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1364120248DC Machines2 PDF
1364120248DC Machines2 PDF
DC Machines
3.1 Introduction
Converters that are used to continuously translate electrical input
to mechanical output or vice versa are called electric machines. The
process of translation is known as electromechanical energy
conversion. An electric machine is therefore a link between an
electrical system and a mechanical system. In these machines the
conversion is reversible. If the conversion is from mechanical to
electrical energy, the machine is said to act as a generator. If the
conversion is from electrical to mechanical energy, the machine is
said to act as a motor. These two effects are shown in Fig.3.21. In
these machines, conversion of energy from electrical to mechanical
form or vice versa results from the following two electromagnetic
phenomena:
Generator
Mechanical Electrical
Energy Energy
Motor
A D
B C
N S
x
1
Load a
y
2
b
A D
D A
B C
C
B
1
1 a
a
2
2 b
b
X Y
X Y
DC Machines 51
C B
A D
D A
B
C
1
1 a
a
2
2 b
b
X Y
X Y
Fig.3.5
52 Chapter Two
Fig.3.6
Note that:
DC Machines 53
In the next half revolution i.e. from 180 to 360 degrees, the
variations in the magnitude of EMF are similar to those in the first
half revolution but it will be found that the direction of the
induced current is from D to C and B to A. Hence, the path of
current flow is along DCYXBA which is just the reverse of the
previous direction of flow. Therefore, we find that the current the
resistive load, R which we obtain from such a simple generator
reverses its direction after every half revolution as shown in
Fig.3.5 and Fig.3.6. Such a current undergoing periodic reversals
is known as alternating current. It is, obviously, different from a
direct current which continuously flows in one and the same
direction which we need to generate from the DC generator. So,
we sould make some modification to get unidirection current in
the load which will be explained soon. It should be noted that
alternating current not only reverses its direction, it does not even
keep its magnitude constant while flowing in any one direction.
The two halfcycles may be called positive and negative half cycles
respectively (Fig.3.6).
54 Chapter Two
Segments
a b
Mica
Bruches
Fig.3.7
(a) Two segments split rings in simple generator loop.
(b) Many segments split rings in Practical generator loop.
DC Machines 55
It is seen (Fig.3.8(a) to Fig.3.8 (b)) that in the first half
revolution current flows along ABXYCD i.e. the brush No. 1 in
contact with segment a acts as the positive end of the supply and b
as the negative end. In the next half revolution (Fig.3.8 (c) to
Fig.3.8 (d)), the direction of the induced current in the coil has
reversed. But at the same time, the positions of segments a and b
have also reversed with the result that brush No. 1 comes in touch
with that segment which is positive i.e segment b in this case.
Hence, the current in the load resistance again flows from X to Y.
The waveform of the current through the external circuit is as
shown in Fig.3.9. This current is unidirectional but not continuous
like pure direct current.
It should be noted that the position of brushes is so arranged that
the changeover of segments a and b from one brush to the other
takes place when the plane of the rotating coil is at right angles to
the plane of the flux lines. It is so because in that position, the
induced EMF in the coil is zero.
56 Chapter Two
A D
A
D
C
B
C B
a b a b
1 2 1 2
X Y X Y
DC Machines 57
C A
D
A
B
D
B C
a b b a
1 2 1 2
X Y X Y
Fig.3.8
58 Chapter Two
Fig.3.9
Commutator
The function of the commutator is to facilitate collection of
current from the armature conductors i.e. converts the alternating
current induced in the armature conductors into unidirectional
current in the external load circuit. It is of cylindrical structure and
is built up of wedge-shaped:segments of high conductivity
hard-drawn or drop-forged
Of these, the yoke, the pole cores, the armature core and air gaps
between the poles and the armature core form the magnetic circuit
whereas the rest form the electrical circuit.
