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Abstract: The present study was conducted to investigate types of Multiple Intelligences
as predictors of reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge. To meet this objective,
a 60-item TOEFL test and a 90-item multiple intelligences questionnaire were distributed
among 240 male and female Iranians studying English at Qazali and Parsian Universities in
Qazvin. Data were analyzed using a multiple regression procedure. The result of the data
analysis indicated that musical, interpersonal, kinesthetic, and logical intelligences were
predicators of reading comprehension. Moreover, musical, verbal, visual, kinesthetic and
natural intelligences made significant contributions to predicting vocabulary knowledge.
Until early 1980s, intelligence was human beings possess not just a single
regarded as a unitary trait. In 1983, the idea intelligence, but a set of relatively
of general intelligence was replaced with autonomous intelligences. These different
multiple intelligences. Gardner (1983) and autonomous intelligence capacities
revolutionized the view of intelligence. He result in many different ways of knowing,
argues that MI Theory pluralizes the understanding, and learning about the
traditional concept. Gardner claims that world. Gardner (1999) defines intelligence
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Zarei & Afshar, Multiple intelligences as predictors of reading comprehension ...
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Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, Vol. 4 No. 1, July 2014, pp. 23-38
ability to make and recognize music, sing As Christison (1999) proposes, the theory
and to understand or use rhythm. Auditory of multiple intelligences should be
functions and recognition of tonal and introduced to language educators in order
rhythmic patterns are required for a person to demonstrate how to use multiple
to develop this intelligence. Music smart intelligences in lesson planning, language
includes thinking in sounds and patterns, learning tasks, and assessment. She claims
performing music and leading in songs. that it is encouraging for language
Musicians, singers, voice coaches, and educators to develop all intelligences to a
composers exhibit musical intelligence reasonably high level.
(Armstrong, 1994). Bodily/kinesthetic According to Armstrong (1995), the
intelligence is the ability to use one's body first step in using multiple intelligence
skillfully to solve problems. It challenges theory is to determine the educator's own
and contradicts the belief that mental and multiple intelligence profile. He adds that
physical activities are unrelated. as educators learn more about their own
Interpersonal intelligence involves profile, they will become more confident in
individuals using their social skills to the choices they make that affect their
understand and notice people's motivations, teaching. The types of learning activities
temperaments and goals. It involves educators choose as teachers are directly
cooperating and communicating with related to their experiences, which in turn
others. Typical roles are therapists, leaders, affect the multiple intelligence profile of
educators, teachers, doctors and coaches their students.
(Gardner, 1993). Intrapersonal intelligence MI theory can contribute to language
is the ability to distinguish, reflect, analyze teaching in a number of ways. According
and identify various personal thoughts and to Botelho (2003), MI theory has helped
feelings and to use them to understand and teachers to reflect on their practice, and has
plan one's own behaviour. Self-awareness, given them a basis to develop and enhance
personal objectivity, and one's relationship their focus. It has also helped teachers to
to others and the world are important in encourage themselves to look beyond the
this intelligence. Naturalist intelligence narrow confines of teaching plans and
displays empathy, recognition, and curriculum. To show the importance of
understanding for living and natural things. multiple intelligence theory in language
It allows individuals to distinguish, classify teaching, Richards and Rodgers (2001)
and use features of the natural world argue that MI is richest in proposals for
around them. Typical roles are farmers, lesson organization and planning.
geologists and gardeners who can name Similarly, Viens (1999) holds that MI
and describe the features of environment application provides a range of activities in
(Gardner, 1999). Finally, Gardner the classroom to ensure learners the
associates existential intelligence with opportunity to develop and enhance
people who are able to comprehend abilities in a range of intelligence areas.
fundamental questions and issues of It should be noted, of course, that the
existence. They are most comfortable and application of MI theory in the classroom
productive when they are discussing or depends on learners' needs, interests, and
writing about experiences. preferences. (Christison, 1998). In addition,
Green and Tanner (2005) admit that
MI theory and language teaching “making MI theory work in practice might
seem challenging, yet it can be very
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Zarei & Afshar, Multiple intelligences as predictors of reading comprehension ...
