DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Sympathetic - stimulation
Six Basic Processes
1. Ingestion
2. Secretion (water, acid, buffers, and
enzymes into lumens)
3. Mixing and Propulsion
4. Digestion
a. Mechanical
b. Chemical
5. Absorption
6. Defecation (excretion)
Layers of GI Tract
● Mucosa - inner lining, epithelium
protection, secretion, and absorption
● Submucosa - connective tissue binding
mucosa to muscularies
● Muscularis
a. Voluntary skeletal muscle found in
mouth, pharynx, upper 2/3 of
esophagus, and anal sphincter
b. Involuntary smooth muscle
elsewhere
● Serosa (Visceral Peritoneum) - outermost
layer covering the organs suspended in the
abdominopelvic cavity
*Note: The esophagus does not contain serosa but
rather has adventitia
Neural Innervation
● Enteric Nervous System (ENS) - extends
from esophagus to anus (intrinsic)
a. Myenteric Plexus - GI tract motility
b. Submucosal Plexus - controlling
secretions
● Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) -
extrinsic
a. Parasympathetic - stimulation
increases secretion and activity
(stimulate ENS)
b.
decreases secretion and activity
(inhibit ENS)
Mouth (Oral/Buccal Cavity)
● Salivary Glands
a. Parotid
b. Submandibular
c. Sublingual
● Ordinarily, just enough is secreted to keep
mouth and pharynx moist and clean
● When food enters mouth, secretion
increases to lubricate, dissolve and begin
chemical digestion
● Saliva
a. Mostly water 99.5%
b. 0.5% solutes – ions, dissolved
gases, urea, uric acid, mucus,
immunoglobulin A, lysozyme, and
salivary amylase (acts on starch)
c. Not all salivary glands produce the
same saliva
● Salivation
a. Controlled by autonomic nervous
system
b. Parasympathetic stimulation
promotes secretion of moderate
amount of saliva
c. Sympathetic stimulation decreases
salivation
● Tongue
a. Accessory digestive organ
b. Skeletal muscle covered by mucous
membrane
c. Maneuvers food for chewing,
shapes mass, forces food back for
swallowing
d. Lingual glands secrete salivary
lipase
● Teeth
a. Accessory digestive organ
b. 3 major regions – crown, root, and
neck
c. Dentin of crown covered by enamel
d. 2 dentitions – deciduous and
permanent teeth
 ● Mechanical Digestion
a. Chewing or mastication
b. Food manipulated by tongue,
ground by teeth, and mixed with
saliva
c. Forms bolus
● Chemical Digestion
a. Salivary amylase secreted by
salivary glands acts on starches
I. Only monosaccharides can
be absorbed
II. Continues to act until
inactivated by stomach acid
b. Lingual lipase secreted by lingual
glands of tongue acts on
triglycerides
I. Becomes activated in acidic
environment of stomach
*Note: Mouth → Pharynx
Pharynx
1. Nasopharynx - respiration
2. Oropharynx - digestion and respiration
3. Laryngopharynx - digestion and
respiration
Esophagus
● Secretes mucous, transports food – no
enzymes produced, no absorption
● Mucosa – protection against wear and tear
● Submucosa
● Muscularis divided in thirds
a. Superior 1/3 skeletal muscle
b. Middle 1/3 skeletal and smooth
muscle
c. Inferior 1/3 smooth muscle
d. 2 sphincters – upper esophageal
sphincter (UES) regulates
movement into esophagus, lower
esophageal sphincter (LES)
regulates movement into stomach
Deglutition (Swallowing)
● Facilitated by secretions of saliva and
mucus
● Involves mouth, pharynx, and esophagus
● 3 stages:
a. Voluntary – bolus passed to
oropharynx
b. Pharyngeal – involuntary passage
through pharynx into esophagus
c. Esophageal – involuntary passage
through esophagus to stomach
*Note: BOLUS: FOOD + SALIVA
CHYME: FOOD + ACID
Stomach
Mixing chamber and holding reservoir
● Regions: Cardia, Fundus (food storage),
Body, Pylorus
● Mucosa – gastric glands open into gastric
pits; lubricates and protects the surface of
the stomach
● 3 Types of Exocrine Gland Cells:
a. mucous neck cells (mucus)
b. parietal cells (intrinsic factor and
HCl)
c. chief cells (pepsinogen and gastric
lipase)
d. Endocrine cell/G cell (secretes
gastrin)
● Submucosa
● Muscularis – additional 3rd inner oblique
layer
● Serosa – part of visceral peritoneum
● Mechanical​ ​Digestion​ - creates chyme
through mixing waves (gentle, rippling
peristaltic movements)
● Chemical​ ​Digestion​:
a. Salivary amylase - digestion which
is inactivated by acidic gastric
juices
b. Lingual lipase - activated by acidic
gastric juice to ​digest triglycerides
into fatty acids and diglycerides
c. Parietal Cells - secretes HCl
(stimulated by Ach, Gastrin, and
Histamine)
*Notes:
 ● HCl + IF helps with Vitamin B12
absorption.
