EEE311: Electrical Machine I

Lecture I – Introduction to Electrical Machines

Definition

An electrical machine is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy
(generators) or electrical energy into mechanical energy (Motors). Electrical machines also
include transformers, which converts AC current from one voltage level to another voltage level

Electric Machine Classification

Electrical machine are classified first as either static or dynamic or motional machine. Static
machines are transformers while motional machine are generators or electric motors. The term
motional can either be linear or rotational machines. Of course rotating machines are by far the
most prominent dynamic machines.

Transformers:
Transformers are classified according to the diagram shown Figure 1.

Fig. 1 Transformer classification

Generator
Generators are classified as shown below;

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 Figure: Classification of rotating machine

Generation of Voltages
1. Motional or dynamic EMF.
When coil moves in magnetic field, it generates AC according to faradays law of
electromagnetic induction. The EMF generated because of the motion of a conductor in a
magnet field is called motional EMF. If the motion is rotational, it is called rotational EMF
designated by ( ).

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 Figure 3 Generation of Voltages

When coil is rotating in magnetic field or poles, it generates maximum voltage when the
conductor or coil is perpendicular to magnetic field. When coil is parallel to magnetic field, it
generates zero voltage. So when it goes from parallel to perpendicular voltage increases
gradually from zero to maximum and when coil goes from perpendicular to parallel.

From 0 to 180 it generates a positive half cycle and from 180 - 360 it negates negative a half
cycle and so on.

1 / cycle time = Frequency.

Figure 4: generated voltage with time.

The EMF generated is given by equation 1.

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 1

2
2. Static or Transformer EMF
Static EMF is produced when the flux linking with the coil is changed by changing the current
producing this flux (as in transformers). Note that the magnetic field and the coil are both
stationary. The induced EMF in this way is called statically induced EMF. The EMF generated
is given as:

The statically induced EMF can be further subdivided into the following two categories:

 Self-induced EMF
 Mutually induced EMF

Self -Induced EMF; is the EMF induced in a coil due to the change of flux produced which links
its own turns.

Figure 5 Self induce EMF.

Consider a coil having N turns on an iron core connected to a current source as shown in the
figure. The current I flows through the coil, it produces flux φ. This flux also links with its own
turns. If the current flowing through the coil is changed by changing the variable resistance R, it
changes the flux linking with the coil and hence an EMF is induced in the coil. The direction of
induced EMF induced in this way opposes the change of current by Lenz‟s law. Also from
Faraday‟s law, the magnitude of self-induced EMF is directly proportional to the rate of change
of flux linking with the coil, while the rate of change of flux linking with the coil is directly
proportional to the rate of change of current in the coil. The self induces EMF in the coil is given
as:

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Mutually induce EMF : is the EMF induced in a coil due to the change of flux produced by
another coil in close proximity is called mutually induced EMF.

Figure 6: Mutually Induce EMF

Consider a coil A having N1 turns and a coil B having N2 turns. When coil A is energized, the
current flow through coil A and produce flux φ1. A part of this flux links coil B. If the current
flowing through the coil A is changed by changing the variable resistance R, it changes the flux
linking coil B and hence an EMF is induced in coil B. The direction of mutually induced EMF is
such that it opposes the change of current in the coil A. The mutually induce EMF is given as:

Elementary Synchronous Generator

The synchronous generator or alternator is an electrical machine that converts the mechanical
power from a prime mover into an AC electrical power at a particular voltage and frequency.
The synchronous generator produces electricity at synchronous speed. The synchronous speed is
the speed of the revolution of the magnetic field in the stator winding of the generator. The
speed is define by equation 6, given as:
6
The principle of electricity generation in synchronous generator is based on the Faraday‟s law of
electromagnetic induction i.e. the relative motion between the conductor and the field induces
the EMF in the conductor. The wave shape of the induced voltage is always a sinusoidal curve.
An elementary synchronous generator is shown in figure

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 Figure 7 Elementary Synchronous Generator