DC Machines 59
Armature Windings
Two types of windings mostly employed for the armatures of
DC machines are known as Lap Winding and Wave Winding. The
difference between the two is merely due to the different
arrangement of the end connections at the front or commutator end
of armature. The following rules, however, apply to both types of
the windings:
60 Chapter Two
Pole-pitch
The periphery of the armature divided by the number of poles of
the generate.
i.e. the distance between two adjacent poles
It is equal to the number of armature conductors (or armature
slots) per pol. If there are 400 conductors and 4 poles, then pole
pitch is 400/4= 100 conductor.
End
connections
Coil sides
Coil Span
Back Pitch
The distance, measured in terms of the armature conductors.
which a coil advances on the back of the armature is called back
pitch and is denoted by Yb. It is equal'to the number difference of
the conductors connected to a given segment of the commutator.
62 Chapter Two
Front Pitch
The number of armature conductors or elements spanned by a
coil on the front (or commutator end of an armature) is called the
front pitch and is designated by Yf as shown in Fig.3.12.
Alternatively, the front pitch may be defined as the distance (in
terms of armature conductors) between the second conductor of
one coil and the first conductor of the next coil which are
connected together to commutator end of the armature. In other
words, it is the number difference of the conductors connected
together at the back end of the armature. Both front and back
pitches for lap and wave-winding are shown in Fig. 3.12 and
Fig.3.13 respectively.
DC Machines 63
yb
yf `
yr
yr
Fig.3.12
yb
yr
yf
Fig.3.13
64 Chapter Two
Resultant Pitch
It is the distance between the beginning of one coil and the
beginning of the next coil to which it is connected as shown in
Fig.3.12 and Fig.3.13.
As a matter of precaution, it should be kept in mind that all
these pitches, though normally stated in terms of armature
conductors, are also sometimes given in terms of armature slots or
commutator bars.
Commutator Pitch (Yc)
It is the distance (measured in commutator bars or segments)
between the segments to which the two ends of a coil are
connected as shown in Fig.3.12 and Fig.3.13. From these figures it
is clear that for lap winding, Yc is the difference of Yb and Y f
φPN Z φZN
Then, EMF generated/path= * = Volt (3.7)
60 P 60
φPN Z
In general, generated EMF = * Volt (3.8)
60 A
Where A=2 for wave-winding.
And A= P for lap-winding.
series winding mmf may aid or oppose the shunt winding mmf,
resulting in different performance characteristics.
(a)
(b) (c)
(d)
Fig.3.10 Different connections of DC machines. (a) Separately
excited DC machine. (b) Series DC machine. (c) Shunt DC
machine. (d) Compound DC machine.
Solution:
Generator circuit is shown in Fig.3.11
Fig.3.11
72 Chapter Two
500
I sh = =5A
100
Current through armature and series field winding is:
=100+5=105 A
Voltage drop on series field windings=105*0.04=4.2V
Armature voltage drop= 105 * 0.02=3.1 volt
Drop at brushes= 2 * 1= 2 V
Now,
EMF = V + I a Ra + series drop + brush drop (3.9)
Solution:
Generator voltage is shown in Fig. 3.12
Load current =20000/250=80 A
Voltage drop in the series windings =80*0.025=2V
Voltage across shunt winding=252 V.
DC Machines 73
252
I sh = = 2.52 A
100
I a = 80 + 2.52 = 82.52 A
I a Ra = 82.52 * 0.05 = 4.13V
Then the generated EMF=250+4.13+2=256.13V
Fig.3.12
Solution:
Generator voltage is shown in Fig. 3.13
Fig.3.13
Solution:
Since each turn has two sides,
Z=220 x 2 =440 ; N=900 rpm ;
φ=0.07 Wb ; P=A=4
φZN P 0.07 * 440 * 900 4
E= * = * = 462Volt
60 A 60 4
Total resistance of 220 turns or 440 conductors=220*0.004=0.88Ω
Since, there are 4 parallel paths in armature, .