● HCl + Pepsinogen helps with Proteolysis
Pancreas
● Secretes pancreatic juice
● Pancreatic juice → Pancreatic duct and
accessory duct → small intestine
● 99% of cells are acini (exocrine) which
produces the pancreatic juice
● 1% of cells are pancreatic islets (islets of
Langerhans) which secretes hormones
a. Glucagon (Alpha Cells) - inc blood
sugar
b. Insulin (Beta Cells) - dec blood
sugar
c. Somatostatin (Delta Cells) -
regulates sugar levels
d. Pancreatic Polypeptide (F Cells) -
aids in digestion
● Pancreatic Juice (1200mL-1500mL daily) -
mostly water; contains:
a. Sodium bicarbonate - buffers acidic
stomach chyme
b. Enzymes
I. Pancreatic Amylase (starch
digesting enzyme)
II. Proteolytic Enzymes (e.g.
trypsin, chymotrypsin,
carboxypeptidase)
III. Pancreatic Lipase (fat and
oil digesting enzyme)
IV. Ribonuclease and
Deoxyribonuclease (nucleic
acid digesting enzyme)
Bile
● Hepatocytes (liver cells) secrete
800-1000mL of bile daily
● Mostly water, bile salts (aids
emulsification and absorption of lipids),
cholesterol, lecithin, bile pigments, and
ions
● Bilirubin
Gallbladder
● Store and concentrate bile produced by the
liver until it is needed in the small intestine
● Absorbs water and ions to concentrate bile
up to ten-fold
Small Intestine
● 3 regions - duodenum, jejunum, ileum
● Mucosa
a. Absorptive Cells
b. Goblet Cells
c. Intestinal Glands
d. Paneth Cells
e. Enteroendocrine Cells
f. Abundance of MALT
● Submucosa - contains duodenal glands that
secretes mucus
● Muscularis
● Serosa - completely surrounds except for
major portion of duodenum
● Contains special structural features which
increase surface area for digestion and
absorption:
a. Circular folds
b. Villi
c. Microvilli
● Mechanical Digestion - governed by
myenteric plexus and has 2 types of
movements:
a. Segmentations - localized, mixing
contractions which mixes chyme
and bring it with contact with
mucosa for absorption
b. Migrating Motility Complexes
(MMC) - a type of peristalsis
which begins in the lower portion
of the stomach and pushes food
forward
● Intestinal Juice - 1-2L daily and provides
liquid medium which aids absorption
● Brush Border Enzymes - synthesized by
absorptive cells
● Chemical Digestion
a. Carbohydrates - α-dextrinase,
sucrase, lactase, maltase (brush
border). Pancreatic amylase =
monosaccharides (absorbed)
b. Proteins - aminopeptidase and
dipeptidase (brush border).
Trypsin, chymotrypsin,
carboxypeptidase, and elastase
(pancreas).
c. Nucleic Acid - nucleosidases and
phosphatases (brush border).
Ribonuclease and
deoxyribonuclease (pancreatic
juice).
d. Lipids - pancreatic lipase.
Emulsification by bile salts inc
surface area.