The rotor has the field pole generated by a field winding supplied by a DC source, and the stator
consists of the 3 armature conductors. As the rotor rotates, the excitation voltage setup current
which produces a rotating magnet field, the magnetic field or flux cuts through the conductors in
the stator winding and an alternating EMF is setup in the stator windings. The EMF generated is
given as:

Volts 7

where
P be the number of poles
ϕ is Flux per pole in Webers
f is the frequency in Hertz
Nph is the number of turns connected in series per phase
Kc is the coil span factor
Kd is the distribution factor

The synchronous generators are the primary source of electrical power generation in power
stations. For power generation, the stator of the synchronous generator design for voltage ratings
of between 6.6 kV to 33 kV.

Elementary 3-Phase voltage

If three single phase circuit are arranged such that the phase difference between them is 120 o,
then it will become a three phase circuit. The 120o phase difference is a necessity for a 3-phase
system. The voltage produced in this way is called a 3-phase voltage.

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 Figure 8: 3-phase voltage wave form

The voltage equation for the three phase Voltages are:

Or

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The three-phase system has several advantages over the single phase system. it requires fewer
conductors as compared to the single phase system, the three-phase system has higher efficiency
and minimum losses.

The three phase system induces in a generator produces three phase voltage of equal magnitude
and frequency. The three-phase systems are connected in two ways, i.e., the star connection and
the delta connection.

The star connection as shown in figure has a star or neutral point while the open end of the coil
forms the 3-phase. The neutral point passes the unbalanced current to the earth and hence make
the system balance.

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 Figure 9: 3-phase Star Connection

The line to line voltage and phase voltage in a star connected system are related as:

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Similarly, The line to line current and phase current in a star connected system are related as:

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The delta connection has three wires, and there is a no neutral point. The delta connection is
shown in the figure below. The line voltage of the delta connection is equal to the phase voltage.

Figure 9: 3-phase Delta Connection

The line to line voltage and phase voltage in a delta connected system are related as:

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Similarly, The line to line current and phase current in a delta connected system are related as:

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 14

-Electromechanical Energy Conversion

Energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be converted from one form to another. Electrical
energy is one of the most useful forms of energy. However, it is not readily available in nature
and if produced, it cannot be utilized directly. It needs to be converted to a useful form.
Electromechanical energy devices convert electrical energy to mechanical energy or converts
mechanical energy to electrical energy.

Electromechanical energy conversion devices can be divided into three categories:

(1) Transducers (for measurement and control) e.g. microphones, and speakers.
(2) Force producing devices (linear motion devices) such as relays, solenoids (linear actuators),
and electromagnets.
(3) Continuous energy conversion equipment such as electric motors and generators

An electromechanical energy device operates by mean of a medium which could be electrostatic

or electromagnetic. Electromagnetic energy medium is the most suitable medium because it
permits the conversion of large amount of energy.

1.1 Electromechanical Energy Conversion Theory

In a general electro-mechanical system, the conversion of electric energy from a source into
mechanical energy requires the following:

i. Electrical port, receiving/delivering electrical energy.

ii. Mechanical port, delivering/receiving mechanical energy.
iii. Electromagnetic field: Magnetic field or electric field.
Losses of electric origin Losses in mechanical part of the system

Input Output

Electric Energy Electromagnetic Mechanical

Source field energy Energy

Output Input

Fig 1. Block Diagram of an electromechanical system

However, for a simple analysis of an electromechanical system, certain losses are attached to the
ports and they are:

i. Losses. (electrical port)

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 ii. Friction and windage losses. (mechanical port
iii. Core – losses i.e. Hysteresis and Eddy current losses (coupling Field)

Single Excited System

Excitation in electrical machines is the process of supplying current to the winding of a
machine. When one member of the machine e.g the armature winding or field winding received
electric current, it is called a single excited system. When two members‟ e.g armature winding
and field windings received current, it is called a double excited system.
A single excited system is shown in figure 2.