satisfying for participants who find the In much the same vein, Motallebzadeh and
learning more enjoyable, more personally Manuchehri (2008), focusing on the
relevant and more motivating" (p.320). relationship between MI and reading
Another advantage of MI theory is that comprehension of learners, hold that MI
it seeks to cultivate the various ways in theory can improve learners' reading skill,
which learners reflect intelligently; so, its especially by logical intelligence.
outcomes differ from predictable outcomes As to vocabulary learning, in MI
of traditional education. Eisner (2003) is of classrooms, learners’ vocabulary
the opinion that "If one of the important knowledge can be enhanced by visual
aims of education is the cultivation of the techniques, verbal explanation, and
students' unique capacities, then linguistic mnemonics. In visualization,
acknowledging differences in the ways in learners can pair pictures with the words
which children and adolescents are smart they need to learn. Verbal-explanation is
would, one might think, be of extraordinary the best method to show the meaning of
importance'' (p.32). abstract worlds. In MI classrooms, teachers
Nikolva (2007) maintains that in MI use examples, situations, synonyms,
theory teachers may encounter lack of antonyms and definitions.
resources and overcrowded classrooms. A number of studies have investigated
Classifying and comparing learners' the effects of MI on various aspects of
abilities in MI classroom may be difficult. second and foreign language learning.
On the other hand, MI application has Christison (1996) studied the
many benefits for teachers and learners; application of his own teaching style as it
''the theory broadens the vision of applies to MI theory. The findings of his
education. Teachers acknowledge that study clarify how MI theory informs
students learn in different ways and thus teaching and learning in his classroom, and
the different kinds of intelligence would he concludes that there is a relationship
allow different ways of teaching, rather between the learning activities and his own
than one. Students begin to understand how MI profile.
they are intelligent'' (p.108). Visser, Ashton, and Vernon (2006)
MI theory may also have implications conducted a study in which they applied
for reading comprehension and vocabulary two objective ability tests for each MI. The
learning. As to reading comprehension, results of their study showed that only
Gaines and Lehmann (2002) showed that bodily–kinesthetic, intrapersonal and
the use of MI theory improved learners' musical intelligences are not correlated
reading comprehension and enhanced their with general intelligence. In another study,
academic performance. In another study, Tirri and Nokelainen (2008) worked on the
Owolabi and Okebukola (2009) showed latest version of the MI profiling
that reading comprehension in MI questionnaire that was tested with Finnish
classrooms enhances learners’ interaction preadolescents and adults. The major
with the print and ideas presented. findings of the study were as follows: ''(1)
Furthermore, according to Abdulkader, logical intelligence correlates positively
Gundogdu and Eissa (2009), the with spatial intelligence; (2) linguistic
implementation of MI theory coupled with intelligence correlates positively with
increased parental involvement can lead to intrapersonal intelligence; (3) linguistic and
substantial gains in the learners' reading intrapersonal scales correlate positively
comprehension and vocabulary knowledge.
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Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, Vol. 4 No. 1, July 2014, pp. 23-38
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Zarei & Afshar, Multiple intelligences as predictors of reading comprehension ...
activities develops new models for participants were all adult learners of
educators. English ranging in age from 18 to 25.
In a study conducted by Abdulkader et
al. (2009), it was shown that MI-based
program improves reading comprehension
in disabled learners. Similarly, Instruments
Motallebzadeh and Manouchehri (2008) To conduct the present study, four
studied the relationship between MI and instruments were employed. They
reading comprehension of IELTS learners. included: a Michigan test of English
Only logical intelligence was found to be language proficiency (MTELP), a TOEFL
related to learners' reading comprehension vocabulary subtest, a TOEFL reading
in IELTS. subtest, and an MI questionnaire. The
Razmjoo (2008) investigated the MTELP was administered to check the
relationship between MI and English homogeneity of the participants. MTELP is
language proficiency in Iran. He concluded one of the popular tests for measuring the
that there is no significant relationship ESL or EFL learners' degree of language
between MI and language proficiency in proficiency. It is a three-part, 100–item
Iranian context. multiple-choice test containing 40 grammar
To conclude, although there are a items in a conversational format, 40
number of studies to explore the vocabulary items, and reading passages
relationship between MI and language followed by 20 comprehension questions.
teaching and learning, there is still a gap in A multiple-choice TOEFL test was
the relationship between MI on the one administered to the participants to measure
hand, and reading comprehension and their vocabulary and reading
vocabulary knowledge on the other. In comprehension ability. It consisted of 60
order to fill this gap, this study aims to questions including 30 vocabulary items
investigate the types of MI as predictors of and 30 reading comprehension items.
reading comprehension and vocabulary McKenzie's (1999) questionnaire was
knowledge. used to assess the participants' intelligence
profile. This questionnaire includes 90
METHOD statements related to each of the nine
Participants intelligences proposed by Gardner (1999).