Resistance of each path=0.88/4=0.22 Ω
There are four such resistances in parallel each of value 0.22Ω
Armature resistance, Ra=0.22/4=0.055 Ω
Armature drop = I a Ra =50*0.055=2.75 volt
Solution:
Induced EMF. in the generator is:
φZN P 0.02 * 378 * 1000 4
E= * = * = 252Volt
60 A 60 2
Now let V be the terminal voltage i.e. the voltage available
across the load as well as the shunt resistance (Fig.3.14).
Load current= V/10 ampere and shunt current= V/100 ampere
V V 11V
Armature current= + =
10 100 100
1 θ
Cross-magnetising amp-turns/pole = ZI − m
2 P 360
(remembering that two conductors make one turn)
1 θ
ATc/pole = ZI − m (3.19)
2 P 360
Note. (i) For neutralizing the demagnetising effect of
armature-reaction, an extra number of turns may be put on each
pole.
ATd
No. of extra turns/pole = for shunt generator
I sh
ATd
= for series generator
Ia
If the leakage coefficient a is given, then multiply each of the
above expression by it.
(ii) If lead angle is given in electrical degrees, it should be
converted into mechanical degrees by the following relation
θ (electrical ) θe 2θ e
θ (mechanical ) = or θ m = = (3.20)
pair of pole P/2 P
Fig.3.16
I a 35
Solution. Z=35 * 12=420; θ m = 10 , I =
o
= = 17.5 A
2 2
θm 10
ATd/ pole = ZI = 420 *17.5 * = 204 At
360 360
θ
ATc/pole = ZI 1
1 10
− m = 420 * 17.5 * − = 715 At
2 P 360 2 * 4 360
1 θ 1 7.5
ATc/pole = ZI − m = 480 * 250 * − = 5000 At
2 P 360 2 * 8 360
Example 3.8 A 4 pole, wave-wound motor armature has 880
conductors and delivers 120 A. The brushes have been displaced
through 3 angular degrees from the geometrical axis. Calculate
(a) demagnetising amp-turns/pole (b) cross-magnetising
amp-turns/pole (c) the additional field current for neutralizing the
demagnetisation if the field winding has 1100 turns/pole.
Solution:.
120
Z=880 ; I= = 60 A, θ = 3o
2
θm 3
(a) ATd/ pole = ZI = 880 * 60 * = 440 At
360 360
1 3
(b) ATc/pole = 880 * 60 * − = 6160
8 360
880 60 Z I a
Or total ATd/pole = * = * = 6600 At
2 4 2 P
Hence ATc/pole=Total AT/pole -ATd/pole =6600-440=6160
(c) Additional field current= 440/1100=0.4 A
Solution.
88 Chapter Two
Fig.3.17
Solution:
The shunt motor is shown diagrammatically in Fig.3.17
Motor output=30 * 746 W, - η = 0.88 %
30 * 746
Motor input = = 25432W
0.88
25432
Motor input current= = 57.8 A
440
I sh = 1.8 A, I a = 57.8 − 1.8 = 56 A
Current in each conductor = 56/2=28 A
θ m = 1.5 * 360 / 140 = 27 / 7 deg rees
27
ATd/ pole = 840 * 28 * = 252 At
7 * 360
1 27
ATc/pole = 840 * 28 * − = 2688 At
8 7 * 360
90 Chapter Two
increases the flux still more, which increases E0 even more, and so
forth. This progressive buildup continues until E0 reaches a
maximum value determined by the field resistance and the degree
of saturation. See next section.
3.18 DC Motor
DC Machines 109
The DC machine can operate both as a generator and as a motor.
This is illustrated in Fig.3.29. When it operates as a generator, the
input to the machine is mechanical power and the output is
electrical power. A prime mover rotates the armature of the DC
machine, and DC power is generated in the machine. The prime
mover can be a gas turbine, a diesel engine, or an electrical motor.
