Maxwell's equations
previously couldn’t explain the stability of atoms,
the periodic table of elements, the chemical bond,
the discrete excitation energies of atoms and their
energetic state, the ionization of atoms, the spectra,
including its fine structure and transition rules,
experimental evidence about x-ray spectra and the
behavior of atoms in electric and magnetic fields,
the properties of the matter in solid state. That was
the reason why classical physics fails when applied
to the atomic area, i.e. to the area of nanometers or
below. This is why the entire physics divided into
two branches: (traditional) classical and (new)
quantum physics.
Despite the uncertain physical meaning of
the wave function ψ at the famous Schrödinger's
equation, “2ψ+8π2m(E-U)ψ/h2=0, the equation has
played an important role in the development of
quantum physics. The wave function ψ(x,y,z)=ψ(r)
is the solution of the Schrödinger equation, i.e. it is
a mathematical expression involving the
coordinates (x, y, z) of a particle in space
( r = xˆi + yˆj + zkˆ , where î , ˆj and k̂ are unit
vectors; all vectors below are bold letters). If we
solved the Schrödinger equation for a particle in a
given system then, depending on the boundary
condition, the solution is a set of allowed wave
functions of the particle, each corresponding to an
allowed energy level. The physical meaning of the
wave function ψ is that the square of its absolute
value, |ψ|2, at a given point is proportional to the
probability of finding the particle in a small element
of volume, dxdydz, at that point. For an electron in
an atom, this gives the idea of atomic and molecular
orbital. All of this was obtained without the use of
Maxwell's equations. After the explanation of
radiation [1, 2], Maxwell's equations can give a lot
more contributions to quantum physics, than has
been the case so far. It's because from Maxwell's
equations we can derive Schrödinger's equation,
which is the foundation of quantum physics.
The meaning of physical quantities in
Maxwell's equations is completely clear. Therefore,
the meanings of the wave functions of these
equations, which are derived from Maxwell's
equations, are completely clear.
This article describes how Schrödinger's
equation is obtained using classical physics, with
special emphasis on Maxwell's equations. With this
equation all the previous disadvantages of
Maxwell's equations can now be explained in the
framework of classical physics.
II. DERIVATION OF WAVE EQUATION
Maxwell’s equations are the four differential
equations describing the space and time, i.e. (r, t),
dependence of the electromagnetic field [3, 4, 5, 6]:
♦ Gauss’s law for electric flux (electric flux begins
and ends on charge or at infinity);
 ∇ ⋅ D (r , t ) = ρ (r, t ) , (1a)
a) Let’s take curl of Faraday’s law, i.e. of (2c):
♦ Gauss’s law for magnetism (magnetic field lines
don’t begin or end); ∂ (∇ × B )
∇ × (∇ × E ) = − . (3)
∂t
∇ ⋅ B (r, t ) = 0 , (1b)
On the other hand, for each vector E is true:
♦Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction; a
changing B produce E; ∇ × (∇ × E ) = ∇(∇ ⋅ E ) − ∇ 2E , (4)

∂B (r, t ) and the substitution in (3) Ampere's law (2d) gives:

∇ × E (r, t ) = − , (1c)
∂t
∂⎛ ∂E ⎞
∇(∇ ⋅ E ) − ∇ 2E = − μJ + με , (5)
♦Ampère’s circuital law (with Maxwell’s ∂t ⎜⎝ ∂t ⎟⎠
correction); H is produced by current J and by
changing D; 2 2 2
2 ∂ ∂ ∂
where ∇ = 2
+ 2 2
+
is operator called
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂D (r, t )
∇ × H(r, t ) = J (r, t ) + , (1d) the Laplacian. Now in (5) add Gauss's law for
∂t
electric flux (2a), and J = gE:
where D is the electric displacement, E is the
∂E ∂ 2E ⎛ρ⎞
electric field strength, B is the magnetic flux ∇ 2E − μ g − με 2 − ∇ ⎜ ⎟ = 0 . (6)
∂t ∂t ⎝ε ⎠
density, H is the magnetic field strength, ρ is the
volume charge density, and J is the electric current
b) Let’s take curl of Ampère’s law, i.e. of (2d):
density. The differential operator
ˆ ˆ ˆ
∇ = i ∂ / ∂x + j ∂ / ∂y + k ∂ / ∂z is called "del" ∂E
∇ × (∇ × B ) = ∇ × ( μJ + με ). (7)
operator. ∂t
There are a total of 16 variables in (1a)-(1d)
(the 15 components of the five vectors E, D, B, H, On the other hand, for each vector B is true:
J, and the scalar ρ). If the source densities ρ and J
are given (four known variables) still remain 12 ∇ × (∇ × B ) = ∇(∇ ⋅ B ) − ∇ 2B , (8)
unknown variables. There are, however, eight
equations; one from (1a), one from (1b), and three Using J = gE gives:
for components in (1c) and (1d) each. Obviously, to
make system determinate we need additional ∂ (∇ × E )
∇(∇ ⋅ B ) − ∇ 2 B = μ g (∇ × E ) + με . (9)
relations. ∂t
For a completely linear medium there are
constitutive relations describing the properties of Now in (9) add Faraday's law (2c):
the media in which the fields exist: D = εE, B =
∂B ∂ 2B
µH, J = gE, where ε is dielectric constant, µ is the ∇(∇ ⋅ B ) − ∇ 2 B = − μ g − με 2 . (10)
magnetic constant of proportionality, and g is the ∂t ∂t
conductivity of the media. Hence [without writing
(r,t) which is implied] the Maxwell equations Using (2b), i.e. ∇ ⋅ B = 0 , and B = µH, and after
become: sharing with µ, we get from (10):

ρ ∂H ∂2H
♦ Gauss’s law for electric flux; ∇ ⋅ E = , (2a) ∇2 H − μ g − με =0. (11)
ε ∂t ∂t 2
♦ Gauss’s law for magnetism; ∇ ⋅ B = 0 , (2b) Equations (6) and (11) are required wave equations.
These two vector equations constitute six
∂B component equations with seven unknowns (Ex, Ey,
♦ Faraday’s law; ∇×E = − , (2c)
∂t
Ez, Hx, Hy, Hz, ρ). The system becomes determined
∂E if viewed without charge, i.e. ρ = 0 . So we get:
♦ Ampère’s law; ∇ × B = μJ + με . (2d)
∂t
 L'dx / 2
C'dx
δ
Fig. 2a L'dx / 2
2ρ 2ρ
C L
Fig. 2b

Figure 1. Lecher line (section); twin-lead transmission line Figure 2. Lecher line is presented with an infinitely small
consisting of pair of wires of diameter 2ρ, separated by δ. capacitors C ' dx and inductors L ' dx (Fig. 2a), which are
concentrated at its end; C at the open end of the line, and L on its
short-circuited end (Fig. 2b).

∂E ∂ 2E only a mutual adjustment of parameters. Then the

∇ 2E − μ g − με 2 = 0 , (12) voltage u of transmission lines represents the wave
∂t ∂t
function E, while the current i of transmission lines
∂H ∂2H
∇2 H − μ g − με =0. (13) represents the wave function H.
∂t ∂t 2

In empty space, i.e. in vacuum, what is also the

inside of atoms, we have g = 0 , so the equations III. ADJUSTMENT THE PARAMETERS
(12) and (13) becomes: OF WAVE AND LECHER’S LINE

Lecher line can be regarded as a limiting case

2 ∂ 2E of an LC network with infinitely small capacitors
∇ E − με = 0, (14)
∂t 2 and inductors, Fig.2a, [10]. If all the capacitors of
∂2H the network are put on the open end, and
∇ 2 H − με =0. (15) inductances on the short-circuited end, Fig 2b, the
∂t 2 natural angular frequency of such oscillatory circuit
will be, [11]:
Wave equations of the electromagnetic wave on
Lecher's lines, Fig. 1 (using Maxwell's equations
ω = 1 / LC . (20)
and Kirchhoff's laws, [7]), have the same form as
equations (14) and (15) of the electromagnetic wave The product of L' and C' is:
in vacuum [8],
ln(δ / ρ )+1/4
∂ 2u ∂ 2u L' C ' = με . (21)
− L' C' =0, (16) ln[(δ / ρ )/2+ (δ / ρ )2 /4−1]
∂x 2 ∂t 2
∂ 2i ∂ 2i The coefficient L’C’ in (16) and (17) determines the
2
− L' C' =0, (17) phase velocity of the wave on the line (Fig. 3), in
∂x ∂t 2

