Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction

If a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force due to the
magnetic field.
On the other hand, if a conductor moved in a magnetic field, an emf gets induced across the
conductor
Faraday's Law And Lenz's Law Of Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday's laws of of electromagnetic induction explains the relationship between electric
circuit and magnetic field. This law is the basic working principle of the most of the electrical
motors, generators, transformers, inductors etc.

2
Faraday's First Law:
Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field an EMF gets induced across the
conductor (called as induced emf), and if the conductor is a closed circuit then induced
current flows through it.
Magnetic field can be varied by various methods -
1. By moving magnet
2. By moving the coil
3. By rotating the coil relative to magnetic field

Faraday's Second Law:

Faraday's second law of electromagnetic induction states that, the magnitude of induced
emf is equal to the rate of change of flux linkages with the coil. The flux linkages is the
product of number of turns and the flux associated with the coil.
Formula Of Faraday's Law:
Consider the conductor is moving in magnetic field, then flux linkage with the coil at initial
position of the conductor = NΦ1 (Wb) (N is speed of the motor and Φ is flux)

flux linkage with the coil at final position of the conductor = NΦ2 (Wb)
change in the flux linkage from initial to final = N(Φ1 - Φ2)

let Φ1 - Φ2 = Φ
therefore, change in the flux linkage = NΦ
and, rate of change in the flux linkage = NΦ/t
taking the derivative of RHS rate of change of flux linkages = N (dΦ/dt)

According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, rate of change of flux linkages is

equal to the induced emf
So, E = N (dΦ/dt) (volts)
Phenomenon Of Mutual Induction

Alternating current flowing in a coil produces alternating magnetic field around it. When two
or more coils are magnetically linked to each other, then an alternating current flowing
through one coil causes an induced emf across the other linked coils. This phenomenon is
called as mutual induction.

Lenz's Law
Lenz's law of electromagnetic induction states that, when an emf is induced according to
Faraday's law, the polarity (direction) of that induced emf is such that it opposes the cause
of its production.

Thus, considering Lenz's law E = -N (dΦ/dt) (volts)

The negative sign shows that, the direction of the induced emf and the direction of change
in magnetic fields have opposite signs
Fleming's Left Hand Rule And Right Hand Rule
John Ambrose Fleming introduced two rules to determine the direction of motion (in motors)
or the direction of induced current (in generators).
The rules are called as

1. Fleming's left hand rule(for motors) and

2. Fleming's right hand rule (for generators).

Fleming's Left Hand Rule

Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a
force which is perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the direction of current.
Fleming's left hand rule is applicable for motors.

How To Remember Fleming's Left Hand Rule?

Method 1: Relate the thumb with thrust, fore finger with field and
center-finger with current as explained below.
 The Thumb represents the direction of Thrust on the conductor
(force on the conductor).
 The Fore finger represents the direction of the magnetic Field.
 The Center finger (middle finger) the direction of the Current.
Fleming's Right Hand Rule

Fleming's right hand rule is applicable for electrical generators.

1. if the thumb represents the direction of the movement of conductor,

2. fore-finger represents direction of the magnetic field,
3. then the middle finger represents direction of the induced current.
 What Is An Electrical Machine?
An electrical machine is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy or vice
versa. Electrical machines also include transformers, which do not actually make conversion
between mechanical and electrical form but they convert AC current from one voltage level to
another voltage level.

Electric Generator:

An electric generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy. A generator works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. It states that whenever a
conductor moves in a magnetic field, an emf gets induced within the conductor. This phenomenon
is called as generator action.

A generator basically consists of a stator and a rotor. Mechanical energy is provided to the rotor of a
generator by means of a prime mover (i.e. a turbine). Turbines are of different types like steam
turbine, water turbine, wind turbine etc. Mechanical energy can also be provided by IC engines or
similar other sources.

To learn more about how generators work, read the following articles.

AC Generator (converts mechanical energy into Alternating Current (AC) electricity)

DC Generator (converts mechanical energy into Direct Current (DC) electricity)

Electric Motor:

A motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. When a
current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical
force and this is the principle behind motoring action.

Just like generators, motors also consist of two basic parts, stator and rotor. In many types of
motors, electric supply needs to be provided for both stator and rotor winding. But in some types,
like fixed magnet motors and induction motors, supply may be necessary for only one winding.
Electromagnetic force between the two windings causes the rotor to rotate.

To learn more about electric motors, read the following articles.

AC motors: (i)Induction motors and (ii) Synchronous motor

DC motors: (i) Brushed DC motor and (ii) Brushless DC motor

Transformers:
Transformers do not actually make conversion between mechanical and electrical energy, but they
transfer electric power from one circuit to another circuit. They can increase or decrease (step-up or
step-down) the voltage while transferring the power without changing the frequency, but with the
corresponding decrease or increase in the current. Input power and output power of an electrical
transformer should ideally be the same.

Step up transformers increases the voltage level from primary to secondary but with the
corresponding decrease in the current. Whereas, step-down transformer decrease the voltage level
with the corresponding increase in the current so as to keep the power constant.
DC Machines
Classifications Of DC Machines : (DC Motors And DC Generators)
Each DC machine can act as a generator or a motor. Hence, this classification is valid for both: DC
generators and DC motors.

DC machines are usually classified on the basis of their field excitation method.

This makes two broad categories of dc machines; (i) Separately excited and (ii) Self-excited.

Separately excited DC machines: In separately excited dc machines, the field winding is supplied
from a separate power source. That means the field winding is electrically separated from the
armature circuit. Separately excited DC generators are not commonly used because they are
relatively expensive due to the requirement of an additional power source or circuitry.

Self-excited DC machines: In this type, field winding and armature winding are interconnected in
various ways to achieve a wide range of performance characteristics (for example, field winding in
series or parallel with the armature winding).
In a self-excited type of DC generator, the field winding is energized by the current produced by
themselves. A small amount of flux is always present in the poles due to the residual magnetism. So,
initially, current induces in the armature conductors of a dc generator only due to the residual
magnetism. The field flux gradually increases as the induced current starts flowing through the field
winding.
Self-excited machines can be further classified as –

Series wound dc machines – In this type, field winding is connected in series with the armature
winding. Therefore, the field winding carries whole of the load current (armature current). That is
why series winding is designed with few turns of thick wire and the resistance is kept very low
(about 0.5 Ohm).

Shunt wound dc machines – Here, field winding is connected in parallel with the armature winding.
Hence, the full voltage is applied across the field winding. Shunt winding is made with a large
number of turns and the resistance is kept very high (about 100 Ohm). It takes only small current
which is less than 5% of the rated armature current.

Compound wound dc machines – In this type, there are two sets of field winding. One is connected
in series and the other is connected in parallel with the armature winding. Compound wound
machines are further divided as -
Short shunt – field winding is connected in parallel with only the armature winding

Long shunt – field winding is connected in parallel with the combination of series field winding and
armature winding

According to this classification, a wide range of characteristics of DC generators as well as of DC

motors can be achieved.
Basic Construction And Working Of A DC Generator.

DC Generator
A dc generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into direct current
electricity. This energy conversion is based on the principle of production of dynamically induced
emf.
Construction Of A DC Machine:

Note: A DC generator can be used as a DC motor without any constructional changes and vice versa
is also possible. Thus, a DC generator or a DC motor can be broadly termed as a DC machine. These
basic constructional details are also valid for the construction of a DC motor. Hence, let's call this
point as construction of a DC machine instead of just 'construction of a dc generator'.
The above figure shows constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC machine. A DC
machine consists of two basic parts; stator and rotor. Basic constructional parts of a DC
machine are described below.
1. Yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It is made up of cast iron or steel.
It not only provides mechanical strength to the whole assembly but also carries the
magnetic flux produced by the field winding.
2. Poles and pole shoes: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or welding. They
carry field winding and pole shoes are fastened to them. Pole shoes serve two purposes; (i)
they support field coils and (ii) spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.
3. Field winding: They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound and placed on
each pole and are connected in series. They are wound in such a way that, when energized,
they form alternate North and South poles.

Armature core (rotor)

4. Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of a dc machine. It is cylindrical in shape with
slots to carry armature winding. The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks
for reducing eddy current losses. It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for
cooling purposes. Armature is keyed to the shaft.
5. Armature winding: It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests in armature slots.
The armature conductors are insulated from each other and also from the armature core.
Armature winding can be wound by one of the two methods; lap winding or wave winding.
Double layer lap or wave windings are generally used. A double layer winding means that
each armature slot will carry two different coils.
6. Commutator and brushes: Physical connection to the armature winding is made through a
commutator-brush arrangement. The function of a commutator, in a dc generator, is to
collect the current generated in armature conductors. Whereas, in case of a dc motor,
commutator helps in providing current to the armature conductors. A commutator consists of
a set of copper segments which are insulated from each other. The number of segments is
equal to the number of armature coils. Each segment is connected to an armature coil and
the commutator is keyed to the shaft. Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite.
They rest on commutator segments and slide on the segments when the commutator
rotates keeping the physical contact to collect or supply the current.

Commutator
Working Principle Of A DC Generator:
According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor is placed
in a varying magnetic field (OR a conductor is moved in a magnetic field), an emf
(electromotive force) gets induced in the conductor. The magnitude of induced emf can be
calculated from the emf equation of dc generator. If the conductor is provided with a closed
path, the induced current will circulate within the path. In a DC generator, field coils produce
an electromagnetic field and the armature conductors are rotated into the field. Thus, an
electromagnetically induced emf is generated in the armature conductors. The direction of
induced current is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.
 Need of a Split ring commutator:

According to Fleming’s right hand rule, the direction of induced current changes whenever the direction
of motion of the conductor changes. Let’s consider an armature rotating clockwise and a conductor at
the left is moving upward. When the armature completes a half rotation, the direction of motion of that
particular conductor will be reversed to downward. Hence, the direction of current in every armature
conductor will be alternating. If you look at the above figure, you will know how the direction of the
induced current is alternating in an armature conductor. But with a split ring commutator, connections of
the armature conductors also gets reversed when the current reversal occurs. And therefore, we get
unidirectional current at the terminals.
EMF Equation Of A DC Generator
Consider a DC generator with the following parameters,

P = number of field poles

Ø = flux produced per pole in Wb (weber)
Z = total no. of armature conductors
A = no. of parallel paths in armature
N = rotational speed of armature in revolutions per min. (rpm)

Therefore, Eg = PΦNZ / 60A

For simplex lap winding, number of parallel paths is equal to the number of poles (i.e. A=P),
Therefore, for simplex lap wound dc generator, Eg = PΦNZ / 60P

For simplex wave winding, number of parallel paths is equal to 2 (i.e P=2),
Therefore, for simplex wave wound dc generator, Eg = PΦNZ / 120
 Torque Equation Of A DC Motor
When armature conductors of a DC motor carry current in the presence of stator field flux, a mechanical torque is developed between the armature
and the stator. Torque is given by the product of the force and the radius at which this force acts.

 Torque T = F × r (N-m) …where, F = force and r = radius of the armature

 Work done by this force in once revolution = Force × distance = F × 2πr (where, 2πr = circumference of the armature)
 Net power developed in the armature = word done / time
= (force × circumference × no. of revolutions) / time
= (F × 2πr × N) / 60 (Joules per second) .... eq. 2.1
But, F × r = T and 2πN/60 = angular velocity ω in radians per second. Putting these in the above equation 2.1
Net power developed in the armature = P = T × ω (Joules per second)

Armature Torque (Ta)

 The power developed in the armature can be given as, Pa = Ta × ω = Ta × 2πN/60
 The mechanical power developed in the armature is converted from the electrical power,
Therefore, mechanical power = electrical power
That means, Ta × 2πN/60 = Eb.Ia
 We know, Eb = PΦNZ / 60A
 Therefore, Ta × 2πN/60 = (PΦNZ / 60A) × Ia
 Rearranging the above equation,

Ta = (PZ / 2πA) × Φ.Ia (N-m)

The term (PZ / 2πA) is practically constant for a DC machine. Thus, armature torque is directly proportional to the product of the flux and the armature
current i.e. Ta ∝ Φ.Ia
Shaft Torque (Tsh)
Due to iron and friction losses in a dc machine, the total developed armature torque is not available at the shaft of the machine. Some torque is lost,
and therefore, shaft torque is always less than the armature torque.

Shaft torque of a DC motor is given as,

Tsh = output in watts / (2πN/60) ....(where, N is speed in RPM)
Types Of A DC Generator:
DC generators can be classified in two main categories, viz; (i) Separately excited and (ii) Self-excited.
(i) Separately excited: In this type, field coils are energized from an independent external DC source.
(ii) Selfexcited: In this type, field coils are energized from the current produced by the generator itself. Initial emf generation is due to
residual magnetism in field poles. The generated emf causes a part of current to flow in the field coils, thus strengthening the field flux and
thereby increasing emf generation. Self excited dc generators can further be divided into three types -
(a) Series wound - field winding in series with armature winding
(b) Shunt wound - field winding in parallel with armature winding
(c) Compound wound - combination of series and shunt winding
Characteristics Of DC Generators
Generally, following three characteristics of DC generators are taken into considerations: (i) Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.), (ii)
Internal or Total Characteristic and (iii) External Characteristic. These characteristics of DC generators are explained below.

1. Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.) (E0/If)

Open circuit characteristic is also known as magnetic characteristic or no-load saturation characteristic. This characteristic shows the
relation between generated emf at no load (E0) and the field current (If) at a given fixed speed. The O.C.C. curve is just the magnetization
curve and it is practically similar for all type of generators. The data for O.C.C. curve is obtained by operating the generator at no load and
keeping a constant speed. Field current is gradually increased and the corresponding terminal voltage is recorded. The connection
arrangement to obtain O.C.C. curve is as shown in the figure below. For shunt or series excited generators, the field winding is
disconnected from the machine and connected across an external supply.

Now, from the emf equation of dc generator, we know that Eg = kɸ. Hence, the generated emf should be directly proportional to field flux
(and hence, also directly proportional to the field current). However, even when the field current is zero, some amount of emf is generated
(represented by OA in the figure below). This initially induced emf is due to the fact that there exists some residual magnetism in the field
poles. Due to the residual magnetism, a small initial emf is induced in the armature. This initially induced emf aids the existing residual
flux, and hence, increasing the overall field flux. This consequently increases the induced emf. Thus, O.C.C. follows a straight line.
However, as the flux density increases, the poles get saturated and the ɸ becomes practically constant. Thus, even we increase the
If further, ɸ remains constant and hence, Eg also remains constant. Hence, the O.C.C. curve looks like the B-H characteristic.

The above figure shows a typical no-load saturation curve or open circuit characteristics for all types of DC generators.

2. Internal Or Total Characteristic (E/Ia)

An internal characteristic curve shows the relation between the on-load generated emf (Eg) and the armature current (Ia). The on-load
generated emf Eg is always less than E0 due to the armature reaction. Eg can be determined by subtracting the drop due to
demagnetizing effect of armature reaction from no-load voltage E0. Therefore, internal characteristic curve lies below the O.C.C. curve.
3. External Characteristic (V/IL)
An external characteristic curve shows the relation between terminal voltage (V) and the load current (I L). Terminal voltage V is less than
the generated emf Eg due to voltage drop in the armature circuit. Therefore, external characteristic curve lies below the internal
characteristic curve. External characteristics are very important to determine the suitability of a generator for a given purpose. Therefore,
this type of characteristic is sometimes also called as performance characteristic or load characteristic.

Internal and external characteristic curves are shown below for each type of generator.

Characteristics Of Separately Excited DC Generator

If there is no armature reaction and armature voltage drop, the voltage will remain constant for any load current. Thus, the straight line AB
in above figure represents the no-load voltage vs. load current IL. Due to the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction, the on-load
generated emf is less than the no-load voltage. The curve AC represents the on-load generated emf Eg vs. load current ILi.e. internal
characteristic (as Ia = IL for a separately excited dc generator). Also, the terminal voltage is lesser due to ohmic drop occurring in the
armature and brushes. The curve AD represents the terminal voltage vs. load current i.e. external characteristic.

