Road Drainage in Sweden: Current Practice and

Suggestions for Adaptation to Climate Change

Zahra Kalantari 1 and Lennart Folkeson 2
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Abstract: This paper describes current practice in road surface and subsurface drainage in Sweden and analyzes the necessity for adaptation
of the planning, construction, operation, maintenance and monitoring of road drainage measures to climate change. Based on a survey of
professionals working with various aspects of road drainage, the study sought to identify: (1) problems experienced concerning road drainage,
focusing on the current Swedish climate; (2) future problems regarding climate change impacts such as flooding and high flows; and
(3) suggestions for adaptation measures concerning road drainage systems, taking future climate change into account. Suggested improve-
ments concerning management and planning included clarification of responsibility for drainage issues, better overview of the location and
condition of drainage facilities, inclusion of drainage system maintenance in procurement of operation contracts, maintenance plans for
drainage facilities, and monitoring and inspection of drainage measures. Suggestions concerning drainage system construction, operation
and maintenance included increasing the capacity of drainage facilities, stabilizing ditch slopes and various measures to prevent clogging of
culverts. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)IS.1943-555X.0000119. © 2013 American Society of Civil Engineers.
CE Database subject headings: Infrastructure; Highways and roads; Drainage; Maintenance; Climate change; Sweden.
Author keywords: Infrastructure; Road transportation system; Adaptation; Operation and maintenance.

Introduction significantly affect the performance and lifetime of road infrastruc-

The road transport system is a critical component of society and
civilization (Cao et al. 2006). Therefore, appropriate management
and capital investments in design and maintenance of the system
are essential (Green Paper EU 2007). For continued function of
the road transport system, the road infrastructure should be robust
and capable of withstanding strains from a variety of weather
calamities (Green Paper EU 2007).
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
expects climate change to accelerate in the future. The latest report
from the panel (Schneider et al. 2007) gives examples of the
possible effects of extreme weather events on the basis of climate
projections for the middle and the end of the 21st century. Climate
features affecting the transport system include increasing average
annual temperatures, increasing precipitation, and rising ocean
levels (Green Paper EU 2007). Major transport infrastructure such
as motorways and regional roads are climate sensitive and are
therefore expected to be significantly affected by climate change.
It is expected that these changes will disrupt transport and increase
the concern for infrastructure in urban and rural areas (Koetse and
Rietveld 2009). A higher frequency of extreme precipitation events,
floods, and snowmelt periods will be experienced by the infrastruc-
ture (Koetse and Rietveld 2009). Floods and high water flows
1
Ph.D. Student, Dept. of Land and Water Resources, Royal Institute of
Technology/ KTH, SE-10044 Stockholm, Sweden (corresponding author).
E-mail: zahrak@kth.se
2
Associate Professor, Dept. of Land and Water Resources, Royal Insti-
tute of Technology/ KTH, SE-10044 Stockholm, Sweden. E-mail: lennart
.folkeson@vti.se
Note. This manuscript was submitted on April 12, 2011; approved on
July 24, 2012; published online on August 15, 2012. Discussion period
open until November 1, 2013; separate discussions must be submitted
for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Infrastructure
Systems, Vol. 19, No. 2, June 1, 2013. © ASCE, ISSN 1076-0342/2013/2-
147-156/$25.00.
ture. The anticipated pattern of flooding occasions will influence the
number of incidents such as landslides, landslips, roads being washed
away, submerged and inundated bridge supports, and road closures
(Bizikova et al. 2008). Already today, many culverts, trenches, and
other drainage facilities lack the capacity to deal with the current fre-
quency of extreme flows. In Sweden, for example, around 200 major
road infrastructure incidents occurred in the period 1994–2001 that
were attributable to high flows (Vägverket 2002).
Future changes in the pattern of hydroclimatic events will
have implications for the design and maintenance costs of roads.
Increases in rainfall and severe weather events can affect the de-
mand for emergency responses. According to IPCC, it is not only
necessary to reduce the climate change impact extensively but
also to start working proactively on adaptation to climate change.
In addition, the European Commission’s Green Paper on climate
adaptation states that it is cheaper and better to start climate change
adaptation now. Timely action is necessary and can be achieved
by anticipating the potential damage to infrastructure and also
by reducing the threats.
Even a single closed road has an impact on the transport system
and can also affect other social activities. The public sector must
take steps to change the existing construction norm to ensure that
long-term infrastructure is capable of future climate crises (Green
Paper EU 2007).
In most countries with a cold climate, road drainage mainte-
nance has been given low priority compared with resurfacing and
snow removal in the short term (Saara and Saarenketo 2006). In
road maintenance strategies, it is necessary to compare the cost
of road surface maintenance against the cost of road drainage main-
tenance and improvement. The cost of repairing the damage caused
by inadequate road drainage facilities can be higher than the cost
of road drainage improvements and maintenance (Copstead and
Johansen 1998; Furniss et al. 1997). More attention should
therefore be given to the balance between damage repair and
investments in drainage improvements.

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J. Infrastruct. Syst. 2013.19:147-156.

 A comprehensive, interdisciplinary approach to understand and
forecast road-fill failures is not yet evident in the scientific literature
(Sas 2007). The consequences of climate change and extreme
weather on the transport sector have hitherto been little studied
(Koetse and Rietveld 2009). Even in Sweden, which is a country
where climate change is expected to greatly influence the infra-
structure, little attention has been paid to the need for adaptation
(Nordlander et al. 2007). Roads are constructed so as to have a long
lifetime (Maagdenberg et al. 2006). In Sweden, the prescribed di-
mensioning technical lifetime of new road constructions is 40 years
for all layers except for the bound base layer, for which it is
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20 years. For drainpipes and culverts, the prescribed lifetime is also
40 years (IFS 2009; VVK Väg 2009). Given the predicted climate
change and the fact that extreme weather events are a major chal-
lenge for road constructions, national road construction regulations
should be based on long-term future climate change data (Liljas
2000). Furthermore, to define an effective adaptation strategy for
the road infrastructure system of a country such as Sweden, an ex-
tensive understanding of the vulnerability of roads throughout the
country to climate change is required.