In the present study, a sample of 270 EFL A validated sample of the test is available
students (male and female) at Qazali and athttp://surfaquarium.com/MI/MIInvent.
Parsian universities in Qazvin was selected. html.
The initial number of participants was then
reduced to 240 after the administration of Procedures and Data analysis
the Michigan Test of English Language Initially, to homogenize the participants, a
proficiency and McKenzie questionnaire multiple-choice MTELP proficiency test
and taking their results into account. 18 was administered. It consisted of 100
participants were excluded because their grammar, vocabulary and reading
proficiency level did not match that of the comprehension questions. The mean and
other participants. Another 12 participants standard deviation of the scores were
were removed because of not taking part in computed and those who scored more than
the McKenzie questionnaire. The one standard deviation away from (either
above or below) the mean were excluded
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Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, Vol. 4 No. 1, July 2014, pp. 23-38
from the subsequent analyses. As a result, and 0 showed that it did not. Having
18 of the participants had to be excluded administered the tests and the questionnaire
from the study. 12 other participants were and gathered the data, two separate
also excluded from the analyses because multiple regression analyses were run to
they failed to complete their cooperation see which multiple intelligence types are
and did not respond to the McKenzie better predictors of reading comprehension
questionnaire. and vocabulary knowledge, respectively.
The vocabulary and reading
comprehension subtests of a TOEFL test FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
were used to measure the vocabulary Investigation of the first research
knowledge and reading comprehension question
ability of the participants. Each subtest The first question attempted to see which
contained 30 items in multiple-choice types of MI are predictors of reading
format. comprehension. To this end, a multiple
At the end, the McKenzie questionnaire regression procedure was used. Table 1
was used to identify learners' intelligence summarizes the descriptive statistics for the
profiles. Each learner was required to reading scores as well as the various
complete the questionnaire by placing intelligences of the learners.
either 0 or 1 next to each statement. 1
meant that it corresponded to the learner
Table 1. Descriptive statistics for reading comprehension scores and multiple intelligences
Std.
Mean Deviation N
Reading 20.041 4.79260 240
Natural 32.750 19.78810 240
Musical 53.416 24.32334 240
Existential 30.750 16.01059 240
Interpersonal 52.458 25.25598 240
Logical 63.916 24.12644 240
kinesthetic 49.833 23.57161 240
Verbal 62.875 26.09255 240
intrapersonal 51.208 23.33579 240
Visual 55.375 25.77390 240
Based on Table 1, logical intelligence see the degree of the relationship between
group's mean score is the highest and reading and types of MI, the results of which
existential intelligence group's mean score is are shown in Table 2.
the lowest. A correlation coefficient was run to
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Zarei & Afshar, Multiple intelligences as predictors of reading comprehension ...
The result tells us that all intelligence types model. The ANOVA tests the null hypothesis
collectively account for 46% of the variance in that the predictive power of the model is not
reading comprehension. Table 4, gives the significant. Based on Table 4, a significant
results of the ANOVA performed on the result was shown.
To see how much of the variance in reading and the significance of the observed t-value for
comprehension is accounted for by each of the each predictor were checked. The results are
nine predictors, the standardized coefficients summarized in Table 5.