Fig 2. A single excited energy converting electromagnet

The energy conservation law as it applies to every electromechanical system is given as:

(1)

Where: is the electrical energy supplied or received by the source of electric energy, is
the losses of the system (Ohmic resistances, eddy-current and hysteresis losses), is the
change in electromagnetic field energy and is the change in mechanical energy
including Friction and windage losses.

If the system does not involve any moving parts, and thus cannot perform mechanical work;
therefore, electromagnetic energy is accumulated in the air gap of the
system.

Most electromechanical systems are reversible. However, the losses are always irreversible. The
losses in the electromechanical system do not participate in energy conversion. Therefore, in the
analysis of an electromechanical system, we analyze a loss-free system, thereafter, we can
include the losses.

If losses are neglected, equation (1) becomes

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The flux linkage ( in an electromechanical system is given as

The emf is given as:

Therefore,

(2)

(3)

Substituting equation (2) into (3), we have

(4)

A mechanical force F causing displacement can be expressed as equation (5)

(5)

Equation (1) can be rewritten by substituting the expression for and as

(6)

From equation (6), the energy stored in the magnetic field is a function of the flux linkage of the
excited winding and the position of the plunger. It is mathematically expressed as equation (7).

(7)

Comparing equations (6) and (7) we have:

and

To calculate the attractive magnetic force acting on the movable part we will introduce the
quantity called co-energy.

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The – i characteristic of an electromechanical system is shown in the figure. It is a linear
characteristic that depends on the air-gap length and B – H characteristic of the magnetic
material. As the air-gap length increases, the – i characteristic become non-linear. At a
particular air gap length, the area A represents the energy stored in the magnetic field why the
area B represents the co-energy of the electromechanical system. The co-energy is used to
determine the force of an electromechanical system in terms of current and the energy to
determine force in terms of flux linkage.

The energy stored in a magnetic field can be expressed as

or

The coil inductance L depends on the reluctance of the magnetic circuit

It should be noted that in a magnetic circuit with a movable-armature the inductance L(x) will be
a function of the position x. Therefore, the field energy is a function of two mathematically
independent variables λ and x. where λ represent the flux linkage.

The force acting on the movable plunger is given by

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 [ ]

But

A solenoid relay is operated from a 110V dc supply and the 5000-turn coil. The resistance is
5.5kΩ, the core diameter of the relay is 20mm and the gap length is 1.5mm, the armature being
stationary. The gap forces may be taken as parallel and the permeability of the ferromagnetic part
as very high. Find the (i) gap flux density (ii) the coil inductance and (iii) the pull on the
armature.

The inductance is inversely proportional to the air gap length

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 Single Excited Rotating Actuator

The singly excited linear actuator mentioned above becomes a singly excited rotating actuator if
the linearly movable plunger is replaced by a rotor as shown above.

In terms of co-energy.

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 Double Excited System

The general principle for force and torque calculation discussed above is equally applicable to
multi-excited systems. Consider a doubly excited rotating actuator shown schematically in the
diagram below as an example. The differential energy and co-energy functions can be derived as
following:

A doubly excited actuator

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Therefore, comparing the corresponding differential terms, we obtain

For magnetically linear systems, currents and flux linkages can be related by constant
inductances as

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The magnetic energy and co-energy can then be expressed as

Therefore, the torque acting on the rotor can be calculated as

Instrument Transformer
Instrument Transformers are used for measurement of alternating electrical quantities such as
voltage, current, power, energy, power factor, frequency. They are also used with protective
relays for protection of power system. The basic function of Instrument transformers is to step
down the AC voltage and current. It is costly to design measuring instruments for measurement
of high level of voltage and current, so instrument transformers step down the high voltage or
current to the level of the instrument rated voltage or current which is usually about 5 A and 110
V. Thus the measurement of very large electrical quantities such as voltage and currents can be
made possible by using the Instrument transformers along with small rating measuring
instruments. As such, the instrument transformers are common in power system.