● Absorption
a. Monosaccharides - absorbed by
facilitated diffusion or active
transport into blood. All dietary
carbs are absorbed while those
indigestible cellulose and fibers are
left in feces
b. Amino Acids, Dipeptides, and
Tripeptides - via active transport
into blood. Half comes from
proteins in digestive juice and dead
mucosal cells
c. Lipids - simple diffusion for dietary
lipids. Long-chain fatty acids by
exocytosis, and short-chain goes
into blood for transport
d. Electrolytes - sodium ions and
other ions by active transport (from
GI secretions or food)
e. Vitamins - Most water solubles and
Fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and
K are absorbed by ​simple
diffusion ​and transported with
lipids in micelles.
f. Water - 2.3L from ingestion, 7L
from GI secretions. Absorbed by
osmosis and only 100mL are
excreted in the feces
Large Intestine
● Complete absorption, produce certain
vitamins, form and expel feces
● 4 major regions – cecum, colon, rectum,
and anal canal
● Mucosa - mostly absorptive and goblet
cells. Has no villi but contains microvilli
● Submucosa
● Muscularis - contains longitudinal muscle
to form teniae coli. Also forms pouches
called haustra
● Mechanical Digestion
a. Haustral Churning
b. Peristalsis
c. Mass Peristalsis - drives contents of
colon towards rectum
● Chemical Digestion - is the final stage of
digestion through bacterial action which
ferments carbs, and produce B vitamins
and vitamin K. Has mucus but does not
secrete enzymes.
Absorption and Feces Formation
● After 3-10hrs, chyme is processed into
feces (solid or semi-solid)
● Small intestines contributes to 90% of
water absorption
● Large intestines also absorbs ions (Na, Cl
and some vitamins)
Defecation Reflex
Distention of Rectal Wall
⬇
Sacral Spinal Cord
⬇
Descending Colon, Sigmoid Colon, Rectum,
and Anus
⬇
Longitudinal Rectal Muscle Contraction (inc
pressure) + Diaphragm and Abdominal mm
Contractions + Parasympathetic Stimulation
 ⬇ b. Inner juxtamedullary zone
Internal Anal Sphincter Open
⬇ that extend between renal pyramids
Defecation
RENAL PHYSIOLOGY
Functions of the Kidneys
1. Regulation of blood ionic composition
2. Regulation of blood pH
3. Regulation of blood volume
4. Regulation of blood pressure
5. Maintenance of blood osmolarity
6. Production of hormones (calcitrol and
erythropoitin)
7. Regulation of blood glucose level
8. Excretion of wastes from metabolic
reactions and foreign substances
External Anatomy of the Kidneys
● Renal Hilum - indent where ureter emerges
along with blood vessels, lymphatic
vessels and nerves
● 3 Tissue Layers:
a. Renal capsule – (deep) continuous
with outer coat of ureter, barrier
against trauma, maintains kidney
shape
b. Adipose capsule – mass of fatty
tissue that protects kidney from
trauma and holds it in place
c. Renal fascia – (superficial) thin
layer of connective tissue that
anchors kidney to surrounding
structures and abdominal wall
Internal Anatomy of the Kidneys
● Renal Cortex (Superficial)
a. Outer cortical zone
c. Renal columns – portions of cortex
● Renal Medulla (Inner)
● Renal Lobe
Nephron​ - microscopic functional unit of the
kidney
Parenchyma​ (functional portion) - renal cortex
and renal pyramids of medulla
Urine Drainage
Formed by nephron → papillary ducts → minor
and major calyces →renal pelvis →ureter
→urinary bladder
Nephron
● Renal Corpuscle - filters blood plasma
a. Glomerulus - capillary network
b. Glomerular (Bowman’s) Capsule -
double walled cup surrounding
glomerulus
● Renal Tubule - passageway for filtered
fluid
a. Proximal Convoluted Tubule
b. Descending and Ascending Loop
of Henle (nephron loop)
c. Distal Convoluted Tubule
● Cortical Nephrons - 80-85%. ​Renal
corpuscle in ​outer portion of cortex​ and
short loops of Henle extend only into
outer region of medulla
● Juxtamedullary Nephrons - other 15-20%.