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Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, Vol. 4 No. 1, July 2014, pp. 23-38
As Table 5 shows, of all the nine predictors, To analyze the data further, a stepwise
musical, interpersonal, and kinesthetic multiple regression was conducted, which
intelligences account for a statistically showed that musical, interpersonal, kinesthetic
significant portion of the variance in reading and logical intelligences entered into the
comprehension. Of these three intelligence regression equation (stepwise criteria:
types, musical intelligence is the best predictor probability of F<= 0.050). Model summary
of reading comprehension, accounting for (Table 6) shows that the musical intelligence
approximately 25 percent of variance in and reading comprehension share 32% of
reading comprehension. This means for every variance. Musical and interpersonal
one standard deviation of change in one's intelligences together share 40% of variance
musical intelligence, there will be about .25 of with reading comprehension. The combinations
a standard deviation change in one's reading of musical, interpersonal and kinesthetic
comprehension. This is closely followed by intelligences explain 44% of variance in
interpersonal intelligence, accounting for reading comprehension. In addition, logical
around 22% of the variance in reading intelligence makes an additional contribution
comprehension. The kinesthetic intelligence is of about one percent to the predictive power of
the least powerful predictor of the three, the previous intelligence types in reading
explaining only 18% of the variance in reading comprehension.
comprehension.
This means that musical, interpersonal, and significance level of the observed t-value
kinesthetic and logical intelligences were found for each of the four intelligences that entered
to be positive predictors of reading the regression equation.
comprehension. Table 7, shows the Beta value
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Zarei & Afshar, Multiple intelligences as predictors of reading comprehension ...
It can be seen that the mean score of the to see the degree of the relationship among
logical intelligence group is the highest and the vocabulary test and types of MI, the results of
mean score of the existential intelligence group which are shown in Table 9.
is the lowest. A correlation analysis was used
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As it is shown, vocabulary knowledge has us that the combination of all intelligence types
the highest correlation with musical account for around 50% of the total variance in
intelligence and the lowest correlation with vocabulary test.
natural intelligence. The model summary tells
Table 11 gives the results of the ANOVA hypothesis that the predictive power of the
performed on the model, testing the null model is insignificant.
Based on Table 11, a significant result was coefficients and the significance of the
shown. To see how much of the variance in observed t-value for each predictor were
vocabulary knowledge is accounted for by each checked. The results are summarized in Table
of the nine predictors, the standardized 12.
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Zarei & Afshar, Multiple intelligences as predictors of reading comprehension ...
Model Standardized
Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta t Sig.
1 (Constant) 6.560 .777 8.446 .000
Natural .025 .013 .099 1.876 .062
Musical .052 .012 .254 4.178 .000
Existential -.017 .019 -.054 -.876 .382
Interpersonal .020 .011 .102 1.754 .081
Logical .013 .013 .062 .997 .320
Kinesthetic .025 .012 .117 2.019 .045
Verbal .033 .012 .171 2.638 .009
Intrapersonal .018 .012 .083 1.438 .152
Visual .033 .012 .172 2.827 .005
a. Dependent Variable: vocabulary
Based on Table 12, of all the nine vocabulary knowledge. This is closely
predictors, only musical, verbal, visual, and followed by verbal and visual intelligences;
kinesthetic intelligences account for a accounting for around 17% of the variance in
statistically significant portion of the variance vocabulary knowledge. Kinesthetic
in the dependent variable (Vocabulary intelligence is the least powerful predictor of
Knowledge). Of these four intelligence types, the four, explaining only 11% of the variance
musical intelligence is the best predictor of in vocabulary knowledge.
vocabulary knowledge, accounting for To analyze the data further, a stepwise
approximately 25 percent of variance in multiple regression was conducted, which
vocabulary knowledge. This means for every showed that musical, interpersonal, kinesthetic,
one standard deviation of change in one's logical, and natural intelligences entered the
musical intelligence, there will be about .25 of regression equation (stepwise criteria:
a standard deviation change in one's probability of F<= 0.050).
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Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, Vol. 4 No. 1, July 2014, pp. 23-38
in vocabulary knowledge is accounted for by observed t-value for each predictor were
each of the nine predictors, the standardized checked. The results are summarized in Table
coefficients and the significance of the 14.
As Table 14 shows, of the nine predictors, accordance with a number of previous studies
only musical, verbal, visual, kinesthetic, and (e.g. Akbari & Hosseini, 2008; Alghazo,
natural intelligences account for a statistically Obeidat, Al-trawneh, & Alshraideh 2009;
significant portion of the variance in Arnold & Fonseca 2004; Hashemi 2007) which
vocabulary knowledge. Of these five support the present findings in that they all,
intelligence types, musical intelligence is the much like the present study, emphasized
best predictor, accounting for approximately 28 different types of MI as predictors of reading
percent of variance in vocabulary knowledge. comprehension and vocabulary knowledge.
