Chapter 28 Lecture In this lecture you’ll learn

• To characterize AC circuit
quantities in terms of amplitude,
frequency, and phase
• To describe current-voltage
relations in resistors, capacitors,
and inductors
Alternating-Current • To describe the oscillatory
behavior of LC circuits
Circuits • To
T explain
l i d
damped d LC
oscillations and resonance
– And their analogy with
mechanical oscillations and
resonance
• About power in AC circuits
• How transformers work
Slide 28-1 Slide 28-2

Alternating Current and Voltage Resistor in an AC Circuit

• Sinusoidally
y varying
y g alternating g voltageg and current are characterized byy • Let the AC voltage be (setting  = 0)
frequency, amplitude, and phase. V  Vp sin t
V  Vp sin  t    , I  I p sin  t    • The current is in phase with the voltage:
–  is the angular frequency:  = 2f,
2f where f is the frequency in hertz I  I p sin t  Vp sin t R
(Hz), or cycles per second. – Current and voltage amplitudes are related by
• Household voltage: f = 60 Hz,  = 377 rad/s
I p  Vp R , I rms  Vrms R I
– Amplitude can be given as the peak • The instantaneous rate of energy dissipation is:
value, or as the root-mean-square
(rms) value. P  I 2 R  I p 2 R sin 2 t t

• For a sinusoidally varying quantity, • The average power dissipation is:

 
2
the rms value is the peak value P  I p 2 R sin 2 t  I p 2 R 2  I p 2 R
divided by 2 : I2
V I I 2
R V 2
R  I rmsVrms
Vrms  p , I rms  p
rms rms Ip2
2 2 – Thus the rms current is the direct current Ip2/2
• Household voltage: Vrms = 120 V, that would dissipate the same amount of
t
Vp = 170 V. energy in a resistor as is actually
Slide 28-3 dissipated by the AC current. Slide 28-4
 Clicker Question Capacitor in an AC Circuit
• The charge
g in the capacitor
p is q = CV. Thus,,
the current is
dq dV d
An ac voltage source, with a peak output of 200 V, is connected I C  C Vp sin t 
to a 50 ohm resistor
resistor. What is the rate of heating power in the dt dt dt
resistor?  CVp cos t  CVp sin t   / 2 
• Current in the capacitor leads voltage by V I
/2 or 90°.
– Average power dissipation is zero
1. 200 W • Current and voltage amplitudes are related
2. 400 W by
3. 566 W Vp Vp V
I p  CVp   , I rms  rms
4
4. 800 W 1/ C X C XC
1 1
• X C  C  2 ffC is the capacitive reactance (SI unit: Ohm).

– As  → 0, XC →  (capacitor behaves as open circuit)

Slide 28-5
– As  → , XC → 0 (capacitor behaves as short circuit) Slide 28-6

Inductor in an AC Circuit Capacitors and Inductors

• The inductor emf is: EL   L(dI / dt ) • Capacitors and inductors are complementary devices.
dI
• The loop rule gives Vp sin t  L
dt
Vp Vp Vp
 I   sin tdt   cos t  sin t   / 2 
L L L
• Voltage in the inductor leads current by /2 or
90°.
– Average power dissipation is zero
• Current and voltage amplitudes are related by
Vp Vp Vrms
Ip   , I rms 
L XL XL

• X L   L  2 fL is the inductive reactance (SI unit: Ohm).

As  → 0,
– A 0 XL → 0 (i
(inductor
d t b behaves
h as short
h t circuit)
i it)
– As  → , XL →  (inductor behaves as open circuit)
Slide 28-7 Slide 28-8
 Clicker Question Clicker Question

Suppose you are designing an audio system containing both

A capacitor and an inductor are connected across separate but identical large loudspeakers (woofers) and small loudspeakers
electric generators, and the same current flows in each. If the frequency (tweeters). If you wish to deliver low-frequency signals to a
of the generators is doubled, which component will carry more current? woofer, what device would you place in series with it?

A. The inductor will carry more current.

B The capacitor will carry more current
B. current. 1
1. an inductor
2. a capacitor
3
3. a resistor

Slide 28-9 Slide 28-10

Clicker Question LC Circuit

• Assume the capacitor is initially charged and
then the switch is closed I
In the circuit below, the switch is closed and the lightbulb glows • Neglect resistance and energy losses due to
steadily. The inductor is a simple air-core solenoid. An iron rod is +
radiation
inserted into the interior of the solenoid, which increases the qp -
magnitude of the magnetic field in the solenoid. As this • Applying loop rule to the circuit:
happens, the brightness of the lightbulb: dI q d 2q q dq
L  0  2  I
dt C dt LC dt
• This equation is analogous to that for mass on
a spring executing simple harmonic motion:
1. increases d 2x kx
2
    2 x  x  A sin t   
2. decreases dt m
• Both capacitor charge and current oscillate
3. Remains the same sinusoidallyy as a function of time: qx 1 2 1
LI  mv 2
q  q p cos t , I  dq dt   q p sin t   I p sin t I  v 2 2
L  m Q2 1 2
− Angular frequency depends on both L and C:  kx
1 C  1 k 2C 2

LC
− Capacitor charge and current are 90o out of phase with each other
Slide 28-11 Slide 28-12
 Energy in the LC Circuit Clicker Question
• During the oscillations, energy is
transferred back and forth between The switch S is left at position a for a long period of time and the
electric energy in the capacitor and charge on the capacitor is Qmax. When the switch is moved to
magnetic energy in the inductor: position b, find the maximum current Imax which passes through
q2 1 2 the inductor.
U total  U E  U B   LI
2C 2
q 2p 1
 cos 2 t  LI p2 sin 2 t C
2C 2 1) I max  Qmax
q 2p L
1 2
  LI p  constant L
2C 2 2) I max  Qmax
• Without dissipation, the oscillations C
persist indefinitely.
3) I max  Qmax LC