a. Renal corpuscle ​deep in cortex​ and
long loops of Henle extend ​deep
into medulla
b. Receive blood from peritubular
capillaries and vasa recta
c. Ascending limb has thick and thin
regions
 d. Enable kidney to secrete very dilute
or very concentrated urine
Renal Tubules and Collecting Duct
● Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT) -
contains microvilli with brush border
which increases surface area
● Juxtaglomerular Apparatus - helps regulate
BP in kidney
a. Macula Densa - cells in final part
of ascending loop of henle
b. Juxtaglomerular Cells - cells of
afferent and efferent arterioles
containing modified smooth muscle
fibers
● Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT) and
Collecting Duct
a. (+) Principal Cells - receptors for
ADH and aldosterone
b. (+) Intercalated Cells - blood pH
homeostasis
Glomerular​ ​Filtration​ - Water and most solutes
in blood plasma move across the wall of the
glomerular capillaries into glomerular capsule and
then renal tubule
Tubular​ ​Reabsorption​ - as filtered fluid moves
along tubule and through collecting duct, about
99% of water and many useful solutes reabsorbed
(returned to blood)
Tubular​ ​Secretion​ - As filtered fluid moves along
tubule and through collecting duct, other material
secreted into fluid such as wastes, drugs, and
excess ions – removes substances from blood
Glomerular Filtration
● Glomerular Filtrate - fluid that enters the
capsular space, 150-180mL daily
● Filtration membrane – endothelial cells of
glomerular capillaries and podocytes
a.
b.
✅
encircling capillaries
❎ H2O and small solutes
Most plasma proteins, blood
cells and platelets
c. Has 3 barriers to cross: glomerular
endothelial cells (fenestrations, no
blood cells but filters all
components), basal lamina (filters
large sized proteins), pedicels of
podocytes (creates filtration slits,
filters medium sized protein)
Net Filtration Pressure (NFP)
● Total pressure that promotes filtration
● Glomerular Blood Hydrostatic Pressure
(GBHP) (55 mmHg)​ - glomerular
capillary blood pressure that forces H2O
and solutes through filtration slits
● Capsular Hydrostatic Pressure (CHP)
(15 mmHg)​ - also called “back pressure”.
Hydrostatic pressure against the filtration
membrane by fluid already in the capsular
space which ​opposes filtration
● Blood Colloid Osmotic Pressure (BCOP)
(30 mmHg)​ - stimulates proteins in blood
plasma and opposes filtration
*Note: NFP = GBHP - CHP - BCOP (10 mmHg)
Glomerular Filtration Rate
● Amount of filtrate formed in all the renal
corpuscles of both kidneys each minute. It
is directly related to pressures that
determine the net filtration pressure
● 125 mL/min in males; 105 mL/min in
females
● Too high – substances pass too quickly and
are not reabsorbed (inc urine)
● Too low – nearly all reabsorbed and some
waste products not adequately excreted
(dec urine)
● 2 main ways that the mechanisms alter the
GFR:
a. Blood Flow Adjustment in the
flomerulus
b. Altering the flomerular capillary
surface area for filtration
3 Mechanisms Regulating GFR
1. Renal Autoregulation​ - kidneys maintain
a constant renal blood flow and GFR
using:
a. Myogenic Mechanism
 ● ↑BP + ↑GFR = stretched
afferent
arterioles⟶contraction of
afferent arterioles (↓BP,
↓GFR)
● ↓BP + ↓GFR = less
stretched arterioles
⟶dilation of arterial
arteriole (↑BP, ↑GFR)
b. Tubular Mechanism - slower than
myogenic mechanism
● ↑GFR⟶Macula densa
detects ↑ in sodium,
chlorine, and
H2O⟶Macula densa (-)
secretion of nitric oxide
(vasodilator)⟶
↓BF⟶↓GFR
2. Neural Regulation​ - kaya pag tumatakbo,
hindi naiihi. Consequences: ↓ urine output
& ↑ blood flow to other body tissues
a. Sympathetic ANS - releases
norepinephrine (vasoconstriction)
b. Moderate Stimulation - constriction
of afferent and efferent arterioles
are equal (↓GFR)
c. Greater Stimulation - constriction
of afferent arterioles is greater than
efferent arterioles (⇊GFR)
3. Hormonal Regulation
a. Angiotensin II - potent
vasoconstrictor of both afferent and
efferent arterioles (↓GFR)
b. Atrial Natriuretic Peptide -
stretching of atria causes release,
increases capillary surface area for
filtration (↑GFR)
Tubular​ ​Reabsorption​ - return of most of the
filtered water and many solutes to the bloodstream
● About 99% of filtered water reabsorbed
● Proximal convoluted tubule cells make
l​argest contribution
● Both active and passive processes
Tubular​ ​Secretion​ - transfer of material from
blood into tubular fluid (system to nephron)
● Helps control blood pH
● Helps eliminate substances from the body
Reabsorption and Secretion in PCT
● Largest amount of ​solute and water
(65%) reabsorption
● Reabsorbed - most involves Na+
a. Symporters ​for glucose, amino
acids, lactic acid, water-soluble
vitamins, phosphate and sulfate
b. Na+ / H+ antiporter ​causes Na+
to be reabsorbed and H+ to be
secreted
c. Promotes osmosis and creates
osmotic gradients. Aquaporin-1 in
cells lining PCT and descending
limb of loop of Henle. As water
leaves tubular fluid, solute
concentration increases.