Advantages of Instrument Transformers

1. The large voltage and current of AC Power system can be measured by using small rating
measuring instrument i.e. 5 A, 110 – 120 V.
2. Measuring instruments can be standardized with the use of instrument transformer,
standardization results in cost reduction of measuring instruments and ease of
replacement.
3. Instrument transformers provide safety assurance because of the electrical isolation
between high voltage power circuit and measuring instruments. The electrical insulation
required for measuring instruments is also reduced.

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 4. Several measuring instruments can be connected through a single transformer to power
system.
5. Due to low voltage and current level in measuring and protective circuit, there is low
power consumption in measuring and protective circuits.

Types of Instrument Transformers

The two types of instrument transformers are:

1. Current Transformer (C.T.)

2. Potential Transformer (P.T.)

Current Transformer (C.T.)

Current transformer is used to step down the current of power system to a lower level to make it
feasible to be measured by small rating Ammeter (i.e. 5A ammeter). A typical connection
diagram of a current transformer is shown in figure below.

Current Transformer (CT)

Primary of C.T. is having very few turns. Sometimes bar primary is also used. Primary is
connected in series with the power circuit. Therefore, sometimes it also called series
transformer. The secondary is having large no. of turns. Secondary is connected directly to an
ammeter. As the ammeter is having very small resistance. Hence, the secondary of current
transformer operates almost in short circuited condition. One terminal of secondary is earthed to
avoid the large voltage on secondary with respect to earth. Which in turns reduce the chances of
insulation breakdown and also protect the operator against high voltage. More ever before
disconnecting the ammeter, secondary is short circuited through a switch „S‟ as shown in figure
above to avoid the high voltage build up across the secondary.

Potential Transformer (P.T.)

Potential transformer is used to step down the voltage of power system to a lower level to make
is feasible to be measured by small rating voltmeter i.e. 110 – 120 V voltmeter. A typical
connection diagram of a potential transformer is showing figure below.

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 Potential Transformer (PT)

Primary of P.T. is having large no. of turns. Primary is connected across the line (generally
between on line and earth). Hence, sometimes it is also called the parallel transformer.
Secondary of P.T. is having few turns and connected directly to a voltmeter. As the voltmeter is
having large resistance. Hence the secondary of a P.T. operates almost in open circuited
condition. One terminal of secondary of P.T. is earthed to maintain the secondary voltage with
respect to earth. Which assures the safety of operators.

Difference between C.T. and P.T.

Few differences between C.T. and P.T. are listed below –

S/N Current Transformer (C.T.) Potential Transformer (P.T.)

1 Connected in series with power circuit.
2 Secondary is connected to Ammeter.
3 Secondary works almost in short circuited
condition.
4 Primary current depends on power circuit
current.
5 Primary current and excitation vary over wide
range with change of power circuit current
6 One terminal of secondary is earthed to avoid
the insulation break down.
7 Secondary is never be open circuited.
Connected in Parallel with Power
circuit.
Secondary is connected to Voltmeter.
Secondary works almost in open
circuited condition.
Primary current depends on secondary
burden.
Primary current and excitation variation
are restricted to a small range.
One terminal of secondary can be
earthed for Safety.
Secondary can be used in open circuit
condition.

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 The Three-phase Transformer
Three Phase Transformer Construction

The core-type three-phase transformer has three limbs, it is the most common type of three-phase
transformer construction. The Flux of each limb uses the other two limbs for its return path,
allowing the phases to be magnetically linked. The line voltage generates the three magnetic
fluxes in the core and the line voltages are displaced from each other by 120 degrees. Thus the
flux in the core remains nearly sinusoidal, producing a sinusoidal secondary supply voltage.

The shell-type three-phase transformer has five limbs it is heavier and more expensive to build
than the core-type. Five-limb cores are generally used for very large power transformers as they
can be made with reduced height.

Single-phase transformers can be combine to transform 3-phase power. Such single-phase

transformers are called transformer banks.