This study explores the need to integrate aspects of climate
change impacts into the planning and practice of road construction
and maintenance in Sweden. The study deals with current practice
and future needs of climate change adaptation of road surface
drainage and subsurface drainage systems. The aims are (1) to
gather experience from professionals working with various prob-
lems concerning surface and subsurface drainage systems for
Swedish main roads, and (2) to discuss suggestions for adaptation
measures. The study seeks to identify:
• problems experienced concerning road drainage systems focus-
ing on the current Swedish climate,
• future problems considering climate change impacts such as
flooding and high flows, and
• suggestions for appropriate adaptation measures concerning
road drainage systems, taking future climate change into
account.
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Structures
in Sweden
In Sweden, structures to drain water from roads are of two types:
surface drainage systems (ditches) and subsurface drainage systems
(culverts). The design of the systems varies with factors such as
road importance and age, traffic load, rural/urban area, and sensi-
tivity of receiving water bodies.
Proper design of the surface drainage system is an essential part
of economic road design (O’Flaherty 2002). Surface water drainage
should be prioritized at an early stage of maintenance planning
(ATB VÄG 2004). The surface drainage system collects and diverts
storm water from the road surface and surrounding areas to avoid
flooding. It also prevents damage to subdrainage, water supplies
(wells), and other sensitive areas adjacent to roads. Road ditches
decrease the possibility of water infiltrating into pavement layers
and thus help retain the road’s bearing capability. The road surface
and cross-fall conduct water to surface drains (Faísca et al. 2008),
which take care of the runoff water. The majority of ditches nor-
mally have a V-shaped cross section. Roadside ditches carry flow
from the area around the road, especially during peak discharge
events. This flow can be directed to streams by either ditches or
subsurface drains (Watterson and Jones 2006; Wemple et al. 1996;
Wemple and Jones 2003). Suitable drainage dimensioning always
contributes to the bearing capacity of the pavement and to road
lifetime (Faísca et al. 2008).
148 / JOURNAL OF INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEMS © ASCE / JUNE 2013
J. Infrastruct. Syst. 2013.19:147-156.
Culverts and ditches in rural areas are designed on the basis of
flow calculated using a design rainfall intensity of at least a 50-year
return period. The hydraulic dimensioning book of the Swedish
Road Administration (SRA) introduces a method to determine de-
sign flow. This method is primarily based on the rational formula,
one of the simplest and most widely used methods in engineering
applications (Ben Zvi 1989; Maidment 1993). The rational method
relates the runoff-producing potential of a watershed, design
rainfall intensity, and the watershed drainage area. However, the
calculated flow from the rational method has to be adjusted for dif-
ferent catchments in various geographical locations throughout
Sweden by a correction factor for the percentage of lake area
and a correction factor for climate change. Detailed information
about these engineering design approaches can be found in
Vägverket (2008) and ATB VÄG (2004).
Methods
The present study was carried out in two steps: data collection and
data analysis. Data were collected using a questionnaire and studies
of construction and design documents issued by the SRA [on April
1, 2010, the tasks of the SRA were taken over by the new Swedish
Transportation Administration (STA)]. The main objective of the
questionnaire was to collect and compile experiences from profes-
sionals working with current practices and issues concerning road
surface and subsurface drainage in Sweden.
The respondents were divided into four categories: consultants,
maintenance contractors, individuals involved in maintenance
activities, and individuals involved in planning and design at the
SRA. A questionnaire was sent by e-mail to 50 professionals work-
ing in three of the five administration regions of the SRA. Address-
ees were relevant bodies and persons either working with issues
pertaining to drainage as affected by climate change or having
experience of problems connected with extreme weather events
(flooding and high flows) in their road projects. Half the potential
addressees were chosen from the list of professionals attending a
national drainage meeting arranged by the SRA in 2009. The re-
maining addressees were selected from a group of experts involved
in a research project on road design and maintenance financed by
the SRA (Karim and Magnusson 2008). Responses were received
within two weeks of distribution of the questionnaire in November
2009. The number of responses was 14, including 2 received after
a reminder.
The questionnaire comprised 13 questions. Twelve of these
were open questions and one required the ranking of 10 stated con-
ditions giving rise to maintenance actions for drainage systems.
The questions covered five themes. The first theme was
developed to obtain insights into experience of problems related
to dewatering and drainage systems of main roads under current
climate conditions (questions 1, 2, and 4 in the appendix). One
of the questions requested ranking of 10 given situations or factors
causing maintenance actions concerning drainage systems.
The second theme was developed to elucidate the role of
dewatering and drainage issues in road operation and maintenance
as mirrored in the practitioners’ experience of SRA steering
documents, requirements in maintenance procurement, and
monitoring of contractors’ maintenance activities. Here, questions
concerned, e.g., the influence of SRA regulations and guiding
documents, the formulation of maintenance requirements in
procurement, contractors’ compliance with the requirements, and
monitoring (questions 3, 5, 8, 12, and 13 in the appendix).
The third theme, on how road dewatering and drainage is influ-
enced by land use and landowners in areas adjacent to roads, was
 included to identify improvement possibilities related to co-
operation or communication with external actors, i.e., outside
the road right-of-way (question 11).
The fourth theme (question 10), which addressed practitioners’
opinions of future climate change and the consequences this may
have on road infrastructure, also aimed to uncover the attention
paid to the climate change issue by the respondents and their
organizations.
Finally, the fifth theme asked for respondents’ suggestions on
approaches, solutions, actions, and success paths concerning road
dewatering and drainage with respect to planning, design, inspec-
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tion, maintenance, repair, and measures, as well as prioritization of
resource allocation. Reflecting the focus of the survey, this theme
was allocated the largest number of questions (questions 6, 7, 9, 12,
and 13), but information relevant to this theme was also retrieved
from the responses to other questions in the questionnaire.