When the DC machine operates as a motor, the input to the
machine is electrical power and the output is mechanical power. If
the armature is connected to a DC supply, the motor will develop
mechanical torque and power. In fact, the DC machine is used
more as a motor than as a generator. DC motors can provide a
wide range of accurate speed and torque control.
It = Ia + I f (3.25b)
φzN p
Ea = K a φ ω m = * (3.25c)
60 A
Ea = Vt − I a Ra (3.25d)
Pm = Vt * I a − I a2 Ra (3.27)
Differentiating both sides with respect to Ia we get:
dPm
= Vt − 2 I a Ra = 0 (3.28)
dI a
Then, I a Ra = Vt / 2 (3.29)
As Vt = Ea + I a Ra and I a * Ra = Vt / 2
Then Ea = Vt / 2 (3.30)
3.21 Torque
By the term torque is meant the turning or twisting moment of a
force about an axis. It is measured by the product of the force and
the radius at which this force acts.
Consider a pulley of radius r meters acted upon by a circum
ferential force of F Newton which causes it to rotate at N rps
DC Machines 115
Then, torque T = F * r Newton meter (N-m)
Work done by this force in one revolution
=Force * distance = F * 2π r
= (F * r ) * 2πN joule/second
Now 2πN = angular velocity ω in rad/second
power developed = T * ω joule/second or watt (3.31)
Series-wound DC motor
In series DC motor field & armature circuits are connected in
series, as shown in the Figure below; so Ia = I f . Assuming linear
P
Since Ea = φZN volt, we have:
A
P
Ta * 2πN = φZN * Ia (3.34)
A
1 P
Then, Ta = φZI a N-m (3.35)
2π A
P
or Ta = 0.159 φZI a N.m (3.36)
A
Note. From the above equation for the torque, we find that
Taα φ I a
(a) 1n the case of a series motor, φ is directly proportional to Ia
(before saturation) because field windings carry full armature
current. ∴Taα I a .
2
30 *10 −2 * 540 * N 4
217.2 =
60 4
(i) ∴ N = 804.4 rpm = 13.4 rps
Solution:
Ea I a
Armature torque is given by Ta = N.m
2πN
Now
Ea = V − I a (Ra + Rse ) = 220 − 40 * (0.2 + 0.1) = 208V
800 40
N= = rps
60 3
1 Ea I a 1 208 * 40
∴Ta = N .m = * = 99.3 N .m
2π N 2π (40 / 3)
DC Machines 121
Cu loss in armature and series-field resistance:
= 40 2 * 0.3 = 480 W
Iron and friction losses= 500 W,
Total losses=480+500=980 W
Motor power input =220 * 40=8,800 W
Motor output=8,800-980 =7,820 W =7.82 kW
Example 3.15 A 4-pole, 240 V, wave-connected shunt motor
gives 11.19 kW when running at 1000 rpm and drawing armature
an field-currents of 50 A and 1.0 A respectively. It has 540
conductors. Its resistance is 0.1Ω. Assuming a drop of 1 volt per
brush, find (a) total torque (b) useful torque (c) useful flux/pole (d)
rotational losses and (e) efficiency.