Three-Phase Transformer Windings and Connections

The primary and secondary windings of a transformer can be connected in different

configuration as shown to meet practically any requirement. In the case of three phase
transformer windings, three forms of connection are possible: “star” (wye), “delta” (mesh) and
“interconnected-star” (zig-zag).

The primary and secondary windings of a transformer can be connected in different

configuration as shown to meet practically any requirement. In the case of three phase
transformer windings, three forms of connection are possible: “star” (wye), “delta” (mesh) and
“interconnected-star” (zig-zag). The basic two connection are shown as:

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Symbols are generally used on a three phase transformer to indicate the type or types of
connections used with upper case Y as star D as delta and Z for interconnected star (zigzag)
connected windings in the primary side. On the secondary side, lower case y, d and z are used to
designate their respective secondaries. Then, Star-Star would be labelled Yy, Delta-Delta would
be labelled Dd and interconnected star to interconnected star would be Zz for the same types of
connected transformers.

In a delta connected ( Dd ) group of transformers, the line voltage, VL is equal to the supply
voltage, VL = VS. But the current in each phase winding is given as: 1/√3 × IL of the line current,
where IL is the line current. One disadvantage of delta connected three phase transformers is that
each transformer must be wound for the full-line voltage, (in our example above 100V) and for
57.7 per cent, line current. The greater number of turns in the winding, together with the
insulation between turns, necessitate a larger and more expensive coil than the star connection.
Another disadvantage with delta connected three phase transformers is that there is no “neutral”
or common connection.

In the star-star arrangement ( Yy ), (wye-wye), each transformer has one terminal connected to a
common junction, or neutral point with the three remaining ends of the primary windings
connected to the three-phase mains supply. The number of turns in a transformer winding for star
connection is 57.7 per cent, of that required for delta connection. The star connection requires the
use of three transformers, and if any one transformer becomes fault or disabled, the whole group
might become disabled. Nevertheless, the star connected three phase transformer is especially
convenient and economical in electrical power distributing systems, in that a fourth wire may be
connected as a neutral point, ( n ) of the three star connected secondaries.

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Transformer Vector Group

The vector group is an indication of determining the phase difference between the transformer‟s
primary and secondary.

A vector group is a number, and from this number, you can decode it to phase shift of primary
and secondary.

Following are the representation of Digit to the phase-shifted.

 Vector Number 0 =0° ( Phase Shift of 0° Angle)

 Vector Number 1 =30° ( Phase Shift of 30° Angle)
 Vector Number 11 =330° ( Phase Shift of 330° Angle)
 Vector Number 6 = 180° ( Phase Shift of 180° Angle)

In some transformer, the grouped divide further as follows.

Group I (0 o‟clock, 0°)

Group II (6 o‟clock, 180°)
Group III (1 o‟clock, -30°)
Group IV (11 o‟clock, +30°)

So By group number, you can also identify the phase shift of each transformer. You can easily
understand it by this clock number

The following are the type 0f Vector Group you can find in transformer nameplate.

Yy0 – HV Winding Star, LV Vinding Star, and Phase Shift 0°

Dd0 – HV Winding Delta, LV Vinding Delta, and Phase Shift 0°
Yd1- HV Winding Star, LV Vinding Delta, and Phase Shift 30°
Dy1- HV Winding Delta, LV Vinding Star, and Phase Shift 30°
Yy6 -HV Winding Star, LV Vinding Star, and Phase Shift 180°
Dd6 – HV Winding Delta, LV Vinding Delta, and Phase Shift 180°
Yd11- HV Winding Star, LV Vinding Delta, and Phase Shift -30°
Dy11- HV Winding Delta, LV Vinding Stara, and Phase Shift -30°