where L’ is inductance of Lecher’s line per unit

Ag Mo Rb
length, and C’ is its capacitance per unit length [9]: uem (με)1/2 La
.8 Pb
ln(δ / ρ )+1/4 0.74 p0 - structure constant
L' = μ , (18)
π .6 U p0 = 8.277 56
π .4
C' = ε , (19)
ln ⎧⎨δ / (2 ρ )+ [δ / (2 ρ )]2 −1 ⎫⎬ UNSTABLE Z - atomic number
⎩ ⎭ .2
2

0 Uuo 2.398 δ ρ = ep /Z 0
where ρ is the radius of each conductor and δ is the
distance between the conductors. 1 2 3 4 5 6 δ/ρ
Transmission line can be a model for the Figure 3. Phase velocity of electromagnetic wave on Lecher’s
observation of electromagnetic waves, given that line as a function of ratio δ/ρ. Areas of stability of atoms is
they have the same differential equation. It takes determined in accordance with [12] (Z=82, lead, δ/ρ=2.398).
 σ(δ/ρ) 1
H
70
82 × σ(2.398) =
× σ(2.398) = 82
82 ×
× 0.835
0.836 6
9~~ 68.518
1 σ 0 10
4
82 n λ0 Ξ
60
A0=(μ0/ε0)1/2e2Z σ(δ/ρ)
σ Z e
Decay modes: p+e- +ν
103
50
A0=377×2.56×10-38×82×σ(2.4) Atomic number
40
1
H Elementary particles 10 2
=6.62×10-34 J˙s 2He 2
He
2 3
Li
30 δ
3 All elements of 101
Li
4 3 the periodic table
20 Be 2ρ 2ρ
4 82
Pb 10 0
10 65 LECHER LINE
_δ
118
Uuo
15 Z = 82 σ(2.397 973)=0.835 585 5.044×10^29 ρ δ/ρ 10
-1
0
2.4 10^6 10^12 10^18 10^24 10^30 10 0 101000 10 2000 103000 104000 10 5000 10 6000

Figure 4. Structural coefficient of twin-lead transmission line, Figure 5. Structural coefficient of twin-lead transmission line,
2 2
σ (δ / ρ ) = [ ln(δ / ρ ) + 1 / 4] ln[(δ / ρ ) / 2 + (δ / ρ ) / 4 − 1 ] σ (δ / ρ ) = [ ln(δ / ρ ) + 1 / 4] ln[(δ / ρ ) / 2 + (δ / ρ ) / 4 − 1 ]
(Lecher line) in function of δ/ρ (log-lin scale), Ref. 12. (Lecher line) in function of δ/ρ (log-log scale), Ref. 12,
(Elements and Particles).

accordance with the equation, [13]: T = 1 / ν = 2π LC . (27)

uem = 1 / L' C' , (22) Electromagnetic energy of an LC circuit, Eem ,

i.e., theoretically can be presented as the electrical
energy stored in a capacitor that has a capacitance
1 ln[(δ / ρ ) / 2 + (δ / ρ ) 2 / 4 − 1] equal to C and a maximum charge equal to Q̂C (or
uem = . (23)
με ln(δ / ρ ) + 1 / 4 magnetic energy stored in a coil that has
inductance equal to L and maximum current equal
Using (18) and (19), the characteristic (wave) to Î L ), so:
impedance of LC circuit, as well as the characteristic
impedance of the Lecher’s line read: 1 ˆ2 1 Q ˆ2 1π ˆ2
Q L
C C
Eem = LI L = =
2 2 C 2π C C L
Z LC = L/ C = L'/ C' (28)
L ˆ2 1 ˆ 2ν = Aν ,
=π QC = π Z LC Q C
[ ln(δ / ρ )+1/ 4]ln[(δ / ρ )/ 2 + (δ / ρ )2 / 4−1 ] C 2π LC
= μ / ε (24)
π
σ (δ / ρ ) where
= μ /ε ,
π ˆ2
A = π Z LC QC (29)
where σ from a mathematical point of view is a
function of δ / ρ , is an action of electromagnetic oscillators, defined
as the product of energy, Eem , and period, T, of the
2 LC oscillator:
σ = [ ln(δ / ρ ) + 1 / 4] ln[(δ / ρ ) / 2 + (δ / ρ ) / 4 − 1 ] .
(25) A = EemT = Eem / ν . (30)