The second part of the data collection process comprised a
review of documents describing the processes of planning and
design and construction (Drift och underhåll 2008; Liljas 2000;
Nordlander et al. 2007; Persson 2009; Vägverket 2002, 2008;
VVK Väg 2009). Other documents reviewed included guidelines
for road drainage planning and design (ATB Väg 2004; IFS 2009)
and SRA consultant reports (Bengtsson and Löfling 2006; Karlsson
and Hallberg 2010; Magnusson et al. 2009).
The collected data were analysed in four steps: analysis of
common causes of damage and problems; analysis of climate
change impacts; analysis of suggestions; and needs for change. The
aim of the problem analysis was to obtain an overview of the
situations identified as problems and to describe their causes
and consequences. The analyses were grouped into four categories:
(1) planning, performance, and monitoring; (2) construction and
design; (3) operation and maintenance; and (4) other factors.
The aim of the climate change impact analysis was to determine
the key role of road drainage systems in limiting damage to roads
during small high flows. The analysis of the suggestions and needs
for change aimed at identifying approaches to minimize road dam-
age and mitigate the consequences of high flows. The needs were
identified to find measures that satisfy those needs in (1) manage-
ment and planning; (2) construction and design; and (3) operation
and maintenance.
Common Causes of Road Damage and the Role of
Road Drainage
According to the responses to the questionnaire, water is one of
the major causes of damage to roads. The bearing capacity of
the road is reduced by water present in the road construction,
and this leads to more extensive road maintenance. To a great ex-
tent, the Swedish road network is old and has gradually evolved
over time. Therefore, the road dewatering and drainage facilities
are, to a great extent, old. With respect to SRA’s limited budget
for measures to tackle problems concerning road drainage systems,
one of the respondents claimed: “Lack of knowledge about how
water moves in and around road constructions can sometimes lead
to unnecessary measures, or sometimes the lack of measures. The
cost of this is estimated at MSEK 200–400 [equivalent to approx-
imately M€ 20–40] per year in lost efficiency.”
Planning, Performance, and Monitoring
Two major problems are lack of knowledge about the condition of
drainage systems along roads and lack of effective tools to identify
places where drainage measures are needed. Planning of measures
can be insufficient, and urgent actions are not always performed
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J. Infrastruct. Syst. 2013.19:147-156.
well. These problems can result in difficulties in maintenance
planning, e.g., how often culverts should be inspected and cleared.
Ditch clearance may even be postponed until damage to the entire
road construction becomes obvious. In some cases, drainage
operations can be carried out at the wrong place and on an inad-
equate scale. Some soil types require special ditching measures.
According to SRA professionals, contractors sometimes clear or
dig ditches overambitiously when this is easy and quick to imple-
ment. In terms of time, this might be productive for the contractors,
but it is ineffective for the SRA.
It was reported that SRA has recently started trials aimed at
more efficient drainage and identification of deficiencies in bearing
capacity. Maintenance of road surface drainage systems and outlet
ditches is not currently undertaken in the operational stage. Instead,
this is usually handled in the procurement of drainage maintenance
work when damage along the roads is visible and discernible. One
respondent pointed to the issue of drainage measures not being
included in the responsibility of either operation or maintenance
and noted that “operation and maintenance of the surface drainage
system is very person-dependent.”
All questionnaire responses concerning monitoring indicated
deficiencies in the performance of measures stated in the contracts.
Some contracts even failed to state performance requirements.
Monitoring is sometimes performed as random inspection, or by
the contractor only and not by the client. Overgrown drainage
outlets, insufficient depth of ditches (or even lack of ditches),
and nonstabilized ditch-slope material are examples of performance
deficiencies.
Construction and Design
One respondent pointed to inappropriate drainage depth as a cause
of damage to roads. Both too small and too large depths occur.
Newly constructed ditches may be subject to soil erosion. At
places, nature conservation interests can place restrictions on the
design of drainage facilities, which may cause deficient drainage
and even flooding. Where this results in water-logging of areas
adjacent to a road, this may damage the road.
Operation and Maintenance
Many respondents highlighted problems with identifying the loca-
tion of culverts exposed to high flows and problems with clogging
of drainage pipes, culverts and ditches by debris or fine-graded soil.
In one question in the questionnaire, the respondents were asked
to rank 10 stated conditions giving rise to maintenance actions
concerning drainage systems from 10 to 1, where 10 was the most
important and 1 the least important condition. The results are
shown in Table 1.
Obstruction, blocking, and clogging of drainage facility inlets
seemed to be a common problem. Culvert inlets/outlets clogged
by debris, fine-grade soils, and impermeable materials, especially
after heavy rainfall, can lead to floods and landslides and even
roads being washed away. Mechanical damage to pipes and cul-
verts, or even breakage, also gives rise to maintenance needs. Ditch
silting-up and overgrowth is another common problem. Keeping
ditches of existing roads at a sufficient depth is essential. Lack
of recurring periodic maintenance such as ditch clearance and
pavement-edge cutting was also pointed out as a problem. High
pavement edges can reduce the possibility of water traveling from
the road surface to surface drainage. Inadequate maintenance can
have a negative impact on road drainage pipes and culverts. The
lifetime of maintenance measures can be shortened because of
rapid pavement rutting. Landslides and frost-heave damage were
 Table 1. Conditions Giving Rise to Maintenance Requirements on Road
Drainage Systems in Sweden
Average
Condition score
Blocking of drainage inlet 7.5
Overgrowth of pipe, culvert inlet, catchpit, etc. 6
Ditch silting-up or overgrowth 5.5
Soil in adjacent area incapable of trapping large water volumes 5.5
Insufficient diameter of pipe, culvert, or bridge 5 tion (environmental protection) can restrict the operation of certain
Mechanical damage to pipe, culvert, or bridge 4.5
Landslide 4
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Large water flow in ditch/pipe from adjacent area 3.5
Clear-cutting or soil damage in adjacent area 3 Problems can arise from electricity and telephone cables being
Frost action damage 2 buried in the ground, sometimes at a depth less than the required
Note: Average score given by six questionnaire respondents; score 10: most
important condition; score 1: least important.
also mentioned as causes of maintenance requirements. One
respondent mentioned beaver dams and ice formation as problems
in drain functioning.