Characteristics Of DC Shunt Generator

To determine the internal and external load characteristics of a DC shunt generator the machine is allowed to build up its voltage before
applying any external load. To build up voltage of a shunt generator, the generator is driven at the rated speed by a prime mover. Initial
voltage is induced due to residual magnetism in the field poles. The generator builds up its voltage as explained by the O.C.C. curve.
When the generator has built up the voltage, it is gradually loaded with resistive load and readings are taken at suitable intervals.
Connection arrangement is as shown in the figure below.

Unlike, separately excited DC generator, here, IL≠Ia. For a shunt generator, Ia=IL+If. Hence, the internal characteristic can be easily
transmitted to Eg vs. IL by subtracting the correct value of Iffrom Ia.
During a normal running condition, when load resistance is decreased, the load current increases. But, as we go on decreasing the load
resistance, terminal voltage also falls. So, load resistance can be decreased up to a certain limit, after which the terminal voltage
drastically decreases due to excessive armature reaction at very high armature current and increased I 2R losses. Hence, beyond this limit
any further decrease in load resistance results in decreasing load current. Consequently, the external characteristic curve turns back as
shown by dotted line in the above figure.
Characteristics Of DC Series Generator

The curve AB in above figure identical to open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.) curve. This is because in DC series generators field winding
is connected in series with armature and load. Hence, here load current is similar to field current (i.e. I L=If). The curve OC and OD
represent internal and external characteristic respectively. In a DC series generator, terminal voltage increases with the load current. This
is because, as the load current increases, field current also increases. However, beyond a certain limit, terminal voltage starts decreasing
with increase in load. This is due to excessive demagnetizing effects of the armature reaction.

Characteristics Of DC Compound Generator

The above figure shows the external characteristics of DC compound generators. If series winding amp-turns are adjusted so that,
increase in load current causes increase in terminal voltage then the generator is called to be over compounded. The external
characteristic for over compounded generator is shown by the curve AB in above figure.
If series winding amp-turns are adjusted so that, the terminal voltage remains constant even the load current is increased, then the
generator is called to be flat compounded. The external characteristic for a flat compounded generator is shown by the curve AC.
If the series winding has lesser number of turns than that would be required to be flat compounded, then the generator is called to be
under compounded. The external characteristics for an under compounded generator are shown by the curve AD.
How A DC Motor Works?
A same DC machine can be used as a motor or generator. Construction of a DC motor is same as that of a DC generator.

Working Principle Of A DC Motor

A motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The principle of working of a DC motor is that
"whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force". The direction of this force is given
by Fleming's left hand rule and it's magnitude is given by F = BIL. Where, B = magnetic flux density, I = current and L = length of the
conductor within the magnetic field.

Fleming's left hand rule: If we stretch the first finger, second finger and thumb of our left hand to be perpendicular to each other AND
direction of magnetic field is represented by the first finger, direction of the current is represented by second finger then the thumb
represents the direction of the force experienced by the current carrying conductor.
 Animation: Working of DC Motor
(credit: Lookang)

Above animation helps in understanding the working principle of a DC motor. When armature windings are connected to a DC supply,
current sets up in the winding. Magnetic field may be provided by field winding (electromagnetism) or by using permanent magnets. In this
case, current carrying armature conductors experience force due to the magnetic field, according to the principle stated above.

Commutator is made segmented to achieve unidirectional torque. Otherwise, the direction of force would have reversed every time when
the direction of movement of conductor is reversed the magnetic field.
This is how a DC motor works!

Back EMF
According to fundamental laws of nature, no energy conversion is possible until there is something to oppose the conversion. In case of
generators this opposition is provided by magnetic drag, but in case of dc motors there is back emf.
When the armature of the motor is rotating, the conductors are also cutting the magnetic flux lines and hence according to the Faraday's
law of electromagnetic induction, an emf induces in the armature conductors. The direction of this induced emf is such that it opposes the
armature current (Ia) . The circuit diagram below illustrates the direction of the back emf and armature current. Magnitude of Back
emf can be given by the emf equation of DC generator.

Significance Of Back Emf:

Magnitude of back emf is directly proportional to speed of the motor. Consider the load on a dc motor is suddenly reduced. In this case,
required torque will be small as compared to the current torque. Speed of the motor will start increasing due to the excess torque. Hence,
being proportional to the speed, magnitude of the back emf will also increase. With increasing back emf armature current will start
decreasing. Torque being proportional to the armature current, it will also decrease until it becomes sufficient for the load. Thus, speed of
the motor will regulate.
 On the other hand, if a dc motor is suddenly loaded, the load will cause decrease in the speed. Due to decrease in speed, back emf will
also decrease allowing more armature current. Increased armature current will increase the torque to satisfy the load requirement. Hence,
presence of the back emf makes a dc motor ‘self-regulating’.

Types Of DC Motors
DC motors are usually classified of the basis of their excitation configuration, as follows -
 Separately excited (field winding is fed by external source)
 Self excited -
 Series wound (field winding is connected in series with the armature)
 Shunt wound (field winding is connected in parallel with the armature)
 Compound wound -
 Long shunt
 Short shunt
 Starting Methods Of A DC Motor

Basic operational voltage equation of a DC motor is given as

E = Eb + IaRa and hence, Ia = (E - Eb) / Ra
Now, when the motor is at rest, obviously, the back emf E b = 0. Hence, armature current at the moment of starting can be given as I a = E /
Ra. In practical DC machines, armature resistance is basically very low, generally about 0.5 Ω. Therefore, a large current flows through the
armature during starting. This current is large enough to damage the armature circuit.
Due to this excessive starting current -
1. the fuses may blow out and the armature winding and/or commutator brush arrangement may get damaged.
2. very high starting torque will be produced (as torque is directly proportional to the armature current), and this high starting torque may
cause huge centrifugal force which may throw off the armature winding.
3. other loads connected to the same source may experience a dip in the terminal voltage.
A large DC motor will pick up speed rather slowly due to its large rotor inertia. Hence, building up the back emf slowly causing the level of
high starting current maintained for quite some time. This may cause severe damage. To avoid this, a suitable DC motor starter must be
used. Very small dc motors, however, may be started directly by connecting them to the supply with the help of a contactor or a switch. It
does not result in any harm because they gather speed quickly due to small rotor inertia. In this case, the large starting current will die
down quickly because of the fast rise in the back emf.

DC Motor Starters
To avoid the above dangers while starting a DC motor, it is necessary to limit the starting current. So, a DC motor is started by using a
starter. There are various types of dc motor starters, such as 3 point starter, 4 point starter, no-load release coil starter, thyristor
controller starter etc.
The basic concept behind every DC motor starter is adding external resistance to the armature winding during starting.
From the followings, 3 point starters and 4 point starters are used for starting shunt wound motors and compound wound motors.

3 Point Starter

The internal wiring of a3 point starter is as shown in the figure.

When the connected dc motor is to be started, the lever is turned gradually to the right. When the lever touches point 1, the field winding
gets directly connected across the supply, and the armature winding gets connected with resistances R1 to R5 in series. During starting,
full resistance is added in series with the armature winding. Then, as the lever is moved further, the resistance is gradually is cut out from
the armature circuit. Now, as the lever reaches to position 6, all the resistance is cut out from the armature circuit and armature gets
directly connected across the supply. The electromagnet 'E' (no voltage coil) holds the lever at this position. This electromagnet releases
the lever when there is no (or low) supply voltage.
It can be seen that, when the arm is moved from the position 1 to the last position, the starter resistance gets added in series with the field
winding. But, as the value of starter resistance is very small as compared to the shunt resistance, the decrease in shunt field current may
be negligible. However, to overcome this drawback a brass or copper arc may be employed within a 3 point starter which makes
a connection between the moving arm and the field winding, as shown in the figure of 4 point starter below.
When the motor is overloaded beyond a predefined value, 'overcurrent release electromagnet' D gets activated, which short-circuits
electromagnet E and, hence, releases the lever and the motor is turned off.

4 Point Starter

The main difference between a 3 point starter and a 4 point starter is that the no voltage
coil(electromagnet E) is not connected in series with the field coil. The field winding gets directly connected to the supply, as the lever
moves touching the brass arc (the arc below the resistance studs). The no voltage coil (or Hold-on coil) is connected with a current limiting
resistance Rh. This arrangement ensures that any change of current in the shunt field does not affect the current through hold-on coil at
all. This means, electromagnetic pull of the hold-on coil will always be sufficient so that the spring does not unnecessarily restore the lever
to the off position. A 4 point starter is used where field current is to be adjusted by means of a field rheostat for the purpose of operating
the motor above rated speed by reducing the field current.

DC Series Motor Starter

Construction of DC series motor starters is very basic as shown in the figure. The start
arm is simply moved towards right to start the motor. Thus, maximum resistance is connected in series with the armature during starting
and then gradually decreased as the start arm moves towards right. This starter is sometimes also called as a 2 point starter.
The no load release coil holds the start arm to the run position and leaves it when the voltage is lost.
Speed Control Methods Of DC Motor
Speed Of A DC Motor
We know, back emf Eb of a DC motor is the induced emf in the armature conductors due to the rotation of armature in magnetic field. Thus, magnitude
of the Eb can be given by the EMF equation of a DC generator.

/
Eb = PØNZ 60A
(where, P = no. of poles, Ø = flux/pole, N = speed in rpm, Z = no. of armature conductors, A = parallel paths)

Eb can also be given as,

Eb = V- IaRa

thus, from the above equations

/
N = Eb 60A PØZ

but, for a DC motor A, P and Z are constants

Therefore, N ∝ K Eb/Ø (where, K=constant)

This shows the speed of a dc motor is directly proportional to the back emf and inversely proportional to the flux per pole.

Speed Control Methods Of DC Motor

Speed Control Of Shunt Motor
1. Flux Control Method

It is already explained above that the speed of a dc motor is inversely proportional to the flux per pole. Thus by decreasing the flux, speed can be
increased and vice versa.

To control the flux, a rheostat is added in series with the field winding, as shown in the circuit diagram. Adding more resistance in series with the field
winding will increase the speed as it decreases the flux. In shunt motors, as field current is relatively very small, I sh2R loss is small and, hence, this
method is quite efficient. Though speed can be increased above the rated value by reducing flux with this method, it puts a limit to maximum speed as
weakening of flux beyond the limit will adversely affect the commutation.
2. Armature Control Method

Speed of a dc motor is directly proportional to the back emf Eb and Eb = V - IaRa. That means, when the supply voltage V and the armature resistance
Ra are kept constant, speed is directly proportional to the armature current I a. Thus, if we add a resistance in series with the armature, Ia decreases
and, hence, the speed also decreases. Greater the resistance in series with the armature, greater the decrease in speed.

3. Voltage Control Method

a) Multiple voltage control:
In this method, the shunt field is connected to a fixed exciting voltage and armature is supplied with different voltages. Voltage across armature is
changed with the help of a suitable switchgear. The speed is approximately proportional to the voltage across the armature.

b) Ward-Leonard System:
 This system is used where very sensitive speed control of motor is required (e.g electric
excavators, elevators etc.). The arrangement of this system is as shown in the figure at right.
M2 is the motor whose speed control is required.
M1 may be any AC motor or DC motor with constant speed.
G is a generator directly coupled to M1.
In this method, the output from the generator G is fed to the armature of the motor M2 whose speed is to be controlled. The output voltage of the
generator G can be varied from zero to its maximum value by means of its field regulator and, hence, the armature voltage of the motor M2 is varied
very smoothly. Hence, very smooth speed control of the dc motor can be obtained by this method.

Speed Control Of Series Motor

 1. Flux Control Method

 Field divertor: A veritable resistance is connected parallel to the series field as shown in fig (a). This variable resistor is called as divertor, as
the desired amount of current can be diverted through this resistor and hence current through field coil can be decreased. Hence, flux can be
decreased to the desired amount and speed can be increased.
 Armature divertor: Divertor is connected across the armature as in fig (b).
For a given constant load torque, if armature current is reduced then flux must increase. As, Ta ∝ ØIa
This will result in an increase in current taken from the supply and hence flux Ø will increase and subsequently speed of the motor will decrease.
 Tapped field control: As shown in fig (c) field coil is tapped dividing number of turns. Thus we can select different value of Ø by selecting different
number of turns.
 Paralleling field coils: In this method, several speeds can be obtained by regrouping coils as shown in fig (d).
2. Variable Resistance In Series With Armature
By introducing a resistance in series with the armature, voltage across the armature can be reduced. And, hence, speed reduces in proportion with it.

3. Series-Parallel Control
This system is widely used in electric traction, where two or more mechanically coupled series motors are employed. For low speeds, the motors are
connected in series, and for higher speeds the motors are connected in parallel.
When in series, the motors have the same current passing through them, although voltage across each motor is divided. When in parallel, the voltage
across each motor is same although the current gets divided.
Electric Braking Of DC Motors
A running motor may be brought to rest quickly by either mechanical braking or electrical braking. The mechanical braking is applied by
means of mechanical break shoes. Hence the smoothness of mechanical braking is dependent on the surface and physical condition of
brakes. Smooth braking of a motor can be achieved by electric braking.

Electric Braking
The electric braking of a DC motor is of three types, (i) Rheostatic or dynamic braking, (ii) Plugging or reverse current braking and
(iii) Regenerative beaking.

(i) Rheostatic or dynamic braking:

In case of DC shunt motors, armature is disconnected from the supply and a rheostat (variable resistor) is connected across it. The field
winding is left connected across the supply. Obviously, now armature is driven by the inertia and hence machine starts acting as a
generator. Thus the machine will now feed the current to the connected rheostat and heat will dissipate at the rate of I 2R. Braking effect is
controlled by varying the resistance connected across the armature.
In case of DC series motor, motor is disconnected from the supply and field connections are reversed and a rheostat is connected in
series. The field connections are reversed to make sure that the current through field winding will flow in the same direction as before.

(ii) Plugging or Reverse current braking:

In this method, armature connections are reversed and hence motor tends to run in opposite direction. Due to reversal of the armature
terminals, applied voltage V and back emf Eb starts acting in the same direction and hence the total armature current exceeds. To limit
this armature current a variable resistor is connected across the armature. This is similar for both series and shunt wound methods.
Plugging gives greater braking torque as compared to rheostatic braking. This method is generally used in controlling elevators, machine
tools, printing presses etc.

(iii) Regenerative braking:

Regenerative braking is used where, load on the motor has very high inertia (e.g in electric trains). When applied voltage to the motor is
reduced to less than back emf Eb, obviously armature current Ia will get reversed, and hence armature torque is reversed. Thus speed
falls. As generated emf is greater than applied voltage (machine is acting as a DC generator), power will be returned to the line, this action
is called as regeneration. Speed keeps falling, back emf Eb also falls until it becomes lower than applied voltage and direction of armature
current again becomes opposite to Eb
Characteristics Of DC Motors
Generally, three characteristic curves are considered important for DC motors which are, (i) Torque vs. armature current, (ii) Speed vs. armature
current and (iii) Speed vs. torque. These are explained below for each type of DC motor. These characteristics are determined by keeping the following
two relations in mind.
Ta ∝ ɸ.Ia and N ∝ Eb/ɸ
These above equations can be studied at - emf and torque equation of dc machine. For a DC motor, magnitude of the back emf is given by the same
emf equation of a dc generator i.e. Eb = PɸNZ / 60A. For a machine, P, Z and A are constant, therefore, N ∝ Eb/ɸ

Characteristics Of DC Series Motors

Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)
This characteristic is also known as electrical characteristic. We know that torque is directly proportional to the product of armature current and field
flux, Ta ∝ ɸ.Ia. In DC series motors, field winding is connected in series with the armature, i.e. I a = If. Therefore, before magnetic saturation of the field,
flux ɸ is directly proportional to Ia. Hence, before magnetic saturation Ta α Ia2. Therefore, the Ta-Ia curve is parabola for smaller values of Ia.

After magnetic saturation of the field poles, flux ɸ is independent of armature current Ia. Therefore, the torque varies proportionally to Ia only, T ∝
Ia.Therefore, after magnetic saturation, Ta-Ia curve becomes a straight line.
The shaft torque (Tsh) is less than armature torque (Ta) due to stray losses. Hence, the curve Tsh vs Ia lies slightly lower.

In DC series motors, (prior to magnetic saturation) torque increases as the square of armature current, these motors are used where high starting
torque is required.

Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia)

We know the relation, N ∝ Eb/ɸ
For small load current (and hence for small armature current) change in back emf Eb is small and it may be neglected. Hence, for small currents speed
is inversely proportional to ɸ. As we know, flux is directly proportional to Ia, speed is inversely proportional to Ia. Therefore, when armature current is
very small the speed becomes dangerously high. That is why a series motor should never be started without some mechanical load.

But, at heavy loads, armature current Ia is large. And hence, speed is low which results in decreased back emf Eb. Due to decreased Eb, more
armature current is allowed.

Speed Vs. Torque (N-Ta)

This characteristic is also called as mechanical characteristic. From the above two characteristics of DC series motor, it can be found that when
speed is high, torque is low and vice versa.

Characteristics Of DC Shunt Motors

Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)
In case of DC shunt motors, we can assume the field flux ɸ to be constant. Though at heavy loads, ɸ decreases in a small amount due to
increased armature reaction. As we are neglecting the change in the flux ɸ, we can say that torque is proportional to armature current. Hence, the Ta-
Ia characteristic for a dc shunt motor will be a straight line through the origin.
Since heavy starting load needs heavy starting current, shunt motor should never be started on a heavy load.

Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia)

As flux ɸ is assumed to be constant, we can say N ∝ Eb. But, as back emf is also almost constant, the speed should remain constant. But practically, ɸ
as well as Eb decreases with increase in load. Back emf Eb decreases slightly more than ɸ, therefore, the speed decreases slightly. Generally, the
speed decreases only by 5 to 15% of full load speed. Therefore, a shunt motor can be assumed as a constant speed motor. In speed vs. armature
current characteristic in the following figure, the straight horizontal line represents the ideal characteristic and the actual characteristic is shown by the
dotted line.
Characteristics Of DC Compound Motor
DC compound motors have both series as well as shunt winding. In a compound motor, if series and shunt windings are connected such that series
flux is in direction as that of the shunt flux then the motor is said to be cumulatively compounded. And if the series flux is opposite to the direction of the
shunt flux, then the motor is said to be differentially compounded. Characteristics of both these compound motors are explained below.
(a) Cumulative compound motor
Cumulative compound motors are used where series characteristics are required but the load is likely to be removed completely. Series winding takes
care of the heavy load, whereas the shunt winding prevents the motor from running at dangerously high speed when the load is suddenly removed.
These motors have generally employed a flywheel, where sudden and temporary loads are applied like in rolling mills.
(b) Differential compound motor
Since in differential field motors, series flux opposes shunt flux, the total flux decreases with increase in load. Due to this, the speed remains almost
constant or even it may increase slightly with increase in load (N ∝ Eb/ɸ). Differential compound motors are not commonly used, but they find limited
applications in experimental and research work.
 Losses In A DC Generator And DC Motor
A dc generator converts mechanical power into electrical power and a dc motor converts electrical power into mechanical power. Thus, for a dc
generator, input power is in the form of mechanical and the output power is in the form of electrical. On the other hand, for a dc motor, input power is in
the form of electrical and output power is in the form of mechanical. In a practical machine, whole of the input power cannot be converted into output
power as some power is lost in the conversion process. This causes the efficiency of the machine to be reduced. Efficiency is the ratio of output
power to the input power. Thus, in order to design rotating dc machines (or any electrical machine) with higher efficiency, it is important to study the
losses occurring in them. Various losses in a rotating DC machine (DC generator or DC motor) can be characterized as follows:

Losses In A Rotating DC Machine

 Copper losses
 Armature Cu loss
 Field Cu loss
 Loss due to brush contact resistance
 Iron Losses
 Hysteresis loss
 Eddy current loss
 Mechanical losses
 Friction loss
 Windage loss
The above tree categorizes various types of losses that occur in a dc generator or a dc motor. Each of these is explained in details below.
Copper Losses
These losses occur in armature and field copper windings. Copper losses consist of Armature copper loss, Field copper loss and loss due to brush
contact resistance.

Armature copper loss = Ia2Ra (where, Ia = Armature current and Ra= Armature resistance)
This loss contributes about 30 to 40% to full load losses. The armature copper loss is variable and depends upon the amount of loading of the
machine.

Field copper loss = If2Rf (where, If = field current and Rf = field resistance)
In the case of a shunt wounded field, field copper loss is practically constant. It contributes about 20 to 30% to full load losses.

Brush contact resistance also contributes to the copper losses. Generally, this loss is included into armature copper loss.

Iron Losses (Core Losses)

As the armature core is made of iron and it rotates in a magnetic field, a small current gets induced in the core itself too. Due to this current, eddy
current loss and hysteresis loss occur in the armature iron core. Iron losses are also called as Core losses or magnetic losses.

Hysteresis loss is due to the reversal of magnetization of the armature core. When the core passes under one pair of poles, it undergoes one
complete cycle of magnetic reversal. The frequency of magnetic reversal is given by, f=P.N/120 (where, P = no. of poles and N = Speed in rpm)
The loss depends upon the volume and grade of the iron, frequency of magnetic reversals and value of flux density. Hysteresis loss is given by,
Steinmetz formula:
Wh=ηBmax1.6fV (watts)
where, η = Steinmetz hysteresis constant
V = volume of the core in m3

Eddy current loss: When the armature core rotates in the magnetic field, an emf is also induced in the core (just like it induces in armature
conductors), according to the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. Though this induced emf is small, it causes a large current to flow in the body
due to the low resistance of the core. This current is known as eddy current. The power loss due to this current is known as eddy current loss.

Mechanical Losses
Mechanical losses consist of the losses due to friction in bearings and commutator. Air friction loss of rotating armature also contributes to these.
These losses are about 10 to 20% of full load losses.
Stray Losses
In addition to the losses stated above, there may be small losses present which are called as stray losses or miscellaneous losses. These losses are
difficult to account. They are usually due to inaccuracies in the designing and modeling of the machine. Most of the times, stray losses are assumed to
be 1% of the full load.
Power Flow Diagram

The most convenient method to understand these losses in a dc generator or a dc motor is using the power flow diagram. The diagram visualizes the
amount of power that has been lost in various types of losses and the amount of power which has been actually converted into the output. Following
are the typical power flow diagrams for a dc generator and a dc motor.
 Armature Winding Of A DC Machine
Basically armature winding of a DC machine is wound by one of the two methods, lap winding or wave winding. The difference between these two
is merely due to the end connections and commutator connections of the conductor. To know how armature winding is done, it is essential to know
the following terminologies -

1. Pole pitch: It is defined as number of armature slots per pole. For example, if there are 36 conductors and 4 poles, then the pole pitch is 36/4=9.
2. Coil span or coil pitch (Ys): It is the distance between the two sides of a coil measured in terms of armature slots.
3. Front pitch (Yf): It is the distance, in terms of armature conductors, between the second conductor of one coil and the first conductor of the next coil.
OR it is the distance between two coil sides that are connected to the same commutator segment.
4. Back pitch (Yb): The distance by which a coil advances on the back of the armature is called as back pitch of the coil. It is measured in terms of
armature conductors.
5. Resultant pitch (Yr): The distance, in terms of armature conductor, between the beginning of one coil and the beginning of the next coil is called as
resultant pitch of the coil.
Armature winding can be done as single layer or double layer. It may be simplex, duplex or multiplex, and this multiplicity increases the number of
parallel paths.

Lap Winding And Wave Winding

In lap winding, the successive coils overlap each other. In a simplex lap winding, the two ends of a coil are connected to adjacent commutator
segments. The winding may be progressive or retrogressive. A progressive winding progresses in the direction in which the coil is wound. The opposite
way is retrogressive. The following image shows progressive simplex lap winding.
In wave winding, a conductor under one pole is connected at the back to a conductor which occupies an almost corresponding position under the next
pole which is of opposite polarity. In other words, all the coils which carry emf in the same direction are connected in series. The following diagram
shows a part of simplex wave winding.
Electrical Transformer - Basic Construction, Working And Types
Electrical transformer is a static electrical machine which transforms electrical power from one circuit to another circuit, without changing
the frequency. Transformer can increase or decrease the voltage with corresponding decrease or increase in current.

Working Principle Of Transformer

The basic principle behind working of a transformer is the phenomenon of mutual induction between two windings linked by common
magnetic flux. The figure at right shows the simplest form of a transformer. Basically a transformer consists of two inductive coils; primary
winding and secondary winding. The coils are electrically separated but magnetically linked to each other. When, primary winding is
connected to a source of alternating voltage, alternating magnetic flux is produced around the winding. The core provides magnetic path
for the flux, to get linked with the secondary winding. Most of the flux gets linked with the secondary winding which is called as 'useful flux'
or main 'flux', and the flux which does not get linked with secondary winding is called as 'leakage flux'. As the flux produced is alternating
(the direction of it is continuously changing), EMF gets induced in the secondary winding according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction. This emf is called 'mutually induced emf', and the frequency of mutually induced emf is same as that of supplied emf. If the
secondary winding is closed circuit, then mutually induced current flows through it, and hence the electrical energy is transferred from one
circuit (primary) to another circuit (secondary).

Basic Construction Of Transformer

Basically a transformer consists of two inductive windings and a laminated steel core. The coils are insulated from each other as well as
from the steel core. A transformer may also consist of a container for winding and core assembly (called as tank), suitable bushings to
take our the terminals, oil conservator to provide oil in the transformer tank for cooling purposes etc. The figure at left illustrates the basic
construction of a transformer.

In all types of transformers, core is constructed by assembling (stacking) laminated sheets of steel, with minimum
air-gap between them (to achieve continuous magnetic path). The steel used is having high silicon content and sometimes heat treated, to
provide high permeability and low hysteresis loss. Laminated sheets of steel are used to reduce eddy current loss. The sheets are cut in
the shape as E,I and L. To avoid high reluctance at joints, laminations are stacked by alternating the sides of joint. That is, if joints of first
sheet assembly are at front face, the joints of following assemble are kept at back face.

Types Of Transformers
Transformers can be classified on different basis, like types of construction, types of cooling etc.

(A) On the basis of construction, transformers can be classified into two types as; (i) Core type transformer and (ii) Shell
type transformer, which are described below.

(I) Core Type Transformer

In core type transformer, windings are cylindrical former wound, mounted on the core limbs as shown in the figure above. The cylindrical
coils have different layers and each layer is insulated from each other. Materials like paper, cloth or mica can be used for insulation. Low
voltage windings are placed nearer to the core, as they are easier to insulate.

(Ii) Shell Type Transformer

The coils are former wound and mounted in layers stacked with insulation between them. A shell type transformer may have simple
rectangular form (as shown in above fig), or it may have a distributed form.
 (B) On the basis of their purpose
1. Step up transformer: Voltage increases (with subsequent decrease in current) at secondary.
2. Step down transformer: Voltage decreases (with subsequent increase in current) at secondary.
(C) On the basis of type of supply
1. Single phase transformer
2. Three phase transformer
(D) On the basis of their use
1. Power transformer: Used in transmission network, high rating
2. Distribution transformer: Used in distribution network, comparatively lower rating than that of power transformers.
3. Instrument transformer: Used in relay and protection purpose in different instruments in industries
 Current transformer (CT)
 Potential transformer (PT)
(E) On the basis of cooling employed
1. Oil-filled self cooled type
2. Oil-filled water cooled type
3. Air blast type (air cooled)
 Ideal Transformer And It's Characteristics
An ideal transformer is an imaginary transformer which has
- no copper losses (no winding resistance)
- no iron loss in core
- no leakage flux
In other words, an ideal transformer gives output power exactly equal to the input power. The efficiency of an idea transformer is 100%.
Actually, it is impossible to have such a transformer in practice, but ideal transformer model makes problems easier.

Characteristics Of Ideal Transformer

 Zero winding resistance: It is assumed that, resistance of primary as well as secondary winding of an ideal transformer is zero. That is,
both the coils are purely inductive in nature.
 Infinite permeability of the core: Higher the permeability, lesser the mmf required for flux establishment. That means, if permeability is
high, less magnetizing current is required to magnetize the transformer core.
 No leakage flux: Leakage flux is a part of magnetic flux which does not get linked with secondary winding. In an ideal transformer, it is
assumed that entire amount of flux get linked with secondary winding (that is, no leakage flux).
 100% efficiency: An ideal transformer does not have any losses like hysteresis loss, eddy current loss etc. So, the output power of an ideal
transformer is exactly equal to the input power. Hence, 100% efficiency.
Now, if an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary winding of an ideal transformer, counter emf E1 will be induced in the primary
winding. As windings are purely inductive, this induced emf E1 will be exactly equal to the apply voltage but in 180 degree phase
opposition. Current drawn from the source produces required magnetic flux. Due to primary winding being purely inductive, this current
lags 90° behind induced emf E1. This current is called magnetizing current of the transformer Iμ. This magnetizing current Iμ produces
alternating magnetic flux Φ. This flux Φ gets linked with the secondary winding and emf E2 gets induced by mutual induction.
(Read Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.) This mutually induced emf E2 is in phase with E2. If closed circuit is provided at
secondary winding, E2 causes current I2 to flow in the circuit.
For an ideal transformer, E1I1 = E2I2.
EMF Equation Of A Transformer And Voltage Transformation Ratio
In a transformer, source of alternating current is applied to the primary winding. Due to this, the current in the primary winding (called as
magnetizing current) produces alternating flux in the core of transformer. This alternating flux gets linked with the secondary winding, and
because of the phenomenon of mutual induction an emf gets induced in the secondary winding. Magnitude of this induced emf can be
found by using the following EMF equation of the transformer.

EMF Equation Of The Transformer

Let,
N1 = Number of turns in primary winding
N2 = Number of turns in secondary winding
Φm = Maximum flux in the core (in Wb) = (Bm x A)
f = frequency of the AC supply (in Hz)
As, shown in the fig., the flux rises sinusoidally to its maximum value Φm from 0. It reaches to the maximum value in one quarter of the
cycle i.e in T/4 sec (where, T is time period of the sin wave of the supply = 1/f).
Therefore,

/
average rate of change of flux = Φm (T/4) /
= Φm (1/4f)
Therefore,
average rate of change of flux = 4f Φm ....... (Wb/s).
Now,
Induced emf per turn = rate of change of flux per turn

Therefore, average emf per turn = 4f Φm ..........(Volts).

Now, we know, Form factor = RMS value / average value
Therefore, RMS value of emf per turn = Form factor X average emf per turn.

As, the flux Φ varies sinusoidally, form factor of a sine wave is 1.11

Therefore, RMS value of emf per turn = 1.11 x 4f Φm = 4.44f Φm.

RMS value of induced emf in whole primary winding (E1) = RMS value of emf per turn X Number of turns in primary winding

E1 = 4.44f N1 Φm ............................. eq 1

Similarly, RMS induced emf in secondary winding (E2) can be given as

 E2 = 4.44f N2 Φm. ............................ eq 2

from the above equations 1 and 2,

This is called the emf equation of transformer, which shows, emf / number of turns is same for both primary and secondary winding.

For an ideal transformer on no load, E1 = V1 and E2 = V2 .

where, V1 = supply voltage of primary winding
V2 = terminal voltage of secondary winding

Voltage Transformation Ratio (K)

As derived above,

Where, K = constant
This constant K is known as voltage transformation ratio.
 If N2 > N1, i.e. K > 1, then the transformer is called step-up transformer.
 If N2 < N1, i.e. K < 1, then the transformer is called step-down transformer.
Transformer With Resistance And Leakage Reactance
Magnetic Leakage

In a transformer it is observed that, all the flux linked with primary winding does not get linked with secondary winding. A small part of the flux
completes its path through air rather than through the core (as shown in the fig at right), and this small part of flux is called as leakage
flux or magnetic leakage in transformers. This leakage flux does not link with both the windings, and hence it does not contribute to transfer of
energy from primary winding to secondary winding. But, it produces self induced emf in each winding. Hence, leakage flux produces an effect
equivalent to an inductive coil in series with each winding. And due to this there will be leakage reactance.

(To minimize this leakage reactance, primary and secondary windings are not placed on separate legs, refer the diagram of core type and shell type
transformer from construction of transformer.)
Practical Transformer With Resistance And Leakage Reactance
In the following figure, leakage reactance and resitance of the primary winding as well as secondary winding are taken out, representing a practical
transformer.

