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Chapter 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents the literature and studies that are useful in coming up with

the total concept of the study.

Literature

Parental involvement may have very essential in school-based activities of their

children. These activities may involve contacts with teachers, checking the attendance of

children in school, monitoring their activities in school, checking their periodical

academic progress reports. All these things might be very helpful in higher level

academic achievements of children. Parents become more concerned about the learning

opportunities that secondary schools provide. As children move from the middle grades

to the secondary school, parents also crystallize their educational expectations for their

children. As students complete school education, parents become increasingly concerned

about their teen’s further education and about the effects of secondary school programs

on postsecondary opportunities (Catsambis & Garland, 1997).

Parental involvement in education of their children has been significantly linked

with the quality of education and academic achievement of children. It may further

contribute in mitigating the mass level failure of students in examinations that may

indirectly cause wastage of parents’ own resources as well as the public expenditures for

imparting formal education in schools. For example, 50 per cent students fail in

secondary level education examinations means loss of half of the public budget spent on

educating the students and parents expenditures for purchasing books and other allied

expenses for educating their children. Besides bearing the financial expenses of educating
 17

children, parental involvement in academic activities of their children may not only save

personal and public spending but also it would be contributive in improving the quality of

education of children at individual and national level.

Home experiences are vital in shaping children’s future mathematical interests,

beliefs, and motivations. The role of parents in shaping their children’s future

mathematics’ attitudes and motivation is key during early childhood. Iruka and Barbarin

and Aikens (2008) noted that parents and families are considered the most essential

others who children encounter in the earliest stage of their lives. The reason why parents

are considered the most essential others in their children’s early and later lives is because

children observe and learn from, and later apply as parallel their early observations.

Because each parent provides different experiences at home, the observations of each

child results in differences related to their parents’ attitudes, values, and beliefs about

mathematics. All of these parental behaviours lead to different educational emphases in

the home (Cross, Woods, & Schweingruber, 2009). To provide more positive educational

experiences at home, parents need to be informed about how their involvement affects

their children’s mathematical skills and knowledge.

Parental involvement is not a new concept but has evolved, in this country, from

parents being concerned about their son’s education and their daughter’s dowry to a

genuine concern for the education of both sons and daughters. It is only in the past few

decades that studies, such as the Perry Preschool Project that began in 1960 by Sweinhart

and Weikart, (cited in Gestwicki, 1996) have been done to assess the effects of parent

involvement on children’s educational and personal success. This project followed 123

children who attended high quality early childhood programs for two-and-a half hours
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five days a week and whose parents were visited in their homes by teachers for ninety

minutes every week. The children were followed from preschool through their twenty-

seventh birthday. They did very well both academically and socially. They received less

remedial education, graduated from high school and went on to jobs and higher education

at twice the rate of children without the preschool experience. Additionally, they had

fewer teen pregnancies, fewer arrests, and less welfare dependency. As adults they were

more likely to be married, own a home, and hold a stable job.

Velez & Jones (1997) research concluded parent/child interaction lays a firm

foundation for academic achievement. The stronger the relationships, especially as they

relate to educational issues, the higher the academic achievement. The research is now

beyond dispute. When schools and families work together to support learning, children

tend to succeed not only in school, but throughout life (Wherry, no date). Johnston (1998)

attributes student’s achievement, school adjustment, and good behavior to parent/family

involvement in the educational process. The Metropolitan Omaha Educational

Consortium [MOEC] (1999) cited the comprehensive survey of research done as a series

of publications by Henderson, Henderson, and Berla, (1981, 1987, and 1995). Henderson

et al. cited more than 85 studies, which documented the profound and comprehensive

benefits for students, families, and schools, when parents and family members became

participants in the education and lives of their children. There are hundreds of studies that

conclude with the same basic results, children are more successful when parents take an

active role in their lives. Dr. Joyce Epstein, PhD., director of the Center on School,

Family, and Community Partnerships at Johns Hopkins University, is one of the leading

experts in the field of parent involvement. She and Sanders stated, “More will be
 19

accomplished if schools, families, and communities work together to promote successful

students.” (Epstein & Sanders, 2000, p. 1).

Student success is most commonly associated with grade point average (GPA)

and test scores. According to Wherry (no date), research can now document the following

benefits for students: higher grades and test scores, better attendance and more homework

done, fewer placements in special education, more positive attitudes and behavior, higher

graduation rates, and greater enrollment in post-secondary education. Johnston (1998)

stated students whose families were involved in school tended to express higher

aspirations for their educations and careers. These students were more likely to set career

goals in scientific, technical, and professional areas. As high school students they were

more likely to enroll in advanced courses. They had a stronger commitment to life-long

education than students whose parents were not involved. Crime, alcohol use, drug use,

and other anti-social behaviors decreased among adolescents as the amount of parent

involvement in schooling increased. There was a general avoidance of high-risk

behaviors. Students with involved parents were nearly three times more likely than

students whose parents were uninvolved to be engaged in school-sponsored activities

such as the arts, academics, service clubs, and athletics. Students who felt connected to

the school, typically, exhibited higher achievement, better social skills, and higher levels

of self-esteem. Johnston (1998) continued his discussion of the outcomes of parent

involvement with the following information: Students whose parents were uninvolved

were twice as likely as those with involved parents to be in the bottom half of their class

or repeat a grade. Johnston states, “There is some indication that the degree of parent
 20

involvement is more significant in the school success of students than virtually any other

variable, including race, social class, or native language.”(p. 193).