From the physical point of view σ is a coefficient All above is generally true at the macroscopic and
of the structure of transmission lines, so we will call the microscopic level.
it structural coefficient dependent on the parameters
δ and ρ , more specifically on δ / ρ , (see Fig. 4
and Fig. 5).
Natural frequency of electromagnetic LC IV. THEORY ON MICROSCOPIC SCALE
oscillator is determined by (20), i.e.,
Now we will adjust the previous equations
for the microscopic scale. From Newton’s second
ν = 1 / 2π LC . (26)
law, F = ma , we substitute a = v 2 / ra and
This means that the oscillatory period of a LC Coulomb’s law for F, and also from relativistic
oscillator is equal to mass we obtain:
2 When the electromagnetic wave leaves the atom it
____
1-β
2 K
ra/(0.1R0)
K ra.=.R0 2 carries out the energy Eem , and vice versa, when it
E
U }
11 Eem /(mc2)
β
Eem
v_..
β.=.c
enters the atom, it brings in the same energy. This
means that due to the reduction of energy Eem , the
0
.
atom should be compensated with equally large
E energy eV :
-1
R0=|q.Q|/(4πε0mc2) Eem = − E = eV . (36)
E.=.K+U.=.-Eem U
-2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 From the expressions (35) and (36) we obtain

Figure 6. Radius of the atom ra , kinetic energy K, 1 − β 2 = 1 − eV / mc 2 , (37)

electromagnetic energy Eem , total mechanical energy E , and i.e.,
potential energy U of the electron in an atom as a function of
β = v / c , ( 0 ≤ β ≤ 1 ). ( )(
β 2 = 2eV / mc 2 1 − eV / 2mc 2 , ) (38)
or

β = 2eV / mc 2 1 − eV / 2mc 2 . (39)

2
mv | qQ |
= , (31)
4πε ra2 Using (32), (37), and (38), we obtain
ra 1 − β 2

| qQ | 1 − eV / mc 2
or ra = , (40)
2
8πε eV 1 − eV / 2mc 2
| qQ | 1− β
ra = 2
, (32)
4πε mc β2 while from (40) we obtain eV using (28) and (36):

where ra is the radius of the atom, q is the charge | qQ | 1 − eV / mc 2 1 Q̂C2

eV = = . (41)
of the electron ( q = −e , e = 1.602 177 33 ×10−19 C ), 8πε ra 1 − eV / 2mc 2 2 C

Q is the core charge, m = 9.109 ...×10−31 kg is the

From a single equation, (41), we need to
electron rest mass, c = 299 792 458 m / s is the determine two unknown sizes, i.e., parameter C and
speed of light in vacuum, β = v / c , where v is the variable Q̂C . Therefore, we seek solutions with the
electron velocity. help of Diophantine equations, [14]:
The kinetic energy of electrons in the atom
is C = 4πε ra , (42)
mc 2
K= − mc 2 , (33)
2
1− β 1 − eV / mc 2
Q̂C2 = | qQ | , (43)
1 − eV / 2mc 2
and, using (32), noting that an electron is of
opposite charge of the nucleus, the potential energy Using (24), (26), (41) and (42) we get the
of electrons is following, which is similar to the expression (28):

qQ mc 2 | qQ | 1 − eV / mc
2
| qQ | 1 − eV / mc
2
U= =− β2 . (34) eV = =
4πε ra 1− β 2 2 2
8πε ra 1 − eV / 2 mc 2C 1 − eV / 2 mc
(44)
2
1 − eV / mc
Thus, the electromagnetic energy, Eem , (see Fig. 6) = π Z LC | qQ | ν = Aν .
2
is equal to the total mechanical energy E with 1 − eV / 2 mc
negative sign,
From (29) and (43) follows