Where, R1 and R2 = resistance of primary and secondary winding respectively

X1 and X2 = leakage reactance of primary and secondary winding resp.

Z1 and Z2 = Primary impedance and secondary impedance resp.

Z1 = R1 + jX1 ...and Z2 = R2 + jX 2 .
The impedance in each winding lead to some voltage drop in each winding. Considering this voltage drop the voltage equation of transformer can
be given as -
V1 = E1 + I1(R1 + jX1 ) --------primary side
V2 = E2 - I2(R2 + jX2 ) --------secondary side

where, V1 = supply voltage of primary winding

V2 = terminal voltage of secondary winding
E1 and E2 = induced emf in primary and secondary winding respectively.
 Transformer - Losses And Efficiency
Losses In Transformer

In any electrical machine, 'loss' can be defined as the difference between input power and output power. An electrical transformer is an static device,
hence mechanical losses (like windage or friction losses) are absent in it. A transformer only consists of electrical losses (iron losses and copper
losses). Transformer losses are similar to losses in a DC machine, except that transformers do not have mechanical losses.
Losses in transformer are explained below -

(I) Core Losses Or Iron Losses

Eddy current loss and hysteresis loss depend upon the magnetic properties of the material used for the construction of core. Hence these losses are
also known as core losses or iron losses.

 Hysteresis loss in transformer: Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of magnetization in the transformer core. This loss depends upon the volume and
grade of the iron, frequency of magnetic reversals and value of flux density. It can be given by, Steinmetz formula:
Wh= ηBmax1.6fV (watts)
where, η = Steinmetz hysteresis constant
V = volume of the core in m3
 Eddy current loss in transformer: In transformer, AC current is supplied to the primary winding which sets up alternating magnetizing flux. When this
flux links with secondary winding, it produces induced emf in it. But some part of this flux also gets linked with other conducting parts like steel core or
iron body or the transformer, which will result in induced emf in those parts, causing small circulating current in them. This current is called as eddy
current. Due to these eddy currents, some energy will be dissipated in the form of heat.

(Ii) Copper Loss In Transformer

Copper loss is due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings. Copper loss for the primary winding is I12R1 and for secondary winding is I22R2.
Where, I1 and I2 are current in primary and secondary winding respectively, R1 and R2 are the resistances of primary and secondary winding
respectively. It is clear that Cu loss is proportional to square of the current, and current depends on the load. Hence copper loss in transformer varies
with the load.

Efficiency Of Transformer

Just like any other electrical machine, efficiency of a transformer can be defined as the output power divided by the input power. That is efficiency =
output / input .

Transformers are the most highly efficient electrical devices. Most of the transformers have full load efficiency between 95% to 98.5% . As a
transformer being highly efficient, output and input are having nearly same value, and hence it is impractical to measure the efficiency of transformer
by using output / input. A better method to find efficiency of a transformer is using, efficiency = (input - losses) / input = 1 - (losses / input).

Condition For Maximum Efficiency

Let,

Copper loss = I12R1

Iron loss = Wi
Hence, efficiency of a transformer will be maximum when copper loss and iron losses are equal.
That is Copper loss = Iron loss.

All Day Efficiency Of Transformer

As we have seen above, ordinary or commercial efficiency of a transformer can be given as

But in some types of transformers, their performance can not be judged by this efficiency. For example, distribution transformers have their primaries
energized all the time. But, their secondaries supply little load all no-load most of the time during day (as residential use of electricity is observed
mostly during evening till midnight).
That is, when secondaries of transformer are not supplying any load (or supplying only little load), then only core losses of transformer are
considerable and copper losses are absent (or very little). Copper losses are considerable only when transformers are loaded. Thus, for such
transformers copper losses are relatively less important. The performance of such transformers is compared on the basis of energy consumed in one
day.

All day efficiency of a transformer is always less than ordinary efficiency of it.
Equivalent Circuit Of Transformer
In a practical transformer -
(a) Some leakage flux is present at both primary and secondary sides. This leakage gives rise to leakage reactances at both sides, which
are denoted as X1 and X2 respectively.
(b) Both the primary and secondary winding possesses resistance, denoted as R 1 and R2respectively. These resistances causes voltage
drop as, I1R1 and I2R2 and also copper loss I12R1 and I22R2.
(c) Permeability of the core can not be infinite, hence some magnetizing current is needed. Mutual flux also causes core loss in iron parts
of the transformer.
We need to consider all the above things to derive equivalent circuit of a transformer.

Equivalent Circuit Of Transformer

Resistances and reactances of transformer, which are described above, can be imagined separately from the windings (as shown in the
figure below). Hence, the function of windings, thereafter, will only be the transforming the voltage.
The no load current I0 is divided into, pure inductance X0 (taking magnetizing components Iμ) and non induction resistance R0 (taking
working component Iw) which are connected into parallel across the primary. The value of E1 can be obtained by subtracting I1Z1 from V1.
The value of R0and X0 can be calculated as, R0 = E1 / Iw and X0 = E1 / Iμ.

But, using this equivalent circuit does not simplifies the calculations. To make calculations simpler, it is preferable to transfer current,
voltage and impedance either to primary side or to the secondary side. In that case, we would have to work with only one winding which is
more convenient.

From the voltage transformation ratio, it is clear that,

E1 / E2 = N1 / N2 = K

Now, lets refer the parameters of secondary side to primary.

Z2 can be referred to primary as Z2'
where, Z2' = (N1/N2)2Z2 = K2Z2. ............where K= N1/N2.
that is, R2'+jX2' = K2(R2+jX2)
equating real and imaginary parts,
R2' = K2R2 and X2' = K2X2 .
And V2' = KV2
The following figure shows the equivalent circuit of transformer with secondary parameters referred to the primary.

Now, as the values of winding resistance and leakage reactance are so small that, V1 and E1 can be assumed to be equal. Therefore, the
exciting current drawn by the parallel combination of R0 and X0 would not affect significantly, if we move it to the input terminals as shown
in the figure below.
Now, let R1 + R2' = R'eq and X1 + X2' = X'eq
Then the equivalent circuit of transformer becomes as shown in the figure below
Approximate Equivalent Circuit Of Transformer
If only voltage regulation is to be calculated, then even the whole excitation branch (parallel combination of R0 and X0) can be neglected.
Then the equivalent circuit becomes as shown in the figure below
Open Circuit And Short Circuit Test On Transformer
These two transformer tests are performed to find the parameters of equivalent circuit of transformer and losses of the transformer. Open circuit test
and short circuit test on transformer are very economical and convenient because they are performed without actually loading of the transformer.

Open Circuit Or No Load Test On Transformer

Open circuit test or no load test on a transformer is performed to determine 'no load loss (core loss)' and 'no load current I0'. The circuit diagram for
open circuit test is shown in the figure below.

Usually high voltage (HV) winding is kept open and the low voltage (LV) winding is connected to its normal supply. A wattmeter (W), ammeter (A) and
voltmeter (V) are connected to the LV winding as shown in the figure. Now, applied voltage is slowly increased from zero to normal rated value of the
LV side with the help of a variac. When the applied voltage reaches to the rated value of the LV winding, readings from all the three instruments are
taken.
The ammeter reading gives the no load current I0. As I0 itself is very small, the voltage drops due to this current can be neglected.

The input power is indicated by the wattmeter (W). And as the other side of transformer is open circuited, there is no output power. Hence, this input
power only consists of core losses and copper losses. As described above, no-load current is so small that these copper losses can be neglected.
Hence, now the input power is almost equal to the core losses. Thus, the wattmeter reading gives the core losses of the transformer.

Sometimes, a high resistance voltmeter is connected across the HV winding. Though, a voltmeter is connected, HV winding can be treated as open
circuit as the current through the voltmeter is negligibly small. This helps in to find voltage transformation ratio (K).

The two components of no load current can be given as,

Iμ = I0sinΦ0 and Iw = I0cosΦ0.

cosΦ0 (no load power factor) = W / (V1I0). ... (W = wattmeter reading)

From this, shunt parameters of equivalent circuit parameters of equivalent circuit of transformer(X0 and R0) can be calculated as

X0 = V1/Iμ and R0 = V1/Iw.

(These values are referring to LV side of the transformer.)

Hence, it is seen that open circuit test gives core losses of transformer and shunt parameters of the equivalent circuit.
Short Circuit Or Impedance Test On Transformer

The connection diagram for short circuit test or impedance test on transformer is as shown in the figure below. The LV side of transformer is short
circuited and wattmeter (W), voltmere (V) and ammeter (A) are connected on the HV side of the transformer. Voltage is applied to the HV side and
increased from the zero until the ammeter reading equals the rated current. All the readings are taken at this rated current.

The ammeter reading gives primary equivalent of full load current (Isc).
The voltage applied for full load current is very small as compared to rated voltage. Hence, core loss due to small applied voltage can be neglected.
Thus, the wattmeter reading can be taken as copper loss in the transformer.
Therefore, W = Isc2Req....... (where Req is the equivalent resistance of transformer)
Zeq = Vsc/Isc.
Therefore, equivalent reactance of transformer can be calculated from the formula Zeq2 = Req2 + Xeq2.
These, values are referred to the HV side of the transformer.
Hence, it is seen that the short circuit test gives copper losses of transformer and approximate equivalent resistance and reactance of the transformer.

Why Transformers Are Rated In KVA?

From the above transformer tests, it can be seen that Cu loss of a transformer depends on current, and iron loss depends on voltage. Thus, total
transformer loss depends on volt-ampere (VA). It does not depend on the phase angle between voltage and current, i.e. transformer loss is
independent of load power factor. This is the reason that transformers are rated in kVA.
 Three Phase Transformer
Usually power is generated and distributed in three phase system, and therefore it is obvious that we would need three phase transformers to step
up and step down voltages. Although, it is practically possible to use three suitably interconnected 'single phase transformers' instead of one 'three
phase transformer', the following advantages of three phase transformers encourage their use -

 One 'three phase transformer' occupies less space than a gang of three 'single phase transformers'.
 Single 'three phase' unit is more economical
 The overall bus-bar structure, switchgear and installation of 'three phase transformer' is simpler.

Construction Of Three Phase Transformer

Three phase transformers can be of core type or shell type (just like single phase transformers). The constructional details of core type as well as shell
type three phase transformers are as follows.

Core Type Construction

The construction of a core type three phase transformer is as shown in the figure. The core consists of three legs or limbs. As usual, the core is made
up of thin laminated sheets to reduce eddy current losses. Each limb has primary and secondary windings in cylindrical shape (former wound)
arranged concentrically. The construction is well illustrated in the figure.

Shell Type Construction

In a shell type three phase transformer, three phases are more independent than they are in core type. Each phase has its individual magnetic circuit.
The construction of shell type three phase transformer is illustrated in the figure at right. The construction is similar to that of three single phase shell
type transformers kept on the top of each other.

The basic working principle of a three phase transformer is similar to the working principle of a single phase transformer. Power from primary is
transferred to the secondary by the phenomenon of mutual induction.
The main drawback in a three phase transformer is that, even if fault occurs in one phase, the whole transformer is removed from service for
repairs.
 Transfomer Cooling Methods
The developed heat because of core and copper losses should be dissipated to atmosphere continuously during operation.
If the heat arises by the losses is not removed then
 The developed heat damages insulation of transformer
 The transformer should be de-rated from its maximum to reduce the heat.
Since above two factors is undesirable to operate the heat from the transformer should be removed effectively.
[/ezcol_2third_end]

Transformer cooling methods

1) Dry type transforms:

a) Self-air cooled Transformer(up to 3 MVA):
The transformed is allowed to cool natural conventional air flow surrounding it through heat radiation.
b) Forced Air Cooled Transformer (Up to 15 MVA):

Forced air cooled Transformer

The air is circulated through the winding of transformer by means of blower. This arrangement is housed in metal box with proper insulation between
windings. The blowers will blow the air through the windings and hence hot air is gained cooled by the outside natural conventional air.
2) Oil immersed type Transformer:
in this type the transformer winding and core are immersed in the mineral oil which has good electrical insulating property to block the current flow
through the oil and high thermal conductivity prosperity for efficient heat removal from the windings and core.
Advantages of oil Transformer:
1. Oil is a good electrical insulator
2. Oil has good thermal conductivity to absorb the heat
Disadvantages of oil in Transformer

1. Oil is a fire hazard and con not be used in indoor transformers.

2. Oil leak in the tank or in handling leads to pollution of the environment.
3. Moisture in the oil should be continuously monitored and removed which reduces the electrical insulating property of oil.

a) Oil-Immersed Self cooled Transformer:

Oil-Immersed Self cooled

In this type the transformer windings and core are cooled by the mineral oil. The heated oil circulated through radiator by national convention and
hence cooled by the surrounding air. This type is normally used for distribution type transformer with low ratings.
b) Oil-Immersed forced air cooled Transformer
oil immersed forced air cooling transformer

In this type the transformer is cooled by the oil which in turn cooled by the forced air in radiator. A bank of coolers or blowers is situated in the
transformer radiator which forces the air through the cooling fins. The hot oil enters in these cooling fins by the natural convention and cooled oil again
flows through the windings. This cooling method is used normally large transmission transformers situated outdoors, in power plants and in power
stations.
c) Oil-Immersed water cooled Transformer

Forced Water Cooled Transformer

This type of cooling is used for very large transformers with very high power rating above 500 MVA. In this the Transformer is cooled by oil which then
passes through the oil-water heat exchangers. Two 100 % oil pumps are placed to circulate the hot oil through the two heat exchangers. The heat oil
dissipates the heat to the water and again flows through the windings and core. The service water is used for cooling. We can operate the transformer
with one cooler but if two fails then we have to trip the transformer.
 Incorrect phase sequence

Incorrect phase sequence is a human error which can be corrected by testing before putting the motor into service. It is not worth to invest on the auto
adjustment of the phase sequence. If you really want it, I can suggest to use a VFD and operate it at a fixed speed, selection of phase rotation can be
done by a change of one parameter setting and you also can apply physically motor shaft direction sensor to feedback to the VFD.

Incorrect phase sequence of power supply to a motor can occur in different situations:
- Cut & re-join of power cable.
- Removal and re-installation of motor.
- Error by motor repair shop.

Ways to reduce/avoid incorrect phase sequence of the motor's power supply:

- Ensure proper markings/identification of cable terminations and leads.

- If you are commissioning or re-commissioning a motor, you can do pre-measurement of phase rotation by using a motor rotation meter. It will help
you to confirm motor rotation before the uncoupled test runs. This can avoid embarrassment and time spent to do correction when many parties could
be waiting and looking at you.

Identifying the phases is one of the easiest job. Even one that is not electrician but who has a common sense can do this. First, de-energize and
separate the installation you want to identify. Than... apply voltage on each power cable end and find it on the other end. Or, apply voltage on 2 cable
ends and find it on other ends. This will identify 2 cables (phases). After that apply voltage on other 2 cables and you will identify each one at this
moment.
 Dry vs. Liquid-Filled Power Transformers

With the variety of high-voltage power transformers available today, clients must consider a range of factors before selecting
equipment. Although transformers are still categorized depending on whether they use wet or dry dielectric materials, numerou s
options are available for fast track power high-voltage applications. These are a few variables that will help to determine if dry
or liquid filled power transformers are your best choice to use at new or existing sites.
o Maintenance
o Initial costs
o Operating costs
o Operating noise
o Recyclability
o Required capacity
o Voltage losses
o Site selection
o Equipment size
o Safety requirements
o Environmental risks
Liquid-filled Transformers
 The wet-type power transformer have been around for nearly a century, but recent technical advances have improved the overall
practicality of these products. This proven technology is cost -efficient, versatile and easy to maintain. With an average lifespan
of 25 years and a potential servic e life of 35 years, they last longer than dry transformers while offering numerous other
benefits.
For decades, flammable and environmentally damaging dielectric fluids were a major drawback. Oil -filled transformers required
containment troughs and other safety precautions. Indoor installations were regarded as risky due to potential fire hazards and
exposure to the dielectric fluids. However, many alternatives to mineral oil are now available. Natural esters, silicone and
hydrocarbons are recommended alternatives to flammable mineral oil. Some fluids are renewable, nontoxic and biodegradable.