Other Factors
Agriculture
Facilities for drainage of arable land are often underdimensioned.
Pipe drainage, clogging, and overploughing of ditches in agricul-
tural land can affect the operation of the road drainage system.
Overgrowth in outlet ditches in agricultural land can lead to damage
to the whole ditch. Agricultural machinery may also cause compac-
tion of adjacent road ditches. Poor maintenance of outlet ditches
sometimes compromises the operation and maintenance of surface
drainage systems and increases the risk of flooding and water-
logging along the road. Water from the area surrounding the road
can also give rise to road drainage problems. Changes in hydrolog-
ical conditions attributable to land use changes in agricultural areas
can have an impact on the road drainage system.
Forestry
Unsuitable forestry measures in hilly terrain with adverse soil com-
position can bring about mud flows and landslides. Clearcutting
and mechanical soil preparation (e.g., ploughing, especially when
performed at a large angle to contour lines) after logging can affect
road systems significantly by increasing runoff and inflow into the
soil. Depending on the topography, this can occur even at long dis-
tances. Clearcutting can have an impact on the water regime in that
it makes soil retain more water, and as a consequence the risk of
landslides increases. Heavy forestry machinery can destroy culverts
(especially side culverts) and road ditches. Very loose material in
the vicinity of ditches or creeks can increase the risk of clogging of
the road drainage system, e.g., ditches and road culverts.
Buildings and Sealing of Soil
Hard surfaces such as buildings and sealed soil collect and concen-
trate runoff water. Where the proportion of hard surfaces is large,
little rainfall is absorbed by the vegetation and more is diverted out
to the road surface drainage system, which may cause flooding and
water-logging. Depending on the land topography, this can occur
even at a distance from the hard surfaces. Land transformation to
built-up areas can involve demands on substituting pipes for open
ditches.
Railways and Other Landowners
At some places, lack of a drainage system for a railway can affect
roads where these types of infrastructure run in parallel: “Nearness
150 / JOURNAL OF INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEMS © ASCE / JUNE 2013
J. Infrastruct. Syst. 2013.19:147-156.
to a railway requires co-ordinated actions.” Poorly managed up-
stream ponds and dams may lead to roads being washed away upon
dam failure. One of the respondents mentioned that dam failure can
be caused by sabotage, although it can also happen because of ex-
treme weather events.
Nature Conservation; Environmental Protection
One respondent stated that legislation concerning nature conserva-
types of surface drainage systems in protected areas.
Cables
70 cm. Digging cables into the inner slope may disturb the soil
structure and may introduce an unintended drainage function.
Categorization of Causes
According to the responses and comments given in the question-
naire, drainage-related problems can be grouped into four catego-
ries (Table 2). The body of information given revealed more
emphasis on issues related to road operation and maintenance than
to road construction and design. This probably mainly reflects the
content and structure of the questionnaire. However, many replies
and comments indicated concern with issues related to drainage
management and planning. Statements concerning performance
and monitoring are placed in this category. Many views were also
given on issues related to land use and to other factors and actors in
areas surrounding the road.
Influence of Climate Change
According to the EU climate change adaptation policy, Scandinavia
is one of Europe’s vulnerable areas because of a significant
increase in precipitation in the form of rain instead of snow
(Green Paper EU 2007). According to the Swedish Meteorological
and Hydrological Institute (SMHI) regional model, nowadays a
so-called 1-in-100-year flood will occur more frequently than
previously (Nordlander et al. 2007). The risk of landslides close
to roads will increase because of higher groundwater levels
(Nordlander et al. 2007). In road constructions with unstable road
foundations, a higher frequency of freezing and thawing cycles can
cause road drainage systems to become clogged, which can lead to
more road closures in the future.
During thawing periods there can be much water from melted
snow and rainfall on road surfaces and in ditches. Another problem
is the impermeability of frozen soils. Furthermore, the meltwater
and rainwater cannot drain away because the ditches are filled with
snow and ice and do not function. In these circumstances, excess
water from the ice lenses has only one path through which to drain:
upwards through the road structure, which, together with the sur-
face water, causes excess pore water pressure in the road structure.
As an example, in some cases the bearing capacity of the soil will
be decreased because of extra water content, and the road life will
consequently be shortened (Saara and Saarenketo 2006).
Another problem is clogging of culverts by ice. This can occur
in transverse culverts as a result of the freezing of large volumes
of water in, or just upstream of, the culvert. Ice can also be trans-
ported to the culvert during or following mild weather periods or
heavy rainfall events. The blockage in the culverts moves the water
backwards and may force it to flow across the road (Dawson 2008).
This means greater strain on the drainage facilities. Underdimen-
sioned or nonfunctioning culverts, poorly cleared ditches, and
structures with limited capacity at high flow rates leave cause
 Table 2. Overview of Problems Concerning Road Drainage in Sweden as Reported in the Questionnaire Responses
Problems related to:
Management and planning
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Cause
Lack of knowledge of location of drainage installations
Lack of tools to locate action needs
Insufficient requirements in procurement
Lacking or insufficient monitoring of measures
Unclear responsibility for drainage; personal dependence
Varying age of different parts of the road network
Effect
Inefficient planning and performance of measures
Nonoptimized location of actions and measures
Limited client influence on action performance
Limited client knowledge of value for money; limited
possibilities of experience feedback
Varying standing of drainage management in different parts of
the road network
Limited overview of characteristics and functionality of
drainage systems in different parts of the country

Construction and design Inappropriate depth of drainage installations Inefficient drainage

Operation and maintenance
Other actors and conditions
Limited diameter of pipe or culvert or opening of bridge
Insufficient inspection and periodic maintenance
Obstruction and overgrowth of drainage device inlets
Pavement rutting
Agriculture: land use change
Agriculture: ill-maintained drainage systems
Forestry: forestry measures not adapted to topography
Forestry: clear-cutting and ploughing
Heavy precipitation; flooding
Frost action
Insufficient capacity to handle large water volumes
Limited basis for planning; deterioration of drainage capacity
Limited function of drainage devices; accelerated deterioration
of road construction
Shortened lifetime of maintenance measures
Change in hydrological conditions
Water-logging and flooding
Mud flow; landslides
Change in water regime; increased surface runoff and inflow to
road area
Various kinds of damage
Frost heave damage to road construction

for critical concern regarding the entire road transport system.