Eem = − E = − ( K + U ) = mc 2 1 − 1 − β 2 . ( ) (35)
A = π Z LC | qQ |
1 − eV / mc
2
. (45)
2
1 − eV / 2 mc
70
H1+ ; A0 Eem | ν → 0 = A0ν . (51)
σ σ = p 2 /Z =68.518 σ=
60
0 μ0 /ε0 e2Z
Zσ = p02
50 This, in the case of A0 = h , proves the validity of
A
p0 = 1 0 =8.277 56
40
e μ0c empirically derived Planck-Einstein's relation
He2+ ;σ = p02 /2 = 34.259 Eem = hν , but also shows that Planck-Einstein's
30 α -1 = 2p02 = d02 =(11.706 237)2 = 137.036 relation is limited only to relatively low frequencies
Li3+;22.839 ν . If this frequency is high, then
20
Be4+;17.129 Nd60+; Hg80+; Es99+
10
Ca20+; Zr40+; 1.142 0.856 0.692
2
p0
d0 10
3.426
1.713 Atomic number Z Eem | ν → ∞ = mc . (52)
00 p0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 99

From (28) and (50) follows the action of

2
Figure 7. Structural coefficient σ = p0 / Z as a function of electromagnetic oscillators:
atomic number Z (equilateral hyperbole of atoms).
2
mc 2 2
⎛ mc 2 ⎞
A = A0 + - A0 +⎜ ⎟ . (53)
ν ⎜ ν ⎟
⎝ ⎠
If eV = 0 then A = A0 . This means that (45) can
be written as We see that the action of electromagnetic
1 − eV / mc
2 oscillators, A, is not constant for all frequencies ν .
A = A0 2
, (46) Momentum of electromagnetic wave,
1 − eV / 2mc
where pem , in accordance with [16], is equal to the ratio
A0 = π Z LC | qQ | . (47) of its energy ( Eem ) and phase velocity

A0 does not depend on the energies eV, which uem = λν , (54)

enter or leave the atoms. This ultimately means that i.e.,
A0 is the universal constant of any atom (see Fig. 4 Eem E
pem = = em , (55)
and Fig. 7), [15]: uem λν

2 2 −34 where λ is the wavelength of the electromagnetic

A0 = μ0 / ε 0 e p0 = 6.626 075 × 10 J ⋅ s (48)
wave. On the other hand, in accordance with the
law of conservation of momentum, the momentum
−7 of electrons is equal to the momentum of the
where p0 = 8.277 56 , μ0 = 4π × 10 H / m ,
electromagnetic wave,
−12
ε 0 = 8.854 187 817 × 10 F/ m.
From (44) follows eV = Aν , and using 2
Eem /(λ ν) = m v / 1 − β = mc β / 1 − β .
2
(56)
(46) we get:
From the expression (56), and using (28), (37),
eV 1 − eV / 2mc 2 (39), (41), and (46), we obtain
ν= . (49)
A0 1 − eV / mc 2
2 2
A0 (1 − eV / mc )
λ= . (57)
2meV 2 3
V. RELATIONSHIP OF MAXWELL’S AND (1 − eV / 2 mc )
SCHRÖDINGER’S EQUATIONS
2
If the voltage is low, then eV ≈ ½ m v , and
From (36) and (49) we get the general
relativistic expression for the energy of
A0
electromagnetic waves emitted or absorbed by the λ | eV / m c 2 → = . (58)
0
atom, mv
2 2 2 2
Eem = A0ν + mc - ( A0ν ) + ( mc ) . (50) 2
If the voltage approaches ( mc / e) ≈ 511 kV, then
If the frequency is low, then
 1 λ 2
ν β =v / c eV μ0 2m 1 − eV / 2 mc
⎛
⎜
A0 ⎞⎟ (3) (5)
mc2
μ= 2
= μ r μ0 , (65)
0.8 ⎜
⎝
mc ⎠⎟ (4)
⎛ mc 2 ⎞
ε0 eV 1 − eV / mc
⎜ ⎟
μr ⎜ A ⎟
⎝ 0 ⎠ εr
10
0.6 10
1/2 (1) uem /v (6) 2
(7)
ε0 2m 1 − eV / 2mc
0.4 ε= 2
= ε rε 0 , (66)
(2) uem /c
μ0 eV 1 − eV / mc
0.2 eV i.e.,
mc2
0 2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1 2m 1 − eV / 2 mc
μr = ε r = 2
. (67)
μ 0ε 0 eV 1 − eV / mc
Figure 8. Phase velocity u em , (1) and (2), wavelength λ , (3),
frequency ν , (4), of standing-electromagnetic wave; speed of Current values of linearly polarized
the particles β = v / c , (5); μ r = ε r , (6); frequency of matter standing wave, [17], in the atom read:
2
waves (quantum mechanics), (7); all as a function of eV / mc .
⎛ 2π ⎞
E x ( z,t ) = E 0 sin ⎜ z ⎟ cos (ωt ) , (68)
⎝ λ ⎠