Advantages of Liquid-filled Transformers

o New dielectric fluids have high flash points and minimal impact on the environment.
o High-voltage clients can recycle or remanufacture liquid-filled transformers easily.
o A wet-type power transformer is smaller and more efficient than dry products.
o Liquid-filled transformers are suitable for indoor use because operating noise is lower.
o These transformers last longer than dry-type products.
o Numerous recycling options are available.
Disadvantages of Liquid-filled Transformers
o Not all wet-type power transformers have the same safety benefits.
o Fluid testing and on-site maintenance is required for reliability.
o Additional protocols are required to manage fire and environmental risks.
o Oil-filled transformers may have lower cooling ratings than some cast -coil products.
o Insulating fluids must be appropriate for the application.
Dry-type Transformers
The dry-type power transformer has been traditionally used for low- and medium-voltage applications in buildings. Improved
safety made dry-type transformers preferred for indoor power distribution. However, these systems have some drawbacks and
limitations.
 Air-cooled transformers are larger than liquid-filled products with the same capacity and voltage ratings, so they are not the best
choice for a mobile substation or a site where space is limited. Air natural transformers have ratings up to 3 MVA. With higher
capacities, dry transformers must use air -blast systems to cool the core and windings. Due to these limitations, many experts
recommend 2.5 MVA as the changeover point for dry and wet products.
Advantages of Dry-type Transformers
o Air-cooled transformers are practical for low- and medium-voltage sites.
o Dry-systems eliminate environmental risks related to leaks and spills.
o Cast coils outperform conventional transformers in extreme conditions.
o Some cast-coil products offer extraordinary resistance to surges and short circuits.
o Air-cooled systems are often preferred at indoor sites where safety is a priority.
Disadvantages of Dry-type Transformers
o Dry-type transformers are more expensive to purchase and to operate.
o Repairs are difficult, and end-of-life recycling is limited.
o Coils can pose fire risks when they are not properly cleaned.
o Annual maintenance usually requires deactivation and downtime.
o Electrical losses associated with dry transformers are significantly higher.
o Heat generated by losses must be controlled with a cooling system.
o Dry transformers have high operating noises, so they are not suitable for all indoor applications.
 Three Phase Transformer Connections
Three phase transformer connections In three phase system, the three phases can be connected in either star or delta configuration. In case you are
not familiar with those configurations, study the following image which explains star and delta configuration. In any of these configurations, there will be
a phase difference of 120° between any two phases.

Three Phase Transformer Connections

Windings of a three phase transformer can be connected in various configurations as (i) star-star, (ii) delta-delta, (iii) star-delta, (iv) delta-star, (v) open
delta and (vi) Scott connection. These configurations are explained below.
Star-Star (Y-Y)

 Star-star connection is generally used for small, high-voltage transformers. Because of star connection, number of required turns/phase is reduced (as
phase voltage in star connection is 1/√3 times of line voltage only). Thus, the amount of insulation required is also reduced.
 The ratio of line voltages on the primary side and the secondary side is equal to the transformation ratio of the transformers.
 Line voltages on both sides are in phase with each other.
 This connection can be used only if the connected load is balanced.

Delta-Delta (Δ-Δ)
 This connection is generally used for large, low-voltage transformers. Number of required phase/turns is relatively greater than that for star-star
connection.
 The ratio of line voltages on the primary and the secondary side is equal to the transformation ratio of the transformers.
 This connection can be used even for unbalanced loading.
 Another advantage of this type of connection is that even if one transformer is disabled, system can continue to operate in open delta connection but
with reduced available capacity.

Star-Delta OR Wye-Delta (Y-Δ)

 The primary winding is star star (Y) connected with grounded neutral and the secondary winding is delta connected.
 This connection is mainly used in step down transformer at the substation end of the transmission line.
 The ratio of secondary to primary line voltage is 1/√3 times the transformation ratio.
 There is 30° shift between the primary and secondary line voltages.

Delta-Star OR Delta-Wye (Δ-Y)

 The primary winding is connected in delta and the secondary winding is connected in star with neutral grounded. Thus it can be used to provide 3-
phase 4-wire service.
 This type of connection is mainly used in step-up transformer at the beginning of transmission line.
 The ratio of secodary to primary line voltage is √3 times the transformation ratio.
 There is 30° shift between the primary and secondary line voltages.
 Above transformer connection configurations are shown in the following figure.

Open Delta (V-V) Connection

Two transformers are used and primary and secondary connections are made as shown in the figure below. Open delta connection can be used when
one of the transformers in Δ-Δ bank is disabled and the service is to be continued until the faulty transformer is repaired or replaced. It can also be
used for small three phase loads where installation of full three transformer bank is un-necessary. The total load carrying capacity of open delta
connection is 57.7% than that would be for delta-delta connection.
Instrument Transformers - CT And PT
Instrument Transformers

How will you measure AC currents and voltages of very high magnitude? You will need the measuring instruments having higher range, which literally
mean huge instruments. Or there's another way, using the transformation property of AC currents and voltages. You can transform the voltage or
current down with a transformer whose turns ratio is accurately known, then measuring the stepped down magnitude with a normal range instrument.
The original magnitude can be determined by just multiplying the result with the transformation ratio. Such specially constructed transformers with
accurate turns ratio are called as Instrument transformers. These instruments transformers are of two types - (i) Current Transformers (CT) and
(ii) Potential Transformers (PT).

Current Transformers (CT)

Current transformers are generally used to measure currents of high magnitude. These transformers step down the current to be measured, so that
it can be measured with a normal range ammeter. A Current transformer has only one or very few number of primary turns. The primary winding may
be just a conductor or a bus bar placed in a hollow core (as shown in the figure). The secondary winding has large number turns accurately wound for
a specific turns ratio. Thus the current transformer steps up (increases) the voltage while stepping down (lowering) the current.
Now, the secondary current is measured with the help of an AC ammeter. The turns ratio of a transformer is N P / NS = IS / IP
One of the common application of a current transformer is in a 'Digital Clamp Meter'.
Generally, current transformers are expressed in their primary to secondary current ratio. A 100:5 CT would mean the secondary current of 5
amperes when primary current is 100 amperes. The secondary current rating is generally 5 amperes or 1 ampere, which is compatible with standard
measuring instruments.

Potential Transformer (PT)

Potential transformers are also known as voltage transformers and they are basically step down transformers with extremely accurate turns ratio.
Potential transformers step down the voltage of high magnitude to a lower voltage which can be measured with standard measuring instrument. These
transformers have large number of primary turns and smaller number of secondary turns.
A potential transformer is typically expressed in primary to secondary voltage ratio. For example, a 600:120 PT would mean the voltage across
secondary is 120 volts when primary voltage is 600 volts.
Working Principle And Types Of An Induction Motor
Induction Motors are the most commonly used motors in many applications. These are also called as Asynchronous Motors, because
an induction motor always runs at a speed lower than synchronous speed. Synchronous speed means the speed of the rotating
magnetic field in the stator.

There basically 2 types of induction motor depending upon the type of input supply - (i) Single phase induction motor and (ii) Three
phase induction motor.

Or they can be divided according to type of rotor - (i) Squirrel cage motor and (ii) Slip ring motor or wound type

Basic Working Principle Of An Induction Motor

In a DC motor, supply is needed to be given for the stator winding as well as the rotor winding. But in an induction motor only the stator
winding is fed with an AC supply.
 Alternating flux is produced around the stator winding due to AC supply. This alternating flux revolves with synchronous speed. The
revolving flux is called as "Rotating Magnetic Field" (RMF).
 The relative speed between stator RMF and rotor conductors causes an induced emf in the rotor conductors, according to the Faraday's
law of electromagnetic induction. The rotor conductors are short circuited, and hence rotor current is produced due to induced emf. That is
why such motors are called as induction motors.
(This action is same as that occurs in transformers, hence induction motors can be called as rotating transformers.)
 Now, induced current in rotor will also produce alternating flux around it. This rotor flux lags behind the stator flux. The direction of induced
rotor current, according to Lenz's law, is such that it will tend to oppose the cause of its production.
 As the cause of production of rotor current is the relative velocity between rotating stator flux and the rotor, the rotor will try to catch up
with the stator RMF. Thus the rotor rotates in the same direction as that of stator flux to minimize the relative velocity. However, the rotor
never succeeds in catching up the synchronous speed. This is the basic working principle of induction motor of either type, single
phase of 3 phase.

Synchronous Speed:
The rotational speed of the rotating magnetic field is called as synchronous speed.

where, f = frequency of the spply

P = number of poles

Slip:
Rotor tries to catch up the synchronous speed of the stator field, and hence it rotates. But in practice, rotor never succeeds in catching up.
If rotor catches up the stator speed, there wont be any relative speed between the stator flux and the rotor, hence no induced rotor current
and no torque production to maintain the rotation. However, this won't stop the motor, the rotor will slow down due to lost of torque, the
torque will again be exerted due to relative speed. That is why the rotor rotates at speed which is always less the synchronous speed.
The difference between the synchronous speed (Ns) and actual speed (N) of the rotor is called as slip.
 Three Phase Induction Motor
A three phase induction motor runs on a three phase AC supply. 3 phase induction motors are extensively used for various industrial applications
because of their following advantages -

 They have very simple and rugged (almost unbreakable) construction

 they are very reliable and having low cost
 they have high efficiency and good power factor
 minimum maintenance required
 3 phase induction motor is self starting hence extra starting motor or any special starting arrangement is not required
They also have some disadvantages

 speed decreases with increase in load, just like a DC shunt motor

 if speed is to be varied, we have sacrifice some of its efficiency

Construction Of A 3 Phase Induction Motor

Just like any other motor, a 3 phase induction motor also consists of a stator and a rotor. Basically there are two types of 3 phase IM - 1. Squirrel
cage induction motor and 2. Phase Wound induction motor (slip-ring induction motor). Both types have similar constructed rotor, but they differ
in construction of rotor. This is explained further
.

Stator
The stator of a 3 phase IM (Induction Motor) is made up with number of stampings, and these stampings are slotted to receive the stator winding. The
stator is wound with a 3 phase winding which is fed from a 3 phase supply. It is wound for a defined number of poles, and the number of poles is
determined from the required speed. For greater speed, lesser number of poles is used and vice versa. When stator windings are supplied with 3
phase ac supply, they produce alternating flux which revolves with synchronous speed. The synchronous speed is inversely proportional to number of
poles (Ns = 120f / P). This revolving or rotating magnetic flux induces current in rotor windings according to Faraday's law of mutual induction.

Rotor
As described earlier, rotor of a 3 phase induction motor can be of either two types, squirrel cage rotor and phase wound rotor (or simply - wound
rotor).

Squirrel Cage Rotor

Most of the induction motors (upto 90%) are of squirrel cage type. Squirrel cage type rotor has very simple and almost indestructible construction.
This type of rotor consist of a cylindrical laminated core, having parallel slots on it. These parallel slots carry rotor conductors. In this type of rotor,
heavy bars of copper, aluminum or alloys are used as rotor conductors instead of wires.
Rotor slots are slightly skewed to achieve following advantages -

1. it reduces locking tendency of the rotor, i.e. the tendency of rotor teeth to remain under stator teeth due to magnetic attraction.

2. increases the effective transformation ratio between stator and rotor

3. increases rotor resistance due to increased length of the rotor conductor

The rotor bars are brazed or electrically welded to short circuiting end rings at both ends. Thus this rotor construction looks like a squirrel cage and
hence we call it. The rotor bars are permanently short circuited, hence it is not possible to add any external resistance to armature circuit.
Phase Wound Rotor

Phase wound rotor is wound with 3 phase, double layer, distributed winding. The number of poles
of rotor are kept same to the number of poles of the stator. The rotor is always wound 3 phase even if the stator is wound two phase.
The three phase rotor winding is internally star connected. The other three terminals of the winding are taken out via three insulated sleep rings
mounted on the shaft and the brushes resting on them. These three brushes are connected to an external star connected rheostat. This arrangement
is done to introduce an external resistance in rotor circuit for starting purposes and for changing the speed / torque characteristics.
When motor is running at its rated speed, slip rings are automatically short circuited by means of a metal collar and brushes are lifted above the slip
rings to minimize the frictional losses.
Torque Equation Of Three Phase Induction Motor
Torque of a three phase induction motor is proportional to flux per stator pole, rotor current and the power factor of the rotor.

T ∝ ɸ I2 cosɸ2 OR T = k ɸ I2 cosɸ2 .
where, ɸ = flux per stator pole,
I2 = rotor current at standstill,
ɸ2 = angle between rotor emf and rotor current,
k = a constant.

Now, let E2 = rotor emf at standstill

we know, rotor emf is directly proportional to flux per stator pole, i.e. E2 ∝ ɸ.
therefore, T ∝ E2 I2 cosɸ2 OR T =k1 E2 I2 cosɸ2.
Starting Torque
The torque developed at the instant of starting of a motor is called as starting torque. Starting torque may be greater than running torque in
some cases, or it may be lesser.
We know, T =k1 E2 I2 cosɸ2.

let, R2 = rotor resistance per phase

X2 = standstill rotor reactance

then,
Therefore, starting torque can be given as,

The constant k1 = 3 / 2πNs

Condition For Maximum Starting Torque

If supply voltage V is kept constant, then flux ɸ and E2 both remains constant. Hence,

Hence, it can be proved that maximum starting torque is obtained when rotor resistance is equal to standstill rotor reactance. i.e. R 22 +
X22 =2R22 .

Torque Under Running Condition

T ∝ ɸ Ir cosɸ2 .
where, Er = rotor emf per phase under running condition = sE2. (s=slip)
Ir = rotor current per phase under running condition
reactance per phase under running condition will be = sX2
therefore,

as, ɸ ∝ E2.

Maximum Torque Under Running Condition

Torque under running condition is maximum at the value of slip (s) which makes rotor reactance per phase equal to rotor resistance per
phase.
Starting Methods Of Three Phase Induction Motors
An induction motor is similar to a poly-phase transformer whose secondary is short circuited. Thus, at normal supply voltage, like in transformers, the
initial current taken by the primary is very large for a short while. Unlike in DC motors, large current at starting is due to the absence of back emf. If an
induction motor is directly switched on from the supply, it takes 5 to 7 times its full load current and develops a torque which is only 1.5 to 2.5 times the
full load torque. This large starting current produces a large voltage drop in the line, which may affect the operation of other devices connected to the
same line. Hence, it is not advisable to start induction motors of higher ratings (generally above 25kW) directly from the mains supply.
Various starting methods of induction motors are described below.

Direct-On-Line (DOL) Starters

Small three phase induction motors can be started direct-on-line, which means that the rated supply is directly applied to the motor. But, as mentioned
above, here, the starting current would be very large, usually 5 to 7 times the rated current. The starting torque is likely to be 1.5 to 2.5 times the full
load torque. Induction motors can be started directly on-line using a DOL starter which generally consists of a contactor and a motor protection
equipment such as a circuit breaker. A DOL starter consists of a coil operated contactor which can be controlled by start and stop push buttons. When
the start push button is pressed, the contactor gets energized and it closes all the three phases of the motor to the supply phases at a time. The stop
push button de-energizes the contactor and disconnects all the three phases to stop the motor.
In order to avoid excessive voltage drop in the supply line due to large starting current, a DOL starter is generally used for motors that are rated below
5kW.

Starting Of Squirrel Cage Motors

Starting in-rush current in squirrel cage motors is controlled by applying reduced voltage to the stator. These methods are sometimes called
as reduced voltage methods for starting of squirrel cage induction motors. For this purpose, following methods are used:
1. By using primary resistors
2. Autotransformer
3. Star-delta switches

1. Using Primary Resistors:

Obviously, the purpose of primary resistors is to drop some voltage and apply a reduced voltage to the stator. Consider, the starting voltage is reduced
by 50%. Then according to the Ohm's law (V=I/Z), the starting current will also be reduced by the same percentage. From the torque equation of a
three phase induction motor, the starting torque is approximately proportional to the square of the applied voltage. That means, if the applied voltage is
50% of the rated value, the starting torque will be only 25% of its normal voltage value. This method is generally used for a smooth starting of small
induction motors. It is not recommended to use primary resistors type of starting method for motors with high starting torque requirements.
Resistors are generally selected so that 70% of the rated voltage can be applied to the motor. At the time of starting, full resistance is connected in the
series with the stator winding and it is gradually decreased as the motor speeds up. When the motor reaches an appropriate speed, the resistances
are disconnected from the circuit and the stator phases are directly connected to the supply lines.