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 Elementary DC Generator.
Consider a one turn coil in a magnet field supplied by permanent magnets of opposite north and
south poles, the coil is connected to an external circuit through slip rings and brushes. In one
complete revolution (360o), the coil will change it position around the magnetic field. As the coil
rotates from position A (0o), the rate of change of flux linking the coil increases and reaches a
maximum value at position B (90o). At this point when the coil is horizontal, the maximum EMF
will be induced. As the coil moves to position C (180o), the rate of change of flux decreases to
zero when the coil is vertical (180o), the induce EMF at this point is zero. The process is repeated
at position D and E at angles 270o and 360o in the anticlockwise direction. A complete rotation of
a single turn in a magnetic field is illustrated in Figure 10. Because the direction of current
reverses in the second half of the revolution, the induce current is alternating with a positive and
negative half cycle as illustrated in the waveform in Figure 11. To create a unidirectional current
or direct current (DC) the negative half cycle must be reverse. The reversal is achieved through
the commutator. Hence in a practical DC generator, the commutator is used in place of slip rings.
The unidirectional voltage as a result of the reversal by the commutator is illustrated in the
waveform in Figure 12.

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 Figure 10: One revolution of a single turn conductor in a magnetic field

Figure 11: The wave form of the generated emf in one revolution

Figure 12: Unidirectional voltage as a result of commutator action

DC Generator E.M.F. Equation

Let
= flux
Z = No of slot x No of Conductors
P = No of poles
A = No of parallel Paths in armature
N = armature rotation in revolution per minutes (r.p.m)
E = EMF. induced in any parallel path in the armature
Generated EMF. generated in any one of the parallel paths i.e. E

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The Average EMF generated/conductor = volts ( = 1)
The flux cut/conductor in one revolution is
No of revolution/second = N/60
The time for one revolution,
By faraday‟s law of Electromagnetic induction,

EMF generated

or
( ) 15
where A = 2 for simplex wave winding or A = P for simplex lap-winding.

Types of DC Generators

A. Separately Excited DC Generator

These are DC generators whose magnetic field are produce by the excitation of the field winding
from an external DC source, such as a battery. Figure 12 illustrates the separately excited DC
generator.

Figure 13: Separately excited DC generator

B. Self-excited DC Generators

These are DC generators whose magnetic field are produce by the excitation of the field winding
by the currents produce by the generator itself. The currents are produce as a result of some flux
that is always present in the poles call residual flux. Hence, when the generator is driven some
residual EMF is induced and small amount of current flows through the field coil and strengthen
the flux or generate more flux to increase the generated EMF. The process continue until the

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rated the generated EMF is at it rated value, this is the process of voltage build up in self-excited
DC generators.

Self-excited DC generators are classified as:

i. Series Wound Generators

ii. Shunt Wound Generators
iii. Compound Wound Generators

i. Series Wound Generator: The field windings are connected in series with the
armature conductors, as shown in the figure 13. Thus the generator‟s rated current
flows through the field coils and the load. For this reason, the field winding is
designed with few turns of thick conductors. Thus the resistance of the series field
winding is very low (less than 0.5Ω).

Figure 14: Series wound self-excited DC generator

ii. Shunt Wound DC Generators: The field windings are connected in parallel with
armature conductors, as shown in the Figure 14. In the shunt wound generators, the
emf across the load and field winding are the same, but the field current is not the
same as the load current because the armature current flow into two parts i.e. the
output or load and field winding current. In order to obtain the maximum load
current, the field current is kept to the smallest possible value. Thus, the resistance of
the shunt field winding is high (in the range of 100 Ω) with large no of turns and thin
conductors.

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 Figure 15: Shunt wound self-excited DC generator
iii. Compound Wound DC Generator: Is a combination of the series and shunt wound
generator to overcome the disadvantages of both. Compound wound generators have
two field windings. One winding is connected in series with the armature, and the
other is connected in parallel with the armature. The shut field is usually stronger than
the series field. When the series field aids the shunts field, the DC generator is
commutatively compounded. On the other hand, if the series field opposes the shunt
field, the generator is differentially compounded.
The compound DC generators may also be classified as the short shunt compound-
wound generator and long shunt compound-wound generator.
Short Shunt Compound Wound DC Generator: are compound generators where
only the shunt field winding is in parallel with the armature winding as shown in the
figure 16.