Solution:
Ea = V − I a Ra − Brush drop = 240 − 50 * 0.1 − 2 = 233V
Also, I a = 50 A
Since φ α I a hence Tα φ I a α I a
2
T1 α 40 2 and T2 α 30 2
DC Machines 123
T2 9
Then, =
T1 16
Percentage change in torque is
T1 − T2 7
= *100 = *100 = 43.75%
T1 16
Now Ea1 = 460 − (40 * 0.8) = 428V
N 2 Ea 2 I a1
= *
N1 Ea1 I a 2
N 2 436 40
Then, = *
500 428 30
Then, N 2 = 679 rpm
P
Ea = V − I a * Ra Or φZN = V − I a Ra (3.41)
A
V − I a Ra A
N= * rps (3.42)
φ ZP
Now V − I a Ra = Ea (3.43)
124 Chapter Two
Ea A E
Then, N = * rps or N = k a (3.44)
φ ZP φ
Ea
inversely-to the flux φ or Nα (3.45)
φ
For Series Motor
Let N1speed in the 1st case;
I a1 = armature current in the 1st case
N 2 Ea 2 I a1
∴ = * (3.49)
N1 Ea1 I a 2
DC Machines 125
For Shunt Motor
In this case the same equation applies,
N 2 Ea 2 φ1 N 2 Ea 2
∴ = * , If φ 2 = φ1 Then, = (3.50)
N1 Ea1 φ 2 N1 Ea1
Fig.3.32
I a = I + I sh = 205A,
I a Ra = 205 * 0.02 =4.1 V;
Brush drop=2 * 1 =2V
Induced EMF in armature =250 + 4.1 +2=256.1 V
Obviously, if this machine were to run as a motor at 400 rpm, it
would have a back EMF of 256.1 V induced in its armature.
∴ Ea1 = 256.1V , N1 = 400 rpm
N 2 Ea 2 φ1
= * , Since φ 2 = φ1
N1 Ea1 φ 2
N 2 Ea 2 N 244.1
Then, = Then, 2 =
N1 Ea1 400 256.1
Solution.
No-load input = 220 * 5 =1,100 W ;
128 Chapter Two
I sh = 220/ 110 = 2 A
I a 0 = 5-2=3A
2
No-load armature Cu loss= 3 * 0.5 = 4.5 W
Then, Constant losses=1,100-4.5=1095.5 W
When input is 11 kW
Input current=11,000/220=50 A ;
Armature current=50-2=48 A
Arm. Cu loss=482*0.5=1,152 W
Total loss=Arm. Cu loss + constant losses:
=1152- 1095.5=2248 W
Output=11,000-2,248=8,752 W
(b) Efficiency= 8,752 * 100/11,000=79.6%
(c) Back EMF at no-load=220-(3 * 0.5)=218.5 V
Back EMF at given load=220-(48 * 0.5)=196 V
Then, Speed N=1150* 196/218.5=1,031 rpm
(d) Power developed in armature= Ea I a = 196*48 W
Solution:
N 2 Ea 2 φ1 Ea 2 I a1
∴ = * = *
N1 Ea1 φ 2 Ea1 I a 2
Then, T1 α I a1 and T2 α I a 2
2 2
Or,
2
T2 I a 2
=
T1 I a1
2
1 I
Then, = a 2
2 I a1
N 2 212.9 100
∴ = * , Then, N 2 = 1147 rpm
800 210 70.7
130 Chapter Two
Problems
10- A DC shunt machine (24 kW, 240 V, 1000 rpm) has Ra = 0.12
Ω, Nf = 600 turns/pole. The machine is operated as a separately
excited DC generator and is driven at 1000 rpm. When If = 1.8 A,
134 Chapter Two
the no-load terminal voltage is 240 V. When the generator delivers
full-load current, the terminal voltage drops to 225 V.
(a) Determine the generated voltage and developed torque when
the generator delivers full load.
(b) Determine the voltage drop due to armature reaction.
(c) The full-load terminal voltage can be made the same as the
no-load terminal voltage by increasing the field current to 2.2 A or
by using series winding on each pole. Determine the number of
turns per pole of the series winding required if If is kept at 1.8 A.
11- A DC series machine (9.25 kW, 185 V, 1500 rpm) has Ra + Rsr
= 0.3 Ω. The data for the magnetization curve are;
Ia(a) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Ea(v) 10 50 106 156 184 200 208
Determine the terminal voltage at (a) Ia = 20 A. (b) Ia = 40 A. (c) Ia
=60 A. if the DC series machine operates as a generator.
15- Repeat Problem 4.18 for the full-load condition if Rfc = 0Ω.
(a) Assume no armature reaction.
(b) Assume a 10% reduction of flux at full load.