2. Auto-Transformers:
Auto-transformers are also known as auto-starters. They can be used for both star connected or delta connected squirrel cage motors. It is basically a
three phase step down transformer with different taps provided that permit the user to start the motor at, say, 50%, 65% or 80% of line voltage. With
auto-transformer starting, the current drawn from supply line is always less than the motor current by an amount equal to the transformation ratio. For
example, when a motor is started on a 65% tap, the applied voltage to the motor will be 65% of the line voltage and the applied current will be 65% of
the line voltage starting value, while the line current will be 65% of 65% (i.e. 42%) of the line voltage starting value. This difference between the line
current and the motor current is due to transformer action. The internal connections of an auto-starter are as shown in the figure. At starting, switch is
at "start" position, and a reduced voltage (which is selected using a tap) is applied across the stator. When the motor gathers an appropriate speed,
say upto 80% of its rated speed, the auto-transformer automatically gets disconnected from the circuit as the switch goes to "run" position.
The switch changing the connection from start to run position may be air-break (small motors) or oil-immersed (large motors) type. There are also
provisions for no-voltage and overload, with time delay circuits on an autostarter.
3. Star-Delta Starter:
This method is used in the motors, which are designed to run on delta connected stator. A two way switch is used to connect the stator winding in star
while starting and in delta while running at normal speed. When the stator winding is star connected, voltage over each phase in motor will be reduced
by a factor 1/(sqrt. 3) of that would be for delta connected winding. The starting torque will 1/3 times that it will be for delta connected winding. Hence a
star-delta starter is equivalent to an auto-transformer of ratio 1/(sqrt. 3) or 58% reduced voltage.

Starting Of Slip-Ring Motors

Slip-ring motors are started with full line voltage, as external resistance can be easily added in the rotor circuit with the help of slip-rings. A star
connected rheostat is connected in series with the rotor via slip-rings as shown in the fig. Introducing resistance in rotor current will decrease the
starting current in rotor (and, hence, in stator). Also, it improves power factor and the torque is increased. The connected rheostat may be hand-
operated or automatic.
As, introduction of additional resistance in rotor improves the starting torque, slip-ring motors can be started on load.
The external resistance introduced is only for starting purposes, and is gradually cut out as the motor gathers the speed.
 Speed Control Methods Of Induction Motor
An induction motor is practically a constant speed motor, that means, for the entire loading range, change in speed of the motor is quite small. Speed
of a DC shunt motor can be varied very easily with good efficiency, but in case of Induction motors, speed reduction is accompanied by a
corresponding loss of efficiency and poor power factor. As induction motors are widely being used, their speed control may be required in many
applications. Different speed control methods of induction motor are explained below.

Induction Motor Speed Control From Stator Side

1. By Changing The Applied Voltage:
From the torque equation of induction motor,

Rotor resistance R2 is constant and if slip s is small then (sX2)2 is so small that it can be neglected. Therefore, T ∝ sE22 where E2 is rotor induced emf
and E2 ∝ V
Thus, T ∝ sV2, which means, if supplied voltage is decreased, the developed torque decreases. Hence, for providing the same load torque, the slip
increases with decrease in voltage, and consequently, the speed decreases. This method is the easiest and cheapest, still rarely used, because

1. large change in supply voltage is required for relatively small change in speed.
2. large change in supply voltage will result in a large change in flux density, hence, this will disturb the magnetic conditions of the motor.

2. By Changing The Applied Frequency

Synchronous speed of the rotating magnetic field of an induction motor is given by,
where, f = frequency of the supply and P = number of stator poles.
Hence, the synchronous speed changes with change in supply frequency. Actual speed of an induction motor is given as N = Ns (1 - s). However, this
method is not widely used. It may be used where, the induction motor is supplied by a dedicated generator (so that frequency can be easily varied by
changing the speed of prime mover). Also, at lower frequency, the motor current may become too high due to decreased reactance. And if the
frequency is increased beyond the rated value, the maximum torque developed falls while the speed rises.

3. Constant V/F Control Of Induction Motor

This is the most popular method for controlling the speed of an induction motor. As in above method, if the supply frequency is reduced keeping the
rated supply voltage, the air gap flux will tend to saturate. This will cause excessive stator current and distortion of the stator flux wave. Therefore, the
stator voltage should also be reduced in proportional to the frequency so as to maintain the air-gap flux constant. The magnitude of the stator flux is
proportional to the ratio of the stator voltage and the frequency. Hence, if the ratio of voltage to frequency is kept constant, the flux remains constant.
Also, by keeping V/F constant, the developed torque remains approximately constant. This method gives higher run-time efficiency. Therefore, majority
of AC speed drives employ constant V/F method (or variable voltage, variable frequency method) for the speed control. Along with wide range of speed
control, this method also offers 'soft start' capability.

4. Changing The Number Of Stator Poles

From the above equation of synchronous speed, it can be seen that synchronous speed (and hence, running speed) can be changed by changing the
number of stator poles. This method is generally used for squirrel cage induction motors, as squirrel cage rotor adapts itself for any number of stator
poles. Change in stator poles is achieved by two or more independent stator windings wound for different number of poles in same slots.
For example, a stator is wound with two 3phase windings, one for 4 poles and other for 6 poles.
for supply frequency of 50 Hz
i) synchronous speed when 4 pole winding is connected, Ns = 120*50/4 = 1500 RPM
ii) synchronous speed when 6 pole winding is connected, Ns = 120*50/6 = 1000 RPM

Speed Control From Rotor Side:

1. Rotor Rheostat Control
This method is similar to that of armature rheostat control of DC shunt motor. But this method is only applicable to slip ring motors, as addition of
external resistance in the rotor of squirrel cage motors is not possible.

2. Cascade Operation
In this method of speed control, two motors are used. Both are mounted on a same shaft so that both run at same speed. One motor is fed from a
3phase supply and the other motor is fed from the induced emf in first motor via slip-rings. The arrangement is as shown in following figure.
Motor A is called the main motor and motor B is called the auxiliary motor.
Let, Ns1 = frequency of motor A
Ns2 = frequency of motor B
P1 = number of poles stator of motor A
P2 = number of stator poles of motor B
N = speed of the set and same for both motors
f = frequency of the supply

Now, slip of motor A, S1 = (Ns1 - N) / Ns1.

frequency of the rotor induced emf in motor A, f1 = S1f
Now, auxiliary motor B is supplied with the rotor induce emf

therefore, Ns2 = (120f1) / P2 = (120S1f) / P2.

now putting the value of S1 = (Ns1 - N) / Ns1

At no load, speed of the auxiliary rotor is almost same as its synchronous speed.
i.e. N = Ns2.
from the above equations, it can be obtained that
With this method, four different speeds can be obtained
1. when only motor A works, corresponding speed = .Ns1 = 120f / P1
2. when only motor B works, corresponding speed = Ns2 = 120f / P2
3. if commulative cascading is done, speed of the set = N = 120f / (P1 + P2)
4. if differential cascading is done, speed of the set = N = 120f (P1 - P2)

3. By Injecting EMF In Rotor Circuit

In this method, speed of an induction motor is controlled by injecting a voltage in rotor circuit. It is necessary that voltage (emf) being injected must
have same frequency as of the slip frequency. However, there is no restriction to the phase of injected emf. If we inject emf which is in opposite phase
with the rotor induced emf, rotor resistance will be increased. If we inject emf which is in phase with the rotor induced emf, rotor resistance will
decrease. Thus, by changing the phase of injected emf, speed can be controlled. The main advantage of this method is a wide rage of speed control
(above normal as well as below normal) can be achieved. The emf can be injected by various methods such as Kramer system, Scherbius system etc.
Standard Types Of Squirrel Cage Motors
Squirrel cage motors are standardized into different types according to their electrical characteristics. These standard types are called as
class A, B, C, D, E and F respectively. Class A motors are referred as 'normal starting torque, normal starting-current, normal slip' and are
used as reference motors.
Standard types of squirrel cage motors are as explained below:

(i) Class A - (Normal starting torque, normal starting current, normal slip)

Class A is the most popular type of squirrel cage induction motor. Motors of this type employ squirrel cage having relatively low
resistance and reactance. Its blocked-rotor current (with full voltage) is generally more than 6 times rated full load current. For smaller size
and less number of poles, starting torque with full load voltage is nearly twice the full load torque.For larger size and more number of poles
starting torque is only a bit more than full load torque. The full load slip is less than 5%. The rotor bars are placed close the the rotor
surface to reduce the rotor reactance.
Class A motors are used in fans, compressors, pumps, conveyors etc. which are having low inertia loads so that the motor can accelerate
in less time.

(ii) Class B - (Normal starting torque, low starting current, normal slip)
Class B motors can be started at full load, developing normal starting torque with relatively low starting current. Their blocked-rotor current
with full voltage is generally 5 times the full load current. Rotor bars are narrow and placed deeper to obtain high reactance at starting.
These motors are used where load is having high inertia, e.g large fans, machine tools applications, for driving electric generators,
centrifugal pumps etc.
(iii) Class C - (high starting torque, low starting current, normal slip)
Class C motors are generally double squirrel cage type. Their blocked-rotor current and slip with full voltage is nearly similar to that of
class B motors. Their starting torque with full applied voltage is genrally about three times the full load torque.
These motors are used where sufficiently high starting torque with reduced starting voltage is reqired. They are used for crushers,
compression pumps, large refrigerators, textile machinery, wood working eqipment etc.

(iv) Class D - (high starting torque, low starting current, high slip)
In class D motors rotor bars of high resistance are used so as to give high starting torque with low starting current. Their blocked rotor
current with full applied voltage is similar to that of class B or class C motors. Full load slip may vary from 5% to 20% depending upon
application. Thin rotor bars are used which reduces the leakage flux and increases the useful flux, thus giving high starting torque with low
starting current.
These motors are used where extremely high starting torque is required. E.g. bulldozers, shearing machines, foundry equipment, punch
presses, stamping machines, metal drawing equipment, laundry equipment etc.

(v) Class E - (low starting torque, normal starting current, low slip)
Class E motors are having relatively low slip at rated load. For motors above 5kW rating, starting current may be high, so they require
compensator or resistance starter.

(vi) Class F - (low starting torque, low starting current, normal slip)
As these motors are having low starting torque with low starting current, they can be started at full voltage. The rotor is designed such that
it gives high reactance at starting. The blocked rotor current and full load slip with full applied voltage is similar to that of class B or class C
motors. The starting torque with full applied voltage is nearly 1.25 times the full load torque.
Double Squirrel Cage Motor
Squirrel cage motors are the most commonly used induction motors, but the main drawback in them is their poor starting torque due to low
rotor resistance. (Starting torque is directly proportional to the rotor resistance). But increasing the rotor resistance for improving starting
torque is not advisory as it will reduce the efficiency of the motor (due to more copper loss). One can not even add external resistance for
starting of purposes, as the rotor bars are permanently short circuited (Construction of a squirrel cage rotor is here). These drawbacks are
removed by a double squirrel cage motor, which has high starting torque without sacrificing efficiency.

Construction Of Double Squirrel Cage Rotor

cross section of double squirrel cage rotor

Rotor of a double squirrel cage motor has two independent cages on the same rotor. The figure at left shows the cross sectional
diagram of a double squirrel cage rotor.
Bars of high resistance and low reactance are placed in the outer cage, and bars of low resistance and high reactance are placed in the
inner cage. The outer cage has high 'reactance to resistance ratio' whereas, the inner cage has low 'reactance to resistance ratio'.

Working Of Double Squirrel Cage Motor

At starting of the motor, frequency of induced emf is high because of large slip (slip = frequency of rotor emf / supply frequency). Hence
the reactance of inner cage (2πfL where, f = frequency of rotor emf) will be very high, increasing its total impedance. Hence at starting
most of the current flows through outer cage despite its large resistnace (as total impedance is lower than the inner cage). This will not
affect the outer cage because of its low reactance. And because of the large resistance of outer cage starting torque will be large.
As speed of the motor increases, slip decreases, and hence the rotor frequency decreases. In this case, the reactance of inner cage will
be low, and most of the current will flow through the inner cage which is having low resistance. Hence giving a good efficiency.
When the double cage motor is running at normal speed, frequency of the rotor emf is so low that the reactance of both cages is
negligible. The two cages being connected in parallel, the combined resistance is lower.
The torque speed characteristics of double squirrel cage motor for both the cages are shown in the figure below.
 Single Phase Motor Schematics And Working
Single phase motors are very widely used in home, offices, workshops etc. as power delivered to most of the houses and offices is single
phase. In addition to this, single phase motors are reliable, cheap in cost, simple in construction and easy to repair.
Single phase electric motors can be classified as:
1. Single phase induction motor (Split phase, Capacitor and shaded pole etc)
2. Single phase synchronous motor
3. Repulsion motor etc.
This article explains the basic construction and working of single phase induction motor.

Single Phase Induction Motor

Construction of a single phase induction motor is similar to the construction of three phase induction motor having squirrel cage rotor,
except that the stator is wound for single phase supply. Stator is also provided with a 'starting winding' which is used only for starting
purpose. This can be understood from the schematic of single phase induction motor at the left.

Working Principle Of Single Phase Induction Motor

When the stator of a single phase motor is fed with single phase supply, it produces alternating flux in the stator winding. The alternating
current flowing through stator winding causes induced current in the rotor bars (of the squirrel cage rotor ) according to Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction. This induced current in the rotor will also produce alternating flux. Even after both alternating fluxes are set up,
the motor fails to start (the reason is explained below). However, if the rotor is given a initial start by external force in either direction, then
motor accelerates to its final speed and keeps running with its rated speed. This behavior of a single phase motor can be explained by
double-field revolving theory.

Double-Field Revolving Theory

The double-field revolving theory states that, any alternating quantity (here, alternating flux) can be resolved into two components having
magnitude half of the maximum magnitude of the alternating quantity, and both these components rotating in opposite direction.
Following figures will help you understanding the double field revolving theory.
Why Single Phase Induction Motor Is Not Self Starting?
The stator of a single phase induction motor is wound with single phase winding. When the stator is fed with a single phase supply, it
produces alternating flux (which alternates along one space axis only). Alternating flux acting on a squirrel cage rotor can not produce
rotation, only revolving flux can. That is why a single phase induction motor is not self starting.

How To Make Single Phase Induction Motor Self Starting?