1
4) I max  Qmax
LC

Slide 28-13 Slide 28-14

Damped LC Oscillations Driven Oscillations and Resonance

• With resistance in the circuit
circuit, LC oscillations • An RLC circuit driven by an AC voltage
damp out. source exhibits frequency-dependent
behavior.
• The differential equation for the RLC circuit
is – Current is g
greatest at the resonant
d 2q dq q frequency:
L 2 R  0 0  1 LC
dt dt C
• LC circuit can be used as a tuning circuit for radio
and the solution is • Resonance occurs because voltages in a series capacitor and
inductor are 180° out of phase.
q  t   qp e  Rt 2 L cos t
– At resonance they completely cancel.
– For sufficiently low resistance, the circuit
continues to oscillate but the amplitude
decreases exponentially
exponentially.
– The condition R2 = 4L/C corresponds to
critical damping, under which all circuit
quantities
titi decay
d tto zero without
ith t
oscillation.
ωd
Slide 28-15 Slide 28-16
 Clicker Question Phasor Diagrams
• Phasors are vectors that rotate with the angular frequency  of AC
quantities.
You have an LC circuit that oscillates at a typical AM radio frequency of – The length of a phasor represents the peak value.
1 MHz.
MH YouY wantt tot change
h the
th capacitor
it so it oscillates
ill t att a ttypical
i l FM – The projection of a phasor on an axis represents the
frequency of 100 MHz. By what factor should you change the instantaneous value.
capacitance value of the capacitor? – The angle between phasors represents their phase relation.

A
A. 102
B. 102
C. 10
4
C
4
D. 10

Slide 28-17 Slide 28-18

RLC Circuit Phase Angle and Power Factor

• Phase difference between voltage and
• Voltage amplitude is given by currentt is
i given
i b
by:
Vp  VR2p  VLp  VCp   I p R 2   X L  X C 
2 2
X L  X C  L  1/ C
tan   
Vp  I p Z , Vrms  I rms Z R R
• Z is the impedance (SI unit: Ohm) of the −  > 0: The circuit is more inductive
circuit: −  < 0: The circuit is more capacitive
Z  R2   X L  X C 
2

• Instantaneous power dissipation is:

• Current amplitude is the greatest when 1
the impedance
p is the lowest: P  I p sin t   Vp sin t  I pVp  cos   cos  2t    
1 1 2
X L  XC  L   0  • Average power dissipation is then:
C LC 1
i e when the frequency matches the
i.e., P  I pVp cos   I rmsVrms cos  cos  - power factor
natural frequency of the LC circuit. 2
− Purely inductive or capacitive circuit does not dissipate energy
• At resonance, the current in the circuit is:
− Onlyy resistors dissipate
p energy:
gy
Vp
Ip  VR ,rms  I rms R  Vrms cos   P  I rms
2
R
R
Slide 28-19 Slide 28-20
 Transformers Transformers and Power Transmission
• A transformer is a ppair of coils wound around • Electric power is most efficiently transmitted at high voltages.
a laminated iron core. – This reduces I2R energy losses in the power lines.
• The magnetic field lines are confined almost – However, most end uses require lower (step-down) voltages.
completely within the core.
– Transformers
T f accomplish
li h voltage
lt changes
h throughout
th h t the
th power
• An AC voltage in the primary induces a grid.
voltage in the secondary.
dB dB N
V1   N1 , V2   N 2  V2  2 V1
dt dt N1
− For an ideal transformer, there are no energy
losses: I1V1 =I 2V2
− Step-up transformer: N2 > N1, V2 > V1, I2 < I1
− Step
Step-down
down transformer: N2 < N1, V2 < V1, I2 > I1
• Transformers can be used for impedance matching. For a load
resistance R connected to the secondary, the equivalent resistance seen
by the primary is: 2 2
V N  V N 
Req  1   1  2   1  R
I1  N 2  I 2  N 2 
Slide 28-21 Slide 28-22

Clicker Question Clicker Question

A 6 V battery is connected to one side of a transformer. Compared to

the voltage drop across coil A, the voltage across coil B is:
The primary winding of an electric train transformer has 400 turns
and the secondary has 50. If the input voltage is 120 V (rms), what
is the output voltage?

1) greater than 6 V
2) 6 V 1. 480.0 V
3) less than 6 V 2. 60.0 V
4) zero 3. 15.0 V
A B 4
4. 10 0 V
10.0
6V

Slide 28-23 Slide 28-24

Clicker Question Summary
• Electrical q
quantities in alternating
g current circuits varyy sinusoidallyy
with time characterized by amplitude (peak or rms), frequency (in Hz
or as angular frequency), and phase.
A transformer consists of a 500 turn primary coil and a 2000 • Circuit components generally exhibit frequency-dependent behavior.
secondary
d coil.
il If th
the currentt iin th
the secondary
d iis 3
3.0
0 amps, what
h t – Voltage and current are in phase in resistors.
is the primary current?
– Current leads voltage in capacitors.
– Voltageg leads current in inductors.
– A circuit consisting of an inductor and capacitor undergoes
oscillations at frequency
1. 0.75 A   1 LC
2. 1.33 A • With resistance present, the oscillations damp out.
3. 12.0 A • Driven oscillations result in maximum peak current at the
4. 48.0 A resonant frequency
q y
 0  1 LC

• Power in AC circuits is the product of rms voltage and current with the
power factor:
P  I rmsVrms cos  .
Slide 28-25 Slide 28-26