Elevated water levels and increased water velocity of watercourses
can result in trees, stones, etc., being displaced and road culverts
and low bridges becoming clogged during high flows. Following
erosion, embankments and road sections may be washed away.
One of the concerns pertaining to climate change consequences
is flooding because of heavier downpours. Road drainage culverts
can be overloaded and, as a consequence, road substructures can be
damaged. Some of the respondents believed that road surface and
subsurface drainage systems can only have a key role in limiting
damage to roads during small high flows and not when disastrous
floods occur.
The fact that precipitation patterns vary considerably across
the country can affect approaches to road design, construction,
and major refurbishment activities. Experience has shown that it
is primarily local heavy rains that cause severe damage to roads
where drainage pipes and culverts do not work as intended.
Consequently, the number of injuries on the roads can be expected
to increase in future because of more frequent intensive rains.
Questionnaire respondents mentioned that increased precipita-
tion means elevated capacity demands on culverts, ditches, and
other drainage facilities (which vary across the country). Increased
rainfall also means deteriorating conditions in terms of stability,
e.g., greater risk of landslides, erosion, and mudslides. As the
frequency of intense rainfall increases, the risk of backwater and
inundated embankments at low-lying bridges and culvert bridges
will increase. More frequent extreme weather events, such as tor-
rential rain, require a greater robustness to avoid clogging of drain-
age pipes, culverts, and ditches. Extreme weather also places higher
demands on robust design of pump installations and their location.
According to the questionnaire results, climate change will call
for reallocation of budget resources to regions with heavy increases
in precipitation. Road dimensioning will change and large rebuild-
ing measures will be implemented on parts of the road network:
“Road reinforcement will be demanded to a large extent—some
billions of SEK.” Milder winters with more frequent zero-degree
passages will affect the bearing capacity of the roads. This can
affect the choice of road pavement types, which vary across the
country. Dimensioning of road constructions will also be altered,
which will lead to a need for competence development in this field.
Erosion damage and flooding will also result in road closures, lead-
ing to prolonged travel times and increased repair costs. The need
for maintenance of gravel roads will also change.
Rising temperatures and more precipitation will also lengthen
the growing season, which will result in shorter intervals of ditch
clearance, roadside mowing, and sight-line clearance. Higher
temperature and the change from snow to rain will mean less
use of snow-clearance machinery during the winter season. The
economic aspects of keeping such machinery all over the country
were brought up by one respondent, who also emphasised the con-
sequences for the forest industry of the loss of bearing capacity
attributable to less frost in road constructions during winter.
Increased precipitation will also increase the risk of leakage
of traffic-related toxic substances from the road construction and
its surroundings. The need for winter salting will change, which
will influence the pattern of environmental damage caused by salt.
Concrete structures exposed to salt and repeated freezing will age
faster and require more maintenance.
An elevation of sea level will affect low-lying road stretches,
tunnels and ferry piers. Higher winter temperatures will also dimin-
ish the possibility of using ice roads instead of ferry lines.
Suggestions on Climate Change Adaptation
On the basis of the questionnaire responses and the literature,
approaches to minimizing road damage and mitigating the conse-
quences of high flows and other types of strain on roads are cat-
egorized in Table 3.
Management and Planning
Plans for Operation and Maintenance
Several respondents highlighted the importance of the establish-
ment and implementation of plans for operation and maintenance
concerning road drainage. Maintenance plans should be made with
consideration of business economics. More emphasis should be
given to preventive maintenance: “It must not be profitable for

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 Table 3. Overview of Suggestions on Road Drainage Measures to Cope with Increased Strain from Climate Change in Sweden
Problems related to: Suggested measure
Management and Increased knowledge of water behavior in road construction and surroundings
planning Clarification of responsibility for road drainage in the organization
Overview of location of existing road drainage facilities in the local area
Development and usage of tools to locate vulnerable points and need for action
Maintenance plans for drainage facilities including inspection and clearance
Simple operating instructions for drainage facilities
Visual inspection by the client
Visual monitoring by the operation contractor
Requirements in procurement and follow-up of maintenance contracts
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Monitoring and evaluation of measures

Construction and Consideration of the need for locally increased drainage structure dimensions
design Addition/retrofitting of devices to increase discharge capacity, such as extra culverts, pipes, flushing pipes, and subgrade drains
Establishment of check dams
Operation and Use of various physical devices to prevent clogging and obstruction of drainage facilities
maintenance Use of vegetation to stabilize ditch slopes and prevent erosion
Strengthening of the road after rutting
Other actors and Proper maintenance of dewatering and drainage systems in area adjacent to road
conditions Avoidance of land use changes that would negatively affect road drainage
Avoidance of clear-cutting and ploughing where these forestry activities would influence road-drainage systems
Securing the function of dams, ponds, and other constructions located upstream
Note: Based on questionnaire responses.

the operation contractor to refrain from conducting the preventive
measures.”
There is also a demand for simple operating instructions for
drainage facilities as well as for the identification of drainage
facility deficiencies. Data on road surface characteristics should
be included in the planning of measures. Some of the SRA profes-
sionals believed that a life cycle cost (LCC) approach [Federal
Highway Administration (FHWA) 2002; Lee 2002] should be es-
tablished and considered in the whole process to achieve a higher
efficiency in the road operation and maintenance system. The idea
behind LCC analysis is that transportation investment decisions
should consider all costs incurred during the period over which
different maintenance alternatives are being compared (Bernsten
and Saarenketo 2005).