● Secreted
a. Variable amounts of H+, NH4+
and urea
b. Urea and ammonia in blood are
filtered at the glomerulus and
secreted by proximal convoluted
tubule cells
Reabsorption in Loop of Henle
● Descending Limb - 15% water
● Ascending Limb
a. Na+, K+, -2Cl via symporters
b. Little to no water
Reabsorption and Secretion in Convoluted
Tubules and Collecting Ducts
● Reabsorption in Early Distal Convoluted
Tubule
 a. Na+ and Cl- via​ Na+-Cl-
symporters
b. Na+ via​ Sodium Potassium Pump
c. Ca+ via stimulation of
Parathyroid Hormone ​(major
site)
● Reabsorption and Secretion in Late Distal
Convoluted Tubule and Collecting Duct
a. Principal Cells - reabsorbs Na+,
secretes K+
b. Intercalated Cells - reabsorbs K+
and HCO3-, secretes H+
● Amount of water reabsorption and solute
reabsorption and secretion depends on
body’s needs
Hormonal Regulation of Tubular Reabsorption
and Secretion
● Angiotensin II ​- when blood volume and
blood pressure decrease
● Aldosterone​ - when blood volume and
blood pressure decrease. Stimulates
principal cells in collecting duct to
reabsorb more Na+ and Cl- and secrete
more K+ (increases blood volume and
blood pressure)
● Parathyroid hormone - Stimulates cells in
DCT to reabsorb more Ca2+
● RAAS - Juxtaglomerular cells secrete
RENIN (kidney)​ -> RENIN separates
Angiotensinogen (synthesized by
hepatocytes, LIVER) -> Angio I ->
Angiotensin converting enzyme (lungs)
cuts it to Angio II
(VASOCONSTRICTOR)
a. dec GFR due to vasoconstriction
b. reabsorption of Na, Cl and water in
PCT via Na/H antiporters
c. stimulates the adrenal cortex to
release Aldosterone
● Anti-diuretic Hormone
(ADH/Vasopressin)
a. Released via principal cells through
aquaporins 2
b. Dec ADH = Diluted Urine
c. Inc ADH = Concentrated Urine
d. Secretion is stimulated by decrease
in blood volume (hemorrhage) and
dehydration
e. Pathological Absence = Diabetes
Insipidus
● Atrial Natriuretic Peptide
a. Secretion stimulated by large inc in
blood volume
b. Inhibits reabsorption of Na, H2O at
PCT and CD
c. Inhibits secretion of ADH and
Aldosterone
d. Effects:
● Natriuresis (Na in urine)
● Diuresis (inc urine output
-> dec BV and BP)
Production of Dilute and Concentrated Urine
● Even though your fluid intake can be
highly variable, total fluid volume in your
body remains stable
● Depends in large part on the kidneys to
regulate the rate of water loss in urine
● ADH controls whether dilute or
concentrated urine is formed:
a. Absent or low ADH = dilute urine
b. Higher levels = more concentrated
urine through increased water
reabsorption
● Dilute Urine
● Concentrated Urine
Micturition Reflex
Stretching of Bladder
⬇
Stretch Receptors
⬇
 Micturition Center (S2 & S3) Circulating Hormones​ - passes from the
⬇ secretory cells into interstitial fluid and then into
Contraction of Detrusor mm blood (lingers in blood longer, inactivated by the
⬇ liver, and excreted by the kidneys)
Relaxation of Internal Urethral Sphincter Local Hormones​ - acts locally on neighboring
cells or on the same cell (inactivated quickly)
*Note: ​Micturition Center:​ Inhibits the somatic a. Paracrine - acts on neighboring cells
motor neuron of the skeletal mm of ​EXTERNAL b. Autocrine - acts on the same cell
URETHRAL SPHINCTER

Chemical Classes of Hormones

● Lipid-soluble - bound to transport proteins
ENDOCRINE PHYSIOLOGY (made into water-soluble temporarily to
increase solubility)
a. Steroid
● Exocrine​ - secretes into ducts into body
b. Thyroid (T3 and T4)
cavities, lumen of organs, or outer surface
c. Nitric Oxide
of body (sudoriferous/sweat, sebaceous/oil,