Figure 16: Short Shunt Compound Wound DC Generators

Long Shunt Compound Wound DC Generator: are compound generators where the
shunt field winding is in parallel with the armature winding and series field as shown
in the figure 17.

Figure 17: Long Shunt Compound Wound DC Generators

The cumulatively compound generators can be over compounded, flat compounded

and under compounded, depending upon the number of series field turns. If series
field turns are adjusted so that, increase in load current causes increase in terminal
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 voltage then the generator is said to be over compounded, If series field turns are
adjusted so that, the terminal voltage remains constant even when the load current is
increased, then the generator is flat compounded and If the series field turns has lesser
number of turns than would be required to be flat compounded, then the generator is
under compounded.

DC MACHINES ARMATURE WINDING

General Features OF D.C. Armature Windings

A d.c. machine (generator or motor) generally employs windings distributed in slots over the
circumference of the armature core. Each conductor lies at right angles to the magnetic flux and
to the direction of its movement Therefore, the induced e.m.f. in the conductor is given by;

E = Blv volts
where B = magnetic flux density in Wb/m2
l = length of the conductor in metres
v = velocity (in m/s) of the conductor

Basic Winding Terminology

.
1. Armature coil
The armature conductors are connected to form coils. The basic component of all types of
armature windings is the armature coil. Fig. 1 (i) shows a single-turn coil. It has two
conductors or coil sides connected at the back of the armature. Fig. 1 (ii) shows a 4-turn
coil which has 8 conductors or coil sides.

2. Commutator Pitch (YC)

The commutator pitch is the number of commutator segments spanned by each coil of the
winding. It is denoted by YC. For simplex lap winding, YC = 1 For simplex wave winding,
YC ~ 2 pole pitches (segments)

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 3. Pole-Pitch
It is the distance measured in terms of number of armature slots (or armature conductors) per
pole. Thus if a 4-pole generator has 16 coils, then number of slots = 16.

4. Coil Span or Coil Pitch (YS)

It is the distance measured in terms of the number of armature slots (or armature conductors)
spanned by a coil. Thus if the coil span is 9 slots, it means one side of the coil is in slot 1 and
the other side in slot 10.

5. Full-Pitched Coil
If the coil-span or coil pitch is equal to pole pitch, it is called full-pitched coil

6. Resultant Pitch (YR)

It is the distance (measured in terms of armature conductors) between the beginning of one
coil and the beginning of the next coil to which it is connected It is denoted by YR.
Therefore, the resultant pitch is the algebraic sum of the back and front pitches.

7. Progressive Winding
A progressive winding is one in which, as one traces through the winding, the connections to
the commutator will progress around the machine in the same direction as is being traced
along the path of each individual coil. YB > YF and YC = + 1.

8. Retrogressive Winding
A retrogressive winding is one in which, as one traces through the winding, the connections
to the commutator will progress around the machine in the opposite direction to that which is
being traced along the path of each individual coil. For a retrogressive lap winding. YF > YB
and YC =1. A retrogressive winding is seldom used because it requires more copper.
9. Lap winding and Wave winding
Armature winding can be done as single layer or double layer. It may be simplex, duplex or
multiplex, and this multiplicity increases the number of parallel paths.
In lap winding, the successive coils overlap each other. In a simplex lap winding, the two ends
of a coil are connected to adjacent commutator segments. The winding may be progressive or
retrogressive. A progressive winding progresses in the direction in which the coil is wound. The
opposite way is retrogressive. The following image shows progressive simplex lap winding.

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In wave winding, a conductor under one pole is connected at the back to a conductor which
occupies an almost corresponding position under the next pole which is of opposite polarity. In
other words, all the coils which carry emf in the same direction are connected in series. The
following diagram shows a part of simplex wave winding.

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