E0 ⎛ 2π ⎞
λ | eV / m c 2 → 1 → 0 m . (59) H y ( z,t ) = − cos ⎜ z ⎟ sin (ωt ) , (69)
μ /ε ⎝ λ ⎠
Phase velocity, according to (49), (54) and (57), where E 0 is the maximum value, i.e., the amplitude
(see Fig. 8) is
of electric field strength, E x ( z,t ) , the x-component
2 of the electric field dependent on the z-axis of the
eV 1 − eV / mc
uem = λν = . (60) rectangular coordinate system and the time t, and
2m 2
1 − eV / 2 mc H y ( z,t ) is the y-component of the magnetic field
If the voltage is low, then dependent on the z-axis of the rectangular
coordinate system and the time t. If we use the
second derivation of the equations (68) and (69)
uem | eV / m c 2 → 0 = eV / 2 m with respect to z, we get equations:
(61)
2
= ½ m v / (2 m) = v / 2 . 2 2
∂ E x ( z,t ) ⎛ 2π ⎞
2
+⎜ ⎟ E x ( z,t ) = 0 , (70)
On the other hand, Maxwell's equations also require ∂z ⎝ λ ⎠
that the following relationship be satisfied for the
phase velocity: 2 2
∂ H y ( z,t ) ⎛ 2π ⎞
2
+⎜ ⎟ H y ( z,t ) = 0 . (71)
uem = 1 / με , (62)
∂z ⎝ λ ⎠

After substitution of wavelengths, (57), in the

while the wave impedance μ / ε , because of expressions (70) and (71), we get:
energy reasons, should remain unchanged, i.e.,
2 2 2 3
∂ E x ( z ,t ) 8π meV (1 − eV / 2 mc )
+ E x ( z ,t ) = 0 ,
μ / ε = μ0 / ε 0 . (63) ∂z
2
A0
2
(1 − eV / mc
2 4
)

(72)
From (60) and (62) we get
2 2 2 3
∂ H y ( z ,t ) 8π meV (1 − eV / 2 mc )
2 H y ( z ,t ) = 0.
eV 1 − eV / mc 2
+
2 2 4
1/ με = . (64) ∂z A0 (1 − eV / mc )
2m 2
1 − eV / 2 mc (73)

System of equations (63) and (64) have solutions Since eV = − E , we can write,
μ and ε as follows:
 2 2 2 3 the y-component of the magnetic field dependent on
∂ E x ( z ,t ) 8π mE (1 + E / 2 mc )
− E x ( z ,t ) = 0, the z-axis of the rectangular coordinate system and
2 2 2 4
∂z A0 (1 + E / mc ) the time t. Meaning of all the other physical
(74) quantities in this article is also completely clear.
The solutions of differential equations (76)
2 2 2 3 and (77) are the same as the known solutions of the
∂ H y ( z ,t ) 8π mE (1 + E / 2 mc ) Schrödinger’s equation only the meaning of the
− H y ( z ,t ) ) = 0,
∂z
2
A0
2
(1 + E / mc
2 4
) wave function is different.
(75)