 As explained above, single phase induction motor is not self-starting. To make it self-starting, it can be temporarily converted into a
two-phase motor while starting. This can be achieved by introducing an additional 'starting winding' also called as auxillary winding.
 Hence, stator of a single phase motor has two windings: (i) Main winding and (ii) Starting winding (auxillary winding). These two windings
are connected in parallel across a single phase supply and are spaced 90 electrical degrees apart. Phase difference of 90 degree can be
achieved by connecting a capacitor in series with the starting winding.
 Hence the motor behaves like a two-phase motor and the stator produces revolving magnetic field which causes rotor to run. Once motor
gathers speed, say upto 80 or 90% of its normal speed, the starting winding gets disconnected form the circuit by means of a centrifugal
switch, and the motor runs only on main winding.
 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS ON THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

1.The auto-starters (using three auto transformers) can be used to start cage induction motor of the following type
star connected only
delta connected only
(a) and (b) both
none of the above
1. (a) and (b) both

2.A 3-phase 440 V, 50 Hz induction motor has 4% slip. The frequency of rotor e.m.f. will be
200 Hz
50 Hz
2 Hz
0.2 Hz
2. 2 Hz

3.The shaft of an induction motor is made of

high speed steel
stainless steel
carbon steel
 cast iron
3. carbon steel

4.The number of slip rings on a squirrel cage induction motor is usually

two
three
four
none
4. none

5.In case the air gap in an induction motor is increased

the magnetising current of the rotor will decrease
the power factor will decrease
speed of motor will increase
the windage losses will increase
5. the power factor will decrease

6.An induction motor with 1000 r.p.m. speed will have

8 poles
6 poles
4 poles
 2 poles
6. 6 poles

7.In case of the induction motors the torque is

inversely proportional to (Vslip)
directly proportional to (slip)2
inversely proportional to slip
directly proportional to slip
7. directly proportional to slip

8.The term 'cogging' is associated with

three phase transformers
compound generators
D.C. series motors
induction motors
8. induction motors

9.Star-delta starting of motors is not possible in case of

single phase motors
variable speed motors
low horse power motors
 high speed motors
9. single phase motors

10.Slip rings are usually made of

copper
carbon
phospor bronze
aluminium
10. phospor bronze

11.Which of the following methods is easily applicable to control the speed of the squirrel-cage induction motor ?
By changing the number of stator poles
Rotor rheostat control
By operating two motors in cascade
By injecting e.m.f. in the rotor circuit
11. By changing the number of stator poles

12.The frame of an induction motor is usually made of

silicon steel
cast iron
aluminium
 bronze
12. cast iron

13.An induction motor is identical to

D.C. compound motor
D.C. series motor
synchronous motor
asynchronous motor
13. asynchronous motor

14.The injected e.m.f. in the rotor of induction motor must have

zero frequency
the same frequency as the slip fre-quency
the same phase as the rotor e.m.f.
high value for the satisfactory speed control
14. the same frequency as the slip fre-quency

15.The crawling in the induction motor is caused by

low voltage supply
high loads
harmonics develped in the motor
 improper design of the machine
15. harmonics develped in the motor

21.In squirrel cage induction motors, the rotor slots are usually given slight skew in order to
reduce windage losses
reduce eddy currents
reduce accumulation of dirt and dust
reduce magnetic hum
ANSWER : : reduce magnetic hum
22.In an induction motor, no-load the slip is generally
less than 1%
1.5%
2%
4%
ANSWER : : less than 1%
23.A double squirrel-cage induction motor has
two rotors moving in oppsite direction
two parallel windings in stator
two parallel windings in rotor
two series windings in stator
ANSWER : : two parallel windings in rotor

1.In an induction motor the relationship between stator slots and rotor slots is that

stator slots are equal to rotor slots

stator slots are exact multiple of rotor slots
stator slots are not exact multiple of rotor slots
none of the above
ANSWER : : stator slots are not exact multiple of rotor slots

Explanation :

2.In the circle diagram for induction motor, the diameter of the circle represents

slip
rotor current
running torque
line voltage
ANSWER : : rotor current

Explanation :

3.An induction motor is

self-starting with zero torque

self-starting with high torque
self-starting with low torque
 non-self starting
ANSWER : : self-starting with low torque

Explanation :

4.Stepless speed control of induction motor is possible by which of the following methods ?

e.m.f. injection in rotor eueuit

Changing the number of poles
Cascade operation
None of the above
ANSWER : : Changing the number of poles

Explanation :

5.Size of a high speed motor as compared to low speed motorfor the same H.P. will be

bigger
smaller
same
any of the above
ANSWER : : smaller

6.In a three-phase induction motor, the number of poles in the rotor winding is
always

zero
 more than the number of poles in stator
less than number of poles in stator
equal to number of poles in stator
ANSWER : : equal to number of poles in stator

Explanation :

7.The 'cogging' of an induction motor can be avoided by

proper ventilation
using DOL starter
auto-transformer starter
having number of rotor slots more or less than the number of stator slots (not equal)
ANSWER : : having number of rotor slots more or less than the number of stator slots (not equal)

Explanation :

8.The maximum torque in an induction motor depends on

frequency
rotor inductive reactance
square of supply voltage
all of the above
ANSWER : : all of the above

Explanation :
9.Rotor rheostat control method of speed control is used for

squirrel-cage induction motors only

slip ring induction motors only
both (a) and (b)
none of the above
ANSWER : : slip ring induction motors only

Explanation :

10.A 3-phase induction motor delta connected is carrying too heavy load and one of its fuses blows out. Then the motor

will continue running burning its one phase

will continue running burning its two phase
will stop and carry heavy current causing permanent damage to its winding
will continue running without any harm to the winding
ANSWER : : will stop and carry heavy current causing permanent damage to its winding

Explanation :

11.The power factor of an induction motor under no-load conditions will be closer
to

0.2 lagging
0.2 leading
0.5 leading
 unity
ANSWER : : 0.2 lagging

Explanation :

12.If an induction motor with certain ratio of rotor to stator slots, runs at 1/7 of the normal speed, the phenomenon will be termed as

humming
hunting
crawling
cogging
ANSWER : : crawling

Explanation :

13.The speed of a squirrel-cage induction motor can be controlled by all of the following except

changing supply frequency

changing number of poles
changing winding resistance
reducing supply voltage
ANSWER : : changing winding resistance

Explanation :

14.A 3-phase induction motor stator delta connected, is carrying full load and one of its fuses blows out. Then the motor

will continue running burning its one phase

 will continue running burning its two phases
will stop and carry heavy current causing permanent damage to its winding
will continue running without any harm to the winding
ANSWER : : will continue running burning its one phase

Explanation :

15.For which motor the speed can be controlled from rotor side ?

Squirrel-cage induction motor

Slip-ring induction motor
Both (a) and (b)
None of the above
ANSWER : : Slip-ring induction motor

Explanation :

16.When the equivalent circuit diagram of doouble squirrel-cage induction motor is constructed the two cages can be considered

in series
in parallel
in series-parallel
in parallel with stator
ANSWER : : in parallel

Explanation :
17.Slip ring motor is recommended where

speed control is required

frequent starting, stopping and reversing is required
high starting torque is needed
all above features are required
ANSWER : : all above features are required

Explanation :

18.The 'crawling" in an induction motor is caused by

high loads
low voltage supply
improper design of machine
harmonics developed in the motor
ANSWER : : harmonics developed in the motor

Explanation :

19.It is advisable to avoid line-starting of induction motor and use starter because

motor takes five to seven times its full load current

it will pick-up very high speed and may go out of step
it will run in reverse direction
starting torque is very high
ANSWER : : motor takes five to seven times its full load current

Explanation :

20.Low voltage at motor terminals is due to

inadequate motor wiring

poorely regulated power supply
any one of the above
none of the above
ANSWER : : any one of the above

Explanation :

21.Slip of an induction motor is negative when

magnetic field and rotor rotate in opposite direction

rotor speed is less than the syn-chronous speed of the field and are in the same direction
rotor speed is more than the syn-chronous speed of the field and are in the same direction
none of the above
ANSWER : : rotor speed is more than the syn-chronous speed of the field and are in the same direction

Explanation :

22.In three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors

rotor conductor ends are short-circuited through slip rings

rotor conductors are short-circuited through end rings
 rotor conductors are kept open
rotor conductors are connected to insulation
ANSWER : : rotor conductors are short-circuited through end rings

Explanation :

23.If any two phases for an induction motor are interchanged

the motor will run in reverse direction

the motor will run at reduced speed
the motor will not run
the motor will burn
ANSWER : : the motor will run in reverse direction

Explanation :

24.DOL starting of induction motors is usually restricted to

low horsepower motors

variable speed motors
high horsepower motors
high speed motors
ANSWER : : low horsepower motors

Explanation :
1.In case of 3-phase induction motors, plugging means
 pulling the motor directly on line without a starter
locking of rotor due to harmonics
starting the motor on load which is more than the rated load
interchanging two supply phases for quick stopping
ANSWER : : interchanging two supply phases for quick stopping

Explanation :

2.In a three-phase induction motor

power factor at starting is high as compared to that while running

power factor at starting is low as compared to that while running
power factor at starting in the same as that while running
power factor at starting is low as compared to that while running
ANSWER : The vafcie of transformation ratio of an induction motor can be found by

Explanation :

3.Blocked rotor test on induction motors is used to find out

leakage reactance
power factor on short circuit
short-circuit current under rated voltage
all of the above
ANSWER : : all of the above

Explanation :

4.A 500 kW, 3-phase, 440 volts, 50 Hz, A.C. induction motor has a speed of 960 r.p.m. on full load. The machine has 6 poles. The slip of the machine will be

0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
ANSWER : : 0.04

Explanation :

5.The torque of a rotor in an induction motor under running condition is maximum

at the unit value of slip

at the zero value of slip
at the value of the slip which makes rotor reactance per phase equal to the resistance per
phase
at the value of the slip which makes the rotor reactance half of the rotor
ANSWER : : at the value of the slip which makes rotor reactance per phase equal to the resistance per phase

Explanation :

6.5 H.P., 50-Hz, 3-phase, 440 V, induction motors are available for the following r.p.m. Which motor will be the costliest ?

730 r.p.m.
 960 r.p.m.
1440 r.p.m.
2880 r.p.m.
ANSWER : : 730 r.p.m.

Explanation :

7.In three-phase induction motors sometimes copper bars are placed deep in the rotor to

improve starting torque

reduce copper losses
improve efficiency
improve power factor
ANSWER : : improve starting torque

Explanation :

8.The starting torque of a 3-phase squirrel cage induction motor is

twice the full load torque

1.5 times the full load torque
equal to full load torque
1.5 times the full load torque
ANSWER : Short-circuit test on an induction motor cannot be used to determine

Explanation :
9.The stating torque of the slip ring induction motor can be increased by adding

external inductance to the rotor

external resistance to the rotor
external capacitance to the rotor
both resistance and inductance to rotor
ANSWER : : external resistance to the rotor

Explanation :

10.The power scale of circle diagram of an induction motor can be found from

stator resistance test

no-load test only
short-circuit test only
noue of the above
ANSWER : : short-circuit test only

Explanation :

11.Which is of the following data is required to draw the circle diagram for an induction motor ?

Block rotor test only

No load test only
Block rotor test and no-load test
Block rotor test, no-load test and stator resistance test
ANSWER : : Block rotor test, no-load test and stator resistance test

Explanation :

12.In a three-phase induction motor

iron losses in stator will be negligible as compared to that in rotor

iron losses in motor will be neg� ligible as compared to that in rotor

iron losses in stator will be less than that in rotor

iron losses in stator will be more than that in rotor
ANSWER : : iron losses in stator will be more than that in rotor

Explanation :

13.Which type of bearing is provided in small induction motors to support the rotor shaft ?

Ball bearings
Cast iron bearings
Bush bearings
None of the above
ANSWER : s: a

Explanation :

14.A 3-phase slip ring motor has

double cage rotor

wound rotor
 short-circuited rotor
any of the above
ANSWER : : wound rotor

Explanation :

15.The circle diagram for an induction motor cannot be used to determine

efficiency
power factor
frequency
output
ANSWER : : efficiency

Explanation :

16.The shape of the torque/slip curve of induction motor is

parabola
hyperbola
rectangular parabola
straigth line
ANSWER : : rectangular parabola

Explanation :

17.If a 3-phase supply is given to the stator and rotor is short circuited rotor will move
 in the opposite direction as the direction of the rotating field
in the same direction as the direction of the field
in any direction depending upon phase squence of supply
in the same direction as the direction of the field
ANSWER : It is advisable to avoid line starting of induction motor and use starter because

Explanation :

18.A pump induction motor is switched on to a supply 30% lower than its rated voltage. The pump runs. What will eventually happen ? It will

stall after sometime

stall immediately
continue to run at lower speed without damage
get heated and subsequently get damaged
ANSWER : : get heated and subsequently get damaged

Explanation :

19.The complete circle diagram of induetion motor can be drawn with the help of data found from

noload test
blocked rotor test
stator resistance test
all of the above
ANSWER : : all of the above

Explanation :

20.The speed characteristics of an induction motor closely resemble the speedload characteristics of which of the following machines

D.C. series motor

D.C. shunt motor
universal motor
none of the above
ANSWER : : D.C. shunt motor

21.In the squirrel-cage induction motor the rotor slots are usually given slight skew

to reduce the magnetic hum and locking tendency of the rotor

to increase the tensile strength of the rotor bars
to ensure easy fabrication
none of the above
ANSWER : : to reduce the magnetic hum and locking tendency of the rotor

Explanation :

22.A change of 4% of supply voltage to an induction motor will produce a change of appromimately

4% in the rotor torque

8% in the rotor torque
 12% in the rotor torque
16% in the rotor torque
ANSWER : : 16% in the rotor torque

1.The purpose of using short-circuit gear is

to short circuit the rotor at slip rings

to short circuit the starting resis� tances in the starter
to short circuit the stator phase of motor to form star
none of the above
ANSWER : : to short circuit the rotor at slip rings

Explanation :

2.Insertion of resistance in the rotcir of an induction motor to develop a given torque

decreases the rotor current

increases the rotor current
rotor current becomes zero
rotor current rernains same
ANSWER : : rotor current rernains same

Explanation :

3.Insertion of resistance in the stator of an induction motor

increases the load torque

 decreases the starting torque
increases the starting torque
none of the above
ANSWER : : decreases the starting torque

Explanation :

4.The rotor of an induction motor runs at

synchronous speed
below synchronous speed
above synchronous speed
any of the above
ANSWER : : below synchronous speed

Explanation :

5.The low power factor of induction motor is due to

rotor leakage reactance

stator reactance
the reactive lagging magnetizing current necessary to generate the magnetic flux
all of the above
ANSWER : : all of the above
7.In a squirrel cage motor the induced e.m.f. is
 dependent on the shaft loading
dependent on the number of slots
slip times the stand still e.m.f. induced in the rotor
none of the above
ANSWER : : slip times the stand still e.m.f. induced in the rotor

Explanation :

8.In a star-delta starter of an induction motor

resistance is inserted in the stator

reduced voltage is applied to the stator
resistance is inserted in the rotor
applied voltage per1 stator phase is 57.7% of the line voltage
ANSWER : : applied voltage per1 stator phase is 57.7% of the line voltage

Explanation :

9.Less maintenance troubles are experienced in case of

slip ring induction motor

squirrel cage induction motor
both (a) and (b)
none of the above
ANSWER : : squirrel cage induction motor

Explanation :

10.A squirrel cage induction motor is not selected when

initial cost is the main consideration

maintenance cost is to be kept low
higher starting torque is the main consideration
all above considerations are involved
ANSWER : : higher starting torque is the main consideration

Explanation :

11.In an induction motor if air-gap is increased

the power factor will be low

windage losses will be more
bearing friction will reduce
copper loss will reduce In an induction motor
ANSWER : : the power factor will be low

Explanation :

12.Insertion of reactance in the rotor circuit

reduces starting torque as well as maximum torque

increases starting torque as well as maximum torque
 increases starting torque but maxi-mum torque remains unchanged
increases starting torque but maxi-mum torque decreases
ANSWER : : reduces starting torque as well as maximum torque

Explanation :

13.The torque developed by a 3-phase induction motor least depends on

rotor current
rotor power factor
rotor e.m.f.
shaft diameter
ANSWER : : shaft diameter

Explanation :

14.Which motor is preferred for use in mines where explosive gases exist ?

Air motor
Induction motor
D.C. shunt motor
Synchronous motor
ANSWER : : Air motor

Explanation :

15.Temperature of the stator winding of a three phase induction motor is obtained by

 resistance rise method
thermometer method
embedded temperature method
all above methods
ANSWER : : all above methods

17.When /?2 is tne rotor resistance, .X2 the rotor reactance at supply frequency and s the slip, then the condition for maximum torque under running condi-tions will be

sR2X2 = 1 (b) sR2 = X2

R2 = sX2 id) R2 = s2X2
R2 = sX2 id) R2 = s2X2
In case of a double cage induction motor, the inner cage has
ANSWER : 1 high inductance arid low resistance

Explanation :

18.In induction motor, percentage slip depends on

supply frequency
supply voltage
copper losses in motor
none of the above
ANSWER : : copper losses in motor

Explanation :
19.The torque of an induction motor is

directly proportional to slip

inversely proportional to slip
proportional to the square of the slip
none of the above
ANSWER : : directly proportional to slip

Explanation :

20.An induction motor can run at synchronous speed when

it is run on load
it is run in reverse direction
it is run on voltage higher than the rated voltage
e.m.f. is injected in the rotor circuit
ANSWER : : e.m.f. is injected in the rotor circuit

Explanation :

21.Reduced voltage starter can be used with

slip ring motor only but not with squirrel cage induction motor

squirrel cage induction motor only but not with slip ring motor

squirrel cage as well as slip ring induction motor

none of the above

ANSWER : : squirrel cage as well as slip ring induction motor
Synchronous Motor - Construction And Working
Synchronous motor and induction motor are the most widely used types of AC motor. Construction of a synchronous motor is similar to
an alternator (AC generator). A same synchronous machine can be used as a synchronous motor or as an alternator. Synchronous
motors are available in a wide range, generally rated between 150kW to 15MW with speeds ranging from 150 to 1800 rpm.