● Water-soluble - circulates in watery blood
mucus, and digestive glands)
plasma as free form
● Endocrine ​- secretes products into
a. Amine Hormone - synthesized by
interstitial fluid which diffuses into blood
modifying amino acids which
capillaries to be carried by blood (pituitary,
retains amino group (-NH3+)
thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal) +
b. Peptide and Protein Hormones -
(hypothalamus, thymus, pancreas, ovaries,
amino acid polymers
kidneys, testes, etc.)
c. Eicosanoid Hormones -
prostaglandins and leukotrienes
Functions of Hormones
1. Regulation of:
Hormone Interactions
a. Chemical compoisition and volume
● Responsiveness of target cell to a hormone
of internal environment (interstitial
depends on:
fluid)
a. Hormones concentration in the
b. Metabolism & energy balance
blood
c. Contraction of smooth and cardiac
b. Abundance of targets
muscle
● Permissive effect - actions of some
d. Glandular secretions
hormones or a target cell require
e. Some immune system activities
simultaneous or recent exposure to a
2. Controls growth and development
second hormone.
3. Regulate operation of reproductive system
● Synergistic effect - greater or more
4. Helps establish circadian rhythm
extensive effect due to two hormones
acting together
 ● Antagonistic effect - one hormone opposes factors (IGF), which then stimulates
the action of another hormone general body growth and regulates aspect
of metabolism.
ENDOCRINE GLANDS 2. Thyrotrops - secretes thyroid stimulating
hormone (TSH/Thyrotropin) which
Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland - regulates controls secretions and other activities of
growth, development, metabolism, and the thyroid gland.
homeostasis 3. Gonadotrophs
A. Anterior Pituitary Gland​ - responsible for a. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
regulating bodily activities (growth to b. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
reproduction). Stimulated by releasing hormones c. Both acts on the gonads which
and suppressed by inhibiting hormones from the stimulates the secretion of estrogen
hypothalamus through the hypophyseal portal and progesterone in ovaries
system. (maturation of oocytes),
*Note: Hypophyseal Portal System​ - blood stimulation of sperm production,
flows from the capillaries in the hypothalamus stimulation of sperm production,
into portal veins that carry blood to capillaries of and secretion of testosterone in the
the anterior pituitary (C-V-C) testes
a. Superior hypophyseal arteries—blood 4. Lactotrophs - prolactin (PRL) for milk
supply of hypothalamus production in mammary glands
b. Primary plexus of the hypophyseal portal 5. Corticotrophs - secretes
system (Hypothalamic Capillary adrenocorticotropic hormone
Network)→Hypophyseal portal (ACTH/Corticotropin) which stimulates
vein→Secondary plexus of the the adrenal cortex to secrete
hypophyseal portal system (anterior glucocorticoids (cortisol)
pituitary capillary network) *Note: Remnants of pars intermedia also
**Note: Neurosecretory Cells​ - synthesizes the secretes melanocyte-stimulating hormone
hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones in (MSH)
their cell bodies and packages them inside vesicles
which reach axon terminals by axonal transport > Control of Secretion by the Anterior Pituitary
exocytosis > diffuses into primary plexus > 1. Neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus
secondary plexus > anterior hypophyseal veins > secretes five releasing hormones which stimulate
general circulation secretion and two inhibiting hormones which