while in the case of low-energy VI. CONCLUSION

2
(eV= ½ m v = K = E − U ), The article shows how Maxwell's
equations adapted to the use in the nanometer
2
∂ E x ( z ,t ) 8π m
2 range. The resulting equations are similar at the end
2
+ 2
( E − U ) E x ( z ,t ) = 0, (76) of Schrödinger’s equation, which was expected.
∂z A0 Given the great success of the application of
Schrödinger’s equation, it is also a confirmation of
2
∂ H y ( z ,t ) 2 the success of Maxwell's equations. The advantage
8π m
+ ( E − U ) H y ( z ,t ) = 0, (77) of Maxwell's equations is that they are part of a
2 2
∂z A0 comprehensive theory, while Schrödinger’s
equation is only one isolated part adapted to the
which in this form resembles the Schrödinger's atomic scale. Hence the resulting difficulty in
equation. interpreting the meaning of the wave function in the
In the same way as we got (70) and (71), Schrödinger’s equation. Such difficulties in
using the second derivation with respect to time t, Maxwell’s theory, of course, do not exist. Therefore
with ω = 2πν , we get from (68) and (69): it seems appropriate to use Maxwell's equations in
the nanometer range, in which up to now
2
exclusively used Schrödinger’s equations.
∂ E x ( z ,t ) 2
2
+ ω E x ( z ,t ) = 0 , (78)
∂t

2 .[1].J. A. Wheeler and R. P. Feynman, Rev. Mod. Phys. 17, .

∂ H y ( z ,t ) 2 . . 157 (1945), p.162.
2
+ ω H y ( z ,t ) = 0 , (79) .[2].M. Perkovac, Phys. Essays 15, 41 (2002); 16, 162 (2003);
∂t . . http://arxiv.org/abs/1010.6083.
.[3].D. R. Frankl, Electromagnetic theory (Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
or, using (49) and eV = − E , . . Englewood Cliffs 07632, 1986).
.[4].J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, 3rd edition (John
2 . . Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1998).
2
∂ E x ( z ,t ) 4π E
2 2
⎛ 1 + E / 2 mc 2 ⎞ .[5].T. Bosanac, Teoretska elektrotehnika 1, Tehnička knjiga, .
2
+ 2 ⎜ 2 ⎟
E x ( z ,t ) = 0 , . Zagreb, 1973.
∂t A0 ⎝ 1 + E / mc ⎠ .[6].Z. Haznadar and Ž. Štih, Elektromagnetizam, Školska . .
. knjiga, Zagreb, 1997.
(80) .[7].R. Rüdenberg, Elektrische Schaltvorgänge, Verlag von .
. . Julius Springer, Berlin, 1923, p. 329.
2 2 .[8].H. Czichos, HŰTTE, Die Grundlagen der . . . . . .
∂ H y ( z ,t ) 4π E
2 2
⎛ 1 + E / 2 mc 2 ⎞ . . Ingenieuewissenschaften, 29. Auflage, Springer-Verlag, .
2
+
2 ⎜ 2 ⎟
H y ( z ,t ) = 0 .
. . Berlin, 1989, p. B 199.
∂t A0 ⎝ 1 + E / mc ⎠ .[9].T. Bosanac, Teoretska elektrotehnika, (Ref. 5), p. 371.
(81) [10].R. H. Good, Classical Electromagnetism, Saunders Golden
. . Sunburst Series, Fort Worth, 1999, p. 420.
[11].R. Rüdenberg, Elektrische Schaltvorgänge, (Ref. 7), p. .
Unlike wave function Ψ in the Schrödinger's
. . 352.
2 2 2 2
equation, ∂ Ψ / ∂x + 8π m( E − U )Ψ / h = 0 , [12].M. Perkovac, http://arxiv.org/abs/1010.6083, (Ref. 2).
[13].H. Czichos, HŰTTE (Ref. 7), p. B 200.
[18], physical meaning of wave functions, E x and [14].M. Perkovac, http://arxiv.org/abs/1010.6083, (Ref. 2).
[15].Ibid.
H y , in this article is entirely clear. As discussed [16].E. W. Schpolski, Atomphysik, Teil I, VEB Deutscher . .
. . Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin, 1979, p. 406.
above, E x ( z,t ) is the x-component of the electric [17].Z. Haznadar and Ž. Štih, Elektromagnetizam, (Ref. 6), p. .
field dependent on the z-axis of the rectangular . . 436.
[18].B. Wong, Phys. Essays 22, 296 (2009).
coordinate system and the time t, and H y ( z,t ) is