Identification of Vulnerable Points and Choice of Action
Experiences from flood events in the counties of Värmland and
Västernorrland show that intersecting culverts are mainly the weak-
est points along the roads (Magnusson et al. 2009). The challenge is
to find the vulnerable points where damage might be serious, to
monitor the conditions, and to choose the right actions within
the budget framework. Research in this area has recently grown
substantially. Models have been used to identify critical points
and analyse the consequence of failure and incidents at specific
vulnerable points of the transport infrastructure (Gorman 2005;
Murray and Grubesic 2007). One respondent mentioned the impor-
tance of documentation of drainage systems because of the lack of
continuous personal experience and knowledge of the local district.
In the ERA-NET Road project SWAMP, methodology has been
developed to identify and assess risks to road structures because
of floods or high flows using geographic information system
(GIS)-based computer models for spots vulnerable to flooding
(‘blue spots’). By mapping and socioeconomic calculations of
so-called risk objects, i.e., sites or facilities prone to flooding, a
method for vulnerability identification has also been developed
(Hansson et al. 2010).
Inspection, Monitoring, and Remedial Action
According to the questionnaire respondents, one way to reduce the
risk of roads being damaged by high flows is to increase inspection
and action preparedness. In addition to plans for maintenance and
adaptation, there is a need for contingency planning: “Extra super-
vision can also mean that there is a contingency plan with measures
to be implemented if something happens, e.g., who should be con-
tacted if emergency measures are needed.” It is difficult to include
old drainage systems that are not documented. In the schedule for
the regular monitoring/clearing of road drainage structures, priority
should be given to places with high vulnerability.
With regard to supervision or monitoring of drainage and the
performance of drainage facilities, the majority of the respondents
highlighted the importance of visual inspection by the client and
visual monitoring by the operation contractor once or twice per
year. SRA professionals believed that road operation contractors
often inspecting their roads play an important role in monitoring
road drainage performance. The compliance with maintenance con-
tracts should be determined; usage of penalties and bonuses was
recommended by one of the respondents.
Construction and Design
Discharge Capacity
A functioning drainage system is important to reduce damage and
maintenance costs. In this context, both hydraulic dimensioning
and location are extremely important. In the view of one of the re-
spondents, “It is important to be generous with the dimensioning of
culverts, pipes, storm-water basins, etc.”
The discharge capacity can be increased by using greater dimen-
sions or by adding new culverts or drainage pipes to existing ones.
For instance, a second culvert can preferably be placed at a higher
level than the existing culvert. Then it can also be utilized if
material transport leads to clogging of the existing culvert. In ad-
dition, flushing pipes can be installed next to old drainage pipes
with low capacity. It can also be important to avoid the occurrence
of backwater. Where road damage caused by insufficient subgrade
drainage occurs, retrofitting of a drain deep in the subgrade is rec-
ommended. This measure can often be better than replacing the
road construction material.
Check Dams
Check dams made of earth material can be constructed either
as a separate dam or a series of dams along the watercourse

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J. Infrastruct. Syst. 2013.19:147-156.

 (Magnusson et al. 2009; Vägverket 2008). These dams can trap
large amounts of material on its way to the road drainage structure
and subsequently decrease the kinetic energy of the water flow.
It is important that the dams are maintained and cleared regularly,
especially after high flows and large mass transfer.
Operation and Maintenance
Prevention of Clogging and Obstruction
Further to ensuring ditch function, one of the respondents specified
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that SRA’s ongoing experiments show that the new, smarter ditch-
ing method is more efficient than the traditional method. Ditch
clearance is conducted on a point-to-point basis where the need
exists. Some of the SRA professionals believe that one should work
in line with the recommendations from the EU project ROADEX III
to achieve more cost-effective improvements in the operation and
maintenance of road drainage systems.
To meet the strain from increased water volumes, a number of
measures and physical devices can be suggested:
• Physical screens that capture material either mechanically or by
sedimentation (Magnusson et al. 2009; Vägverket 2008);
• Pitfalls upstream of culverts to trap stones transported with
water at high flows;
• Sealing culverts and bank slopes to prevent water from entering
the bank causing external and internal erosion (questionnaire;
Magnusson et al. 2009);
• Preventing surface erosion by covering the bank with shotcrete
and concrete mattresses (Magnusson et al. 2009);
• Erosion-proof slopes (Vägverket 2008); and
• Retrofitting of rinsing wells in old drainage pipes
(questionnaire).
Stabilization by Vegetation
Using vegetation, e.g., woody plants such as Salix species, on
watercourse banks is a means to bind and stabilize the soil material.
This can help reduce the risk of erosion and landslides (Magnusson
et al. 2009). Such maintenance work will significantly diminish
the amount of material transported by the stream to the road-
drainage inlet.
Frost Damage Mitigation
According to one SRA professional, to deal with the frost-
heave problem in northern Sweden, the following options should
be considered:
• Strengthening of the road network to be dimensioned for the
operated loads;
• Damage mitigation and strengthening of the roads after they
have been rutted; and
• Reducing the permissible load during the thawing period
(but this poses major problems for raw material supplies to
the pulp and sawmill industry).
Other Actors and Conditions
When it comes to actors and conditions in the area surrounding the
road, a range of measures to prevent or mitigate damage to road
drainage systems can be suggested:
• Proper maintenance of dewatering and drainage systems in
agricultural land;
• Proper maintenance of dewatering and drainage systems in
forested areas;
• Forestry methods limiting drainage system deterioration, soil
erosion, water-logging, etc.;
• Securing dams and ponds upstream of the road; and
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J. Infrastruct. Syst. 2013.19:147-156.
• Limiting the hardening of soil surfaces resulting from land
transformation, building construction, etc.