Studies

According to Ali Khan, (2015) entitled “parental involvement and academic

achievement; a study on secondary school students of lahore, Pakistan” The present

research aims to explore the effect of parental involvement in the academic achievement

of their children. The research was conducted in Allama Iqbal Town, Lahore city. A total

of 150 students (boys and girls) of 9th class of secondary schools (public and private)

were taken as respondents. Four schools were selected through simple random sampling

which include one boy and one girl from each of the public and private schools categories

for equal representation of both boy and girl students in the sample frame of present

study. Survey questionnaire was used as a tool for data collection. After the analysis of

data, it was found that parental involvement has significance effect in better academic

performance of their children. The present research has proved that parental involvement

enhanced the academic achievements of their children.

Izzo et al (1999) studied 1205 US children from kindergarten through to grade 3

in a 3 year longitudinal research programme. Teachers rated four forms of involvement;

frequency of parent-teacher contact; quality of parent teacher interaction; participation in

educational activities in the home; and participation in school activities. These factors, as

well as family background variables were examined to find any relationship they might

have with school achievement as indexed by school grades. Consistent with other studies,

Izzo et al showed that all forms of parental involvement declined with child’s age and

that involvement in the home ‘predicted the widest range of performance variance. In
 21

another longitudinal study, Dubois et al (1994) showed that family support and the

quality of parent child relationships significantly predicted school adjustment in a sample

of 159 young US adolescents (aged 10 –12) followed in a two year longitudinal study.

At-home parental involvement clearly and consistently has significant effects on pupil

achievement and adjustment which far outweigh other forms of involvement.

Zellman and Waterman (1998) found important contributions of parent

enthusiasm and positive parenting style to child outcomes. This suggests that how parents

interact with their children is more important in predicting academic outcomes than the

extent to which they are involved at school. Parenting style is not enmeshed in a social

context defined by poverty, wealth, or ethnicity. Parenting style may be both teachable

and changeable, a most encouraging fact for parents who want to help their children and

for those who want to help parents help their children.

Research conducted by, Berg, 2005, Farley, 2000-2004, Kramer and Berg, 2003,

& Lydersen, 2003, shows that there are interrelations between the prostitute,

sexual/physical abuse, substance abuse, and violence. In some cases it is the violence and

substance abuse that is experienced during childhood which embeds itself inside the

child, increases their likelihood to enter the sex trade industry.

Friedel, Cortino, Turner and Midgley (2010) noted that parental involvement in

its many and varied ways is a vital parameter for increasing children’s mathematics

achievement. Current studies have indicated some specific factors that play an essential

role in increasing children’s mathematics achievement: Parental aspirations, parent-child

communication, home structure, and parents’ involvement in school’s activities ( Wang,

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2004). Bicer, Capraro, and Cetin (2012) noted similar indicators affecting children’s

mathematical achievement either adversely or positively: parents socio-economic status,

parents’ success expectations from their children’s mathematics courses, parental beliefs

about mathematics, and parent-child, teacher and school communication.

Demir, Kilic, and Unal (2010) demonstrated that students whose parents were

highly educated and exposed to mathematics before in their lives tend to show more

success in mathematics than their peers whose parents were less educated and not being

exposed to mathematics. The reason for this correlation is because highly educated

parents know the learning requirements and had the opportunity to provide the best

educational environment for their children (Alomar, 2006). Parents can increase the

potential development of their children mathematical knowledge and skills by setting

high expectations and providing stimulating environments (Cross et al., 2009). Israel,

Beaulieu, and Hartless (2001) concluded that parents’ socioeconomic status is correlated

with a child’s educational achievement.

Farooq, Shafiq and Berhanu (2011) concluded that students whose parents are

educated score higher on standardized tests than those whose parents were not educated.

Educated parents can better communicate with their children regarding the school work,

activities and the information being taught at school. They can better assist their children

in their work and participate at school (Fantuzzo & Tighe, 2000). The academic

performance of students heavily depends upon the parental involvement in their academic

activities to attain the higher level of quality in academic success (Barnard, 2004).

Dysfunctional family processes (e.g. conflict, substance abuse, child abuse,

negative modelling, disturbed parent-child relationships, deprivation of stimulation and

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affection) can affect children’s performance and behaviour. Children in such family

circumstances are at increased risk of hyperactivity, truancy, mental health disorders (and

suicide), delinquency, and low levels of literacy and self-esteem.

Smith and May (2006) emphasised the importance of children’s interactions with

the more competent members of the culture (predominantly family members). She

describes families as having a key function in providing responsive learning contexts

which allow children to gradually take more and more initiative in their own learning,

work cooperatively on shared tasks with others, and provide responsive feedback. The

key elements of this process are dialogue, social interaction and graduated assistance

based on the child’s existing skills and knowledge.

The literature and studies in this chapter presented different results as compared to

the results of the current investigation. Most of them yielded a significant relationship

between intended effects of family involvement and their academic performance.

However, the current study had contrasting results in which it revealed that there was no

significant relationship between perceived effects of family involvement in students’

academic performance.