This is closely followed by verbal intelligence, However, the findings are different from some
accounting for around 22%, and visual other studies (e.g. Razmjoo, 2008; Saricaoglu
intelligence accounting for around 20% of the & Arikan, 2009), which did not find MI types
variance in vocabulary knowledge. Kinesthetic as predictors of reading comprehension and
and natural intelligences are the least powerful vocabulary knowledge.
predictors of the five, explaining 13% and 11% According to Hashemi (2007), kinesthetic
of the variance in vocabulary knowledge, and verbal intelligences make significant
respectively. contribution to predicting reading
The present study attempted to investigate comprehension. So, the present study is
types of MI as predictors of reading partially in line with Hashemi's study in that
comprehension and vocabulary knowledge. kinesthetic intelligence turned out to be a
Some of the findings of the present study are in predictor of reading comprehension. However,
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Zarei & Afshar, Multiple intelligences as predictors of reading comprehension ...
unlike Hashemi’s study, verbal intelligence explain why this happened. Another surprise
was not found to be a predictor of reading was that logical/mathematical intelligence was
comprehension here. Moreover, Akbari and not among the predictors of vocabulary and
Hosseini (2008) showed verbal intelligence as reading comprehension ability. Since both
the most appropriate predictor of language language and mathematics learning involve
proficiency. This is partially supported by the analytic processing, one would expect both
findings of the present study, as the vocabulary and reading ability to be closely
participants' verbal intelligence turned out as correlated with mathematical intelligence.
the second best predictor of vocabulary scores. The above mentioned areas of conflict are
The present study is also compatible with that probably indicative of the need for further
of Medina (1993), which diagnosed musical research. Perhaps what makes this study
intelligence as a significant predictor of different from other studies is that it was
language ability. In this study, musical carried out in an EFL context while most of the
intelligence was the strongest predictor of both mentioned studies were conducted in ESL
vocabulary and reading comprehension ability. settings.
On the other hand, the results of the present
study are different from a number of studies CONCLUSION
reviewed earlier. This study revealed that some Based on the findings of the present study, a
MI types could be predictors of reading number of points may be concluded. First, the
comprehension and vocabulary knowledge, but findings indicate that musical intelligence is
Razmjoo (2008) found no significant the best predictor of both vocabulary and
relationship between MI and English language reading comprehension. Since musical
proficiency in Iranian context. Motallebzadeh intelligence involves the ability to sing, and to
and Manuchehri (2008) also reported that only understand and use rhythm, it can be concluded
logical intelligence has a significant that the inclusion of poems and songs should
relationship with reading comprehension and facilitate both reading comprehension and
the eight other types have no significant vocabulary learning. Second, since visual
relationship with reading comprehension. intelligence turned out to be significantly
One of the possible reasons for such correlated with vocabulary knowledge, the
differences may be partially attributable to the conclusion to be drawn is that pictorial
gender differences leading to different abilities presentation of vocabulary, or combining
of the participants. In this study, gender was vocabulary with pictures in the form of
not taken into account. However, studies such pictorial glosses or photo dictionaries, may
as Kaur and Chhikara (2008), Razmjoo (2008), positively influence vocabulary learning. In
Saricaoglu and Arikan (2009), and Shearer addition, since reading and vocabulary
(2006) emphasize the prominent role of gender knowledge are significantly correlated with
differences in MI-based programs. only three and four of the intelligences,
Another possible reason could be respectively, activities could be incorporated in
differences in the proficiency level of the the classroom to activate only the right kind of
participants. In this study, the participants intelligence to improve the learning conditions.
were intermediate level students while in In short, the findings of the present study can
studies such as Razmjoo (2008), the help teachers to obtain a clear understanding of
participants were Ph.D students and in Kaur MI theory and its applicability in a pedagogical
and Chhikara (2008), the participants were context. Teachers can find new ways of
young adolescents. teaching to consider their learners' need as well
One of the surprising findings of this study as their intelligence profiles.
was that linguistic intelligence was not a The present study may also have
significant predictor of either vocabulary or implications for material developers and
reading comprehension. Since both of the syllabus designers. They should develop
above are components of language, it is hard to materials and course books to improve the
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Zarei & Afshar, Multiple intelligences as predictors of reading comprehension ...
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