These and related measures indicated in the questionnaire are
accompanied by a serious proviso, however: lack of ownership
of the land. Solutions can therefore only be accomplished through
communication and negotiation with the relevant landowner, or
changes in the national forestry policy, for example.
Discussion
Roads in Sweden are frequently damaged after snowmelt in spring,
or during summer and autumn from heavy rain. According to a
recent survey, the flows in most cases corresponded to return peri-
ods of 100–150 years (Bengtsson and Löfling 2006). It is therefore
likely that damage in the form of floods, washed-away roads, and
landslides will occur, as drainage systems are generally designed
for flow rates of a 50-year return period and safety margins are
often low (Bengtsson and Löfling 2006).
According to the SRA (Vägverket 2002), the damage and resto-
ration costs for 200 incidents during 1994–2001 on Swedish state
roads were mainly due to
• Roads being washed away (high water velocity) in 50% of
the cases;
• Flooding (high water) in 25% of the cases;
• Landslides (high water velocity, high pore pressure) in 20% of
the cases; and
• Submerged and inundated bridge supports (high water velocity)
in 5% of the cases.
The cost of restoration and repair of the damage included in the
inventory was estimated at MSEK 600–700 million (approximately
M€ 60–70). This damage cost should be added to the approxi-
mately MSEK 70 expended on new roads needed for redirection
of the traffic (Bengtsson and Löfling 2006). In addition to the cost
of damage to transport infrastructure attributable to extreme
weather conditions, the other indirect costs from the effects on net-
work mobility, e.g., delays and detours, should be considered
(Suarez et al. 2005). Considerable societal costs are thus generated
by road infrastructure damage attributable to extreme weather
events.
It was apparent from the literature review and the respondents’
feedback that it is mainly local heavy rain that causes severe dam-
age to the roads where road drainage systems have not worked as
intended. Consequently, more frequent intensive rains can increase
the number of incidents such as landslides, road closures, roads
being washed away, and bridge supports being submerged or in-
undated. Changes in hydrological conditions attributable to land
use changes in the surrounding area can also have an impact on
the function and efficiency of road drainage systems. The condition
of drainage pipes or culverts is an important factor influencing the
vulnerability of roads to high flows. Compared with roads where
the culverts are properly maintained, roads with deformed and
leaky culverts are more likely to be washed away. The leaky drain-
age system could raise the hydrostatic pressure gradients in the road
locally, which could lead to internal erosion (Magnusson et al.
2009). Soil erosion of newly constructed ditches because of limited
slope stabilization can either decrease their drainage capacity or
result in ditches becoming deeper than intended. Increased aware-
ness of the importance of a well-functioning drainage system to the
whole road construction is essential for securing continuous func-
tion, not only of the drainage system but also of the entire road.
One of the most common reasons for damage to road structures
is culvert inlets becoming clogged by debris, stones, or bricks,
which forces excess water to penetrate the road construction or
 embankment. Since this usually occurs only following high flows,
it cannot be recognized easily until the entire road construction
collapses. Thus, more frequent extreme weather events, such as tor-
rential rain, will require greater robustness and better maintenance
and operating systems. To avoid clogging of culverts, physical
screens can be used to capture material, either mechanically or
by sedimentation (Vägverket 2008). However, this measure can
impede the mobility of animals using the stream as a habitat or
migration corridor (Hicks and Peymen 2003). Some road structure
reinforcement measures, e.g., sealing verge slopes or soil close to
culverts and using woody plants such as Salix species to stabilize
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slopes or watercourse banks, can be in conflict with the interests of
environmental protection (e.g., biodiversity) and traffic safety
(sight-line clearance) (Drift och underhåll 2008; Hicks and Peymen
2003; Keller et al. 2003).
Maintenance of road surface and subsurface drainage systems
should be undertaken in regular operations and not delayed until
the damage is noticeable. In the procurement stage, the functional
requirements should be clear and followed carefully during both
the construction and operating periods (Persson 2009). Routines/
procurement models for supervision or monitoring of drainage
and the performance of drainage facilities need to be further elab-
orated. Improvement of procurement, monitoring, and enforcement
of maintenance contracts and feedback of experiences are required
to achieve higher efficiency in the road operation and maintenance
systems (Karlsson and Hallberg 2010). To achieve an optimal al-
location of budget resources between construction and maintenance
work, it is necessary to consider road maintenance works as a
continuous process throughout the lifetime of a road. Contractors
should be given continuing responsibility to maintain the road
drainage system in a specified condition.
With respect to best allocation of resources, preventive mainte-
nance should be better managed and prioritized because the cost of
emergency measures is always higher than the cost of preventive
maintenance.
Two types of drainage problems were not flagged in the ques-
tionnaire results. The first concerns roads on low-lying ground.
These can easily become flooded during heavy rainfall or snow-
melt. Where the groundwater is close to the road structure for
extended periods, permanent deformation problems may arise.
The topography makes it unfeasible to redirect the water away from
the road. Various drainage solutions can be considered for different
types of soil. In glacial till soil, for instance, infiltration wells can be
installed and the road grade line can be raised using coarse-graded
materials. Raising the grade line is also feasible in clay/silt or peat
soil, but infiltration structures do not work properly in this specific
soil type. The second type of problem occurs where road structures
are located close to the surface of the bedrock, where drainage is
often impeded. To strengthen the bearing capacity of such roads,
blasting and removal of bedrock and substituting coarse aggregates
or making deep drains in hillside slopes have been suggested (Saara
and Saarenketo 2006).
From a quantitative point of view, 50 addressees seems a low
number for a questionnaire. However, experience from SRA staff
and from several road drainage seminars shows that the number of
Swedish professionals working with climate change aspects on
road drainage is still low. The low response rate (14=50) is partly
because questionnaires sent to multiple addressees in some of the
organisations were in some cases coordinated into a single re-
sponse. It can be argued that it is difficult to draw conclusions from
a limited questionnaire with a low response rate. The responses
obtained, though low in number, revealed views and experiences
that often went in the same direction and indicated some important
features that are of general interest. However, there is little basis for
154 / JOURNAL OF INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEMS © ASCE / JUNE 2013
J. Infrastruct. Syst. 2013.19:147-156.
generalization of the results to the Swedish situation as a whole.