***Note: Tropic Hormones​ - anterior pituitary suppresses secretion
hormones that act on other endocrine glands Hormone Stimulated by Suppressed
by
Types of AP Cells and Their Hormones
1. Somatotrophs - secretes human growth hGH GHRH GHIH
hormone (hGH/somatotropin) which TSH TRH GHIH
stimulates secretion of insulin-like growth
FSH GnRH -
 LH GnRH - especially on the forehead and
PRL PRH PIH
(Dopamine)
ACTH CRH - parts of the body develop in
MSH CRH Dopamine
2. Negative feedback in the form of hormones
released by target glands decreases secretions of
three types of anterior pituitary cells (e.g. cortisol)
a. Inc cortisol levels inhibits release of
corticotropin by APG
b. Inc cortisol levels inhibits release of CRH
by hypothalamus
Hypoglycemia - low blood glucose, stimulates
GHRH
Hyperglycemia - high blood glucose, inhibits
GHRH
Human Growth Hormone
● Hypersecretion
a. GIGANTISM - during childhood.
All body tissues grow rapidly and
there is an abnormal increase in the
length of long bones. The person
grows to be very tall, but body
proportions are about normal
(hyperglycemia)
b. ACROMEGALY - occurs right
after the epiphyseal plate has been
closed (adulthood). Rare, owing to
tumor of the pituitary gland. The
bones of the hands, feet, cheeks,
and jaws thicken, vertebrae
(kyphosis) and other tissues are
enlarged. The eyelids, lips, tongue,
and nose enlarge, and the skin
thickens and develops furrows,
soles
● Hyposecretion
a. DWARFISM - all the physical
appropriate proportion to one
another, but the rate of
development is greatly decreased
B. Posterior Pituitary Gland​ - does not
synthesize hormones but stores and releases two
hormones
*Note: Pituicytes - specialized neuroglia in
posterior pituitary
1. Oxytocin - affects uterus and breasts
a. During delivery - stretching of
cervix and uterus stimulates release
of oxytocin, which stimulates
contraction of smooth muscle cells
b. After Delivery - stimulate milk
ejection (letdown)
2. Antidiuretic Hormone - bawal ihi
hormone. Decreases urine production
(returns more water to the blood)
a. Low ADH = inc urine output
b. Drinking alcohol (-) ADH = inc
urine output
Hypersecretion of ADH
● Syndrome Of Inappropriate Secretion
Anti-diuretic Hormone (SIADH)
a. Marked retention of water in the
body while decrease urine output.
b. Symptoms: Headache, confusion,
lethargy, weight gain without
visible edema, muscle cramps,
seizures, vomiting, and diarrhea.
Hyposecretion of ADG
● Diabetes Insipidus
 a. Water is not reabsorbed in the renal
tubules and is lost in the urine.
b. Due to defects in antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) receptors or an
inability to secrete ADH.
● Neurogenic Diabetes Insipidus = low ADH
● Nephrogenic Diabetes Insipidus = no
response from ADH (damaged kidneys)

C. Thyroid Gland
1. Follicular Cells - secretes
thyroxine/tetraiodothyronine (T4) and
triiodothyronine (T3)
2. Parafollicular Cells - secretes calcitonin
(CT) which helps regulate calcium
homeostasis
3. Regulates:
a. Oxygen use and basal metabolic
rate
b. Cellular Metabolism
c. Growth and development

Hypersecretion of TH
● Grave’s disease - high levels of TH due to
stimulation of antibodies. Results in
exopthalmos (eye protrusion) and thyroid
enlargement
Hyposecretion of TH
● Congenital Hypothyroidism/Cretinism -
decreased levels of TH during childhood
(severe mental retardation and stunted
bone growth)
● Myoedema - dec levels of TH during
adulthood (no mental retardation but
reduces alertiveness)
● Goiter - dec levels of TH which stimulates
TSH and causes thyroid enlargement