Further to the limitations noted, the results of this study have
not been tested in a case study and do not include any cost or
economics analysis or approaches behind drainage adaptation
measures.
Conclusions
On the basis of the questionnaire results and the literature review,
the main approaches in climate adaptation concerning road
drainage system problems can be grouped into two categories:
(1) institutional adaptation and (2) technical adaptation. The main
approaches in institutional adaptation are
• Incentives to raise the awareness of expected climate change and
its impact on drainage systems in the transportation administra-
tion and relevant stakeholders;
• Inclusion of adaptation measures in the transportation adminis-
tration’s existing funding program; and
• Development of a tool for evaluation and actions plans concern-
ing the current road drainage systems.
To develop a tool for evaluation and action plans concerning
road drainage systems, different procedures can be used. First, it
is important to have a proper understanding and background
knowledge about the general physical conditions at the site, for
example, the drainage system and the availability of inspection
and monitoring systems. Information about earlier flooding events
and previous repair and maintenance issues from field logbooks or
databases is also vital. From such background information, the
drainage system can be evaluated and appropriate actions devel-
oped to mitigate existing damage and prevent future damage.
Technical adaptation mainly involves ensuring that road
construction is adapted to predicted climate change. Many of the
existing drainage systems are old and were designed and con-
structed on the basis of historical values. When these systems were
installed, there was probably no consideration of any possible fu-
ture climate change. Today’s planning of drainage systems takes
the future situation into account and, in particular, includes scenar-
ios of more intensive rain events. Therefore development and use of
models for calculation of extreme flows in small- and medium-
sized catchments is vital.
Ongoing and Future Work
Related to the preceding recommendations, a study has been
carried out with the focus on the usefulness of four hydrological
models in simulating high-resolution discharge dynamics of a
catchment adjacent to a road (Kalantari et al. 2011b). A process-
controlled, self-adaptive simulation package that flexibly fits the
changes of the hydrological system of a watershed near a road
is currently being developed (Kalantari et al. 2011a). Such develop-
ment, including dynamic adaptation of the model structure and the
hydrological processes (adaptive modelling; Wigmosta and Burges
1997) is necessary and should be further elaborated.
To develop means for communication and collaboration with
other landowners and evaluate measures, a case study is underway
in Norway. This study is primarily evaluating the impact of land
use measures such as forest clearcutting, reforestation, vegetation
buffers, and grassed waterways on generated total runoff and peak
flow adjacent to a road drainage construction.
On the basis of the data analysis in this paper and the lessons
learned, the future work of this project will be divided into
three tasks. The first task will be to create a risk map of sections
of Swedish roads that are especially vulnerable to high flows.
 The second task will be to develop GIS-based methodology for
presenting maps of flood-sensitive spots along roads. The third task
will be to highlight systematic work and adaptation planning with
drainage systems in a case study from a location vulnerable to
high flows.
Appendix. Questionnaire
Climate adaptation of road dewatering and drainage structure
Name of respondent
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Name of organization/company: : : :
Number of years in the industry/business: : : :
1. What are the major problems with dewatering and drainage
systems of national roads?
2. What problems related to the maintenance of road ditches and
dewatering and drainage facilities have you come into contact
with in your own projects?
3. In terms of maintenance of ditches and dewatering and drai-
nage facilities:
• What steps are usually included in the process?
• How are the requirements formulated?
• How are they followed?
• Does it happen that the delivered product differs from that
ordered?
• What are the main weaknesses?
4. What are the main events or circumstances giving rise to main-
tenance actions concerning dewatering and drainage systems?
(Insert 10 after in the most important, 9 after the second most
important, etc.)
• Blocking the culvert inlet /pipes by debris and objects that
floated there
• Overgrowth of pipe, culvert inlet and catchpit
• Ditch alluviation or overgrowth
• Landslide (large or small)
• Insufficient diameter of pipes, culvert or bridge
• Mechanical damage to pipe, culvert or bridge
• Frost action damage
• Large water flow in ditch/pipe from adjacent area
• Insufficient capacity of adjacent land to handle large quan-
tities of water
• Clear-cutting or soil damage in adjacent area
• Others?
5. Describe how your work with dewatering and drainage facil-
ities is affected by the SRA’s policy documents.
6. Do you have any suggestions for improving the design of de-
watering and drainage systems (including ditches), for exam-
ple regarding hydraulic design, placement, storage, etc.?
7. Do you have any suggestions for cost-effective improvements
of the operation and maintenance of dewatering and drainage
facilities?
8. Do you have any experience of flooding in your work? If yes,
have you carried out any investigation to find out the role of
dewatering or drainage system?
9. Have you discussed measures to prevent water damage to road
facilities?
10. In your opinion, to what extent will road infrastructure be
affected by climate change in the future? What will be the
impact?
11. Are road dewatering and drainage systems affected by any
factors other than road maintenance? (If yes, please tick the
appropriate factor and describe how where relevent)
• Agriculture: how?
• Forestry, how?
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J. Infrastruct. Syst. 2013.19:147-156.
• Architectural, how?
• Building and sealing of land
• Other landowners, municipalities, agriculture and forestry,
which?
• Environmental protection
• Outdoor activities
• Other infrastructure than road, what and how?
• Sabotage, what type?
• Other, what?
12. With respect to the best allocation of resources for dewatering/
drainage facilities, how should we prioritize resources between
operational measures, preventive maintenance and emergency
operations?
13. With respect to monitoring of the performance of dewatering
and drainage facilities, which system do you use or can you
suggest?
Comments, observations, reflections:
Acknowledgments
This study was financed by the Swedish Road Administration through
the Centre for Research and Education in Operation and Maintenance
of Infrastructure (CDU). The authors also thank all those individuals
from the SRA and Vectura who took part in this study.
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