Construction Of Synchronous Motor

The construction of a synchronous motor(with salient pole rotor) is as shown in the figure at left. Just like any other motor, it consists of
a stator and a rotor. The stator core is constructed with thin silicon lamination and insulated by a surface coating, to minimize the eddy
current and hysteresis losses. The stator has axial slots inside, in which three phase stator winding is placed. The stator is wound with a
three phase winding for a specific number of poles equal to the rotor poles.
The rotor in synchronous motors is mostly of salient pole type. DC supply is given to the rotor winding via slip-rings. The direct current
excites the rotor winding and creates electromagnetic poles. In some cases permanent magnets can also be used. The figure above
illustrates the construction of a synchronous motor very briefly.

Working Of Synchronous Motor

The stator is wound for the similar number of poles as that of rotor, and fed with three phase AC supply. The 3 phase AC supply
produces rotating magnetic field in stator. The rotor winding is fed with DC supply which magnetizes the rotor. Consider a two
pole synchronous machine as shown in figure below.
 Now, the stator poles are revolving with synchronous speed (lets say clockwise). If the rotor position is such that, N pole of the rotor is
near the N pole of the stator (as shown in first schematic of above figure), then the poles of the stator and rotor will repel each other, and
the torque produced will be anticlockwise.
 The stator poles are rotating with synchronous speed, and they rotate around very fast and interchange their position. But at this very
soon, rotor can not rotate with the same angle (due to inertia), and the next position will be likely the second schematic in above figure. In
this case, poles of the stator will attract the poles of rotor, and the torque produced will be clockwise.
 Hence, the rotor will undergo to a rapidly reversing torque, and the motor will not start.
But, if the rotor is rotated upto the synchronous speed of the stator by means of an external force (in the direction of revolving field of the
stator), and the rotor field is excited near the synchronous speed, the poles of stator will keep attracting the opposite poles of the rotor (as
the rotor is also, now, rotating with it and the position of the poles will be similar throughout the cycle). Now, the rotor will undergo
unidirectional torque. The opposite poles of the stator and rotor will get locked with each other, and the rotor will rotate at the synchronous
speed.

Characteristic Features Of A Synchronous Motor

 Synchronous motor will run either at synchronous speed or will not run at all.
 The only way to change its speed is to change its supply frequency. (As Ns = 120f / P)
 Synchronous motors are not self starting. They need some external force to bring them near to the synchronous speed.
 They can operate under any power factor, lagging as well as leading. Hence, synchronous motors can be used for power factor
improvement.

Application Of Synchronous Motor

 As synchronous motor is capable of operating under either leading and lagging power factor, it can be used for power factor
improvement. A synchronous motor under no-load with leading power factor is connected in power system where static capacitors can
not be used.
 It is used where high power at low speed is required. Such as rolling mills, chippers, mixers, pumps, pumps, compressor etc.
 Difference Between Synchronous Motor And Induction Motor
AC motors can be divided into two main categories - (i) Synchronous motor and (ii) Asynchronous motor. An asynchronous motor is
popularly called as Induction motor. Both the types are quite different from each other. Major differences between a synchronous motor
and an induction motor are discussed below.

Constructional Difference
 Synchronous motor: Stator has axial slots which consist stator winding wound for a specific number of poles. Generally a salient pole
rotor is used on which rotor winding is mounted. Rotor winding is fed with a DC supply with the help of slip rings. A rotor with permanent
magnets can also be used.

Synchronous motor
 Induction motor: Stator winding is similar to that of a synchronous motor. It is wound for a specific number of poles. A squirrel cage rotor
or a wound rotor can be used. In squirrel cage rotor, the rotor bars are permanently short-circuited with end rings. In wound rotor, windings
are also permanently short-circuited, hence no slip rings are required.

Induction motor

Difference In Working
 Synchronous motor: Stator poles rotate at the synchronous speed (Ns) when fed with a three phase supply. The rotor is fed with a DC
supply. The rotor needs to be rotated at a speed near to the synchronous speed during starting. If done so, the rotor poles get
magnetically coupled with the rotating stator poles, and thus the rotor starts rotating at the synchronous speed.
 Synchronous motor always runs at a speed equal to its synchronous speed.
i.e. Actual speed = Synchronous speed
or N = Ns = 120f/P
 Learn more about working of a synchronous motor here.
 Induction motor: When the stator is fed with two or three phase AC supply, a Rotating Magnetic Field (RMF) is produced. The relative
speed between stator's rotating magnetic field and the rotor will cause an induced current in the rotor conductors. The rotor current gives
rise to the rotor flux. According to Lenz's law, the direction of this induced current is such that it will tend to oppose the cause of its
production, i.e. relative speed between stator's RMF and the rotor. Thus, the rotor will try to catch up with the RMF and reduce the relative
speed.
 Induction motor always runs at a speed which is less than the synchronous speed.
i.e. N < Ns
 Learn more about working of induction motor here.

Other Differences
 Synchronous motors require an additional DC power source for energizing rotor winding. Induction motors do not require any additional
power source.
 Slip rings and brushes are required in synchronous motors, but not in Induction motors (except wound type induction motor in which slip
ring motors are used to add external resistance to the rotor winding).
 Synchronous motors require additional starting mechanism to initially rotate the rotor near to the synchronous speed. No starting
mechanism is required in induction motors.
 The power factor of a synchronous motor can be adjusted to lagging, unity or leading by varying the excitation, whereas, an induction
motor always runs at lagging power factor.
 Synchronous motors are generally more efficient than induction motors.
 Synchronous motors are costlier.
 Salient Pole Rotor Vs. Non-Salient Pole Rotor
Rotors of an electrical machine are classified as: (i) Salient pole rotors and (ii) Non-salient pole rotors. Both types are explained below.

Salient Pole Rotor

In salient pole type of rotor consist of large number of projected poles (salient poles) mounted on a magnetic wheel. Construction of a
salient pole rotoris as shown in the figure at left. The projected poles are made up from laminations of steel. The rotor winding is
provided on these poles and it is supported by pole shoes.
 Salient pole rotors have large diameter and shorter axial length.
 They are generally used in lower speed electrical machines, say 100 RPM to 1500 RPM.
 As the rotor speed is lower, more number of poles are required to attain the required frequency. (Ns = 120f / P therefore, f =
Ns*p/120 i.e. frequency is proportional to number of poles). Typically number of salient poles is between 4 to 60.
 Flux distribution is relatively poor than non-salient pole rotor, hence the generated emf waveform is not as good as cylindrical rotor.
 Salient pole rotors generally need damper windings to prevent rotor oscillations during operation.
 Salient pole synchronous generators are mostly used in hydro power plants.

Non-Salient Pole (Cylindrical) Rotor

Non-salient pole rotors are cylindrical in shape having parallel slots on it to place rotor windings. It is made up of solid steel.
The construction of non-salient pole rotor (cylindrical rotor) is as shown in figure above. Sometimes, they are also called as drum
rotor.
 They are smaller in diameter but having longer axial length.
 Cylindrical rotors are used in high speed electrical machines, usually 1500 RPM to 3000 RPM.
 Windage loss as well as noise is less as compared to salient pole rotors.
 Their construction is robust as compared to salient pole rotors.
 Number of poles is usually 2 or 4.
 Damper windings are not needed in non-salient pole rotors.
 Flux distribution is sinusoidal and hence gives better emf waveform.
 Non-salient pole rotors are used in nuclear, gas and thermal power plants.
Intrduction to Synchronization in Power plant
What is Synchronization?
Synchronization is the process of comparing the two source parameters like voltage, frequency and phase angle and connecting them together to
operate in parallel. I.e. it is desired to assure that the two AC power sources are in synchronism before connecting together. The device used to
measure the degree of synchronization between the two AC power systems is called synchronization unit which consists of Dual voltage meter, Dual
Frequency meter, Synchroscope and Synchronization check relay. Figure shows the basic arrangement of synchronization unitbetween the two AC
power sources. The existing power source is called running power source and the power source to be connected is called incoming power source.
[/ezcol_2third_end]

Here the power system can be a single power source if only two power sources to be operated in parallel or it is a group of running generators in case
of incoming generator has to be connected with grid power supply. The bus voltages are sensed by the potential transformers and provided as input to
the synchronizing unit. The output of the synchronization unit is connected to the circuit breaker to close it after the permission of synch check relay.
 The synchronization operation can be done in two ways based on the selection by the operator; one is AUTO and another one MAN. Manual operation
is done by the operator and AUTO operation is done by the micro controller. In both the Manual and Automatic synchronization the process will be
done carefully to unnecessary damage to the equipment and power system because of poor synchronization.
Need of Synchronization
 To avoid the damage to the prime mover due to heave acceleration forces
 To ensure the perfect connection of two AC power sources without any disturbance
 To avoid the damage to the Generator and Generator transformer windings due to high currents
 To ensure the safety of the equipment and operating personal
 Perfect synchronization connection reduces the power and voltage variations in the plant and outside the plant.
 Generator synchronization procedure in Power Plant
Synchronization of Generator with grid power supply is the process of equating the parameters like magnitude, phase and frequency of the both power
sources and connecting the generator with the power system network. The power generating plant should be connected to grid power system network
to distribute the generated power or to receive power during start-up or on generator trip. Here we will concentrate on delivering power to the grid
during generation. To do this the generator has to be connected to the grid power supply with proper synchronization or otherwise the effects of the
poor synchronization may leads to serve damage. There are two types of generator synchronization procedures available in the power plant i.e.
Manual synchronization and Automatic Synchronization.
Manual Synchronization of Generator in power plant
The Manual term in the Manual synchronization indicates that the whole process of synchronization is done by the plant operator. Here the operator is
a judge who decides when to close the circuit breaker after observing the equitable parameters like phase; frequency and magnitude are in limits. The
following steps indicate the total procedure in the hierarchy.
1. The synchronization procedure starts when the speed of the Turbo-Generator (TG) reaches to 95% of its rated speed.
2. The synchronization can be done by the Main Control Room (MCR) panels or Generator control panel (GCP) as per the operator choice.
3. The Operator selects MAN synchronization from a two state switch called AUTO/MAN synchronization.
4. Now the synchronization unit on the panel will be on and ready to take input signals.
5. The operator has to select the circuit breaker to be synchronized from MCR/GCP. Corresponding incoming and running voltages will be selected and
fed to the predetermined synchronization check logic.
6. The Magnitude and frequencies of the two incoming and running frequencies are displayed in the synchronization panel HMI (Human Machine
Interface) for operator reference.
7. The frequency difference is calculated and provided as an input to the synchroscope (Needle type of rotating led lights type) and the needle rotates
according to the frequency difference.
8. The position of the needle is determined by the phase angle difference of the two signals.
9. At first the operator raises/lowers the generator voltage magnitude by operating the AVR raise/lower push buttons from MCR/GCP to match with grid
voltage (i.e. equal or slightly greater).
10. Once the magnitude matches then the operator adjusts the Speed (Frequency) of the TG by operating the speed raise/lower buttons from the
MCR/GCP. This implies controlling the steam flow through the TG by the governing unit of TG. The incoming frequency should be slightly more than
the grid frequency because the pull-down force is less hazardous compared to pull-up force after synchronization.
11. Now the needle of synchroscope rotates in clock wise direction with less RPM. It continuously touches the 12’o clock position. This 12’o clock position
indicates that two signals are in phase.
12. The synchronization check relay provides the permission to close the circuit breaker when the needle is +- 0.5 from 12 o clock position.
13. The operator initiates the closing of circuit breaker from MCR/GCP when the needle approaches 12 o clock positions, by keeping closing time of circuit
breaker in mind and phase angle variation rate.
14. Once the breaker has been closed, the TG power is raised to house load (block load) by the governing unit (Electro Hydraulic/Digital Hydraulic). In the
earlier days the hydraulic speeder gear system also brings the TG to feed block load after synchronization with the speed bias for the load.
15. The generator power will be raised to full power by the load control unit of modern governors or by adjusting the speed droop characteristics of earlier
hydraulic governors.
Advantages of Manual synchronization
 Here the operator is the judge and at any time closing of the circuit breaker can be delayed if any problem occurs in some other circuit.
 If any condition is not matched and if it is not predominant for synchronization i.e. the damage is less than the operator can bypasses it and closes the
circuit breaker.
 Failure of computer system during synchronization can be avoided.
Disadvantages of Manual synchronization
 Closing time of the breaker may not be that much precise which can create damage to the plant equipment.
 There is possibility of parallax error in adjusting magnitude and frequency.
Automatic Synchronization of Generator in power plant
In growing control system automation, synchronization of generator using automatic control system fetches a lot of advantages over manual
synchronization. Here the computer plays the role of the operator which precisely judges the closing of the circuit breaker with predetermined
synchronization logic and limit parameters. An Auto- synchronizer cabinet is placed in the GCP with corresponding hardware and software which is
connected to ATRS (Automatic Turbine Run-up System), Governing Unit and AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator) of TG. The typical schematic of
arrangement is shown in below figure.

Auto synchronizer unit receives the input from MCR/GCP, two potential meters and provides a four output digital pulse signals to ATRS, Closing signal
to the circuit breaker. The four digital pulses are speed and voltage adjustment signals which are provided as inputs to governing unit and AVR through
ATRS. The following are the steps in Auto synchronization of Generator in power plant

1. Auto synchronizing mode is selected from MCR/GCP by the operator with the addition of circuit breaker selection.
2. Once both are selected the Auto synchronizer unit takes the inputs from corresponding logic according to predetermined logic for the circuit breaker.
The same readings are passed to the HMI also.
3. Initially it checks the voltage difference and compares with design difference limit which is already fed to it. If the difference is beyond the limit it sends
an output digital raise/lower pulse to the AVR through the ATRS. The pulse duration is depends on difference.
4. Parallelly it also checks the frequency difference
Effects Of poor synchronization of two AC Generators or Alternators
Poor synchronization creates damage to the equipment and power system network. So it needs to be done with perfect matching of frequency, phase
and magnitude. The following statements explain the effects of improper matching of each parameter while synchronizing

Effects of poor frequency matching

In a generator, the rotor rotates with the help of prime mover (turbine- steam, hydraulic, gas etc) produces the rotating magnetic field which will cut by
the stator winding and induces the EMF. Therefore the frequency of the induced EMF or voltage is proportional to the speed of the rotor.
i.e N= 120 F/P
Where N = Speed of the generator
P = Poles of the generator
F = frequency of the generator
So to control the frequency of the generated voltage, the speed can be varied.

Effects of poor synchronization

Consider the generator has to be connected to power system network (Group of generators) i.e. the group of generators are running at same
frequency to avoid the mismatch and one more generator has to be connected to this group. The rotating force of group of generators will be large
compared to the single generator rotating force. So after the generator is connected to the power system network the speed or frequency of the
 generator is governed by the power systems network i.e. the power system network push the incoming generator in to its synchronized rotating
condition.
So prior to closing the circuit breaker if the rotor speed or the frequency of induced voltage deviates from the power system network frequency i.e. if
they are not closely matched, the power system with high rotational force pulls the generator in to it due to the improper frequency matching. Due to
this pulling, a sudden acceleration or deceleration effects will imposed on the rotor and thus the prime mover rotating toque. This transient in rotating
torque of the prime mover increases the rotating mass forces on the shaft which may damages the shaft body and rotor over a life period.
In addition to this due to this high torque there may sudden increase in current flowing through the generator and generator transformer winding which
may create serious damage to the winding. So the windings have to be designed to with stand these types of forces. There will be oscillations in the
power generation and scope of operation of power system protection also. In a summarized way the poor frequency matching may result the following
effects in the power system.
1. High Acceleration or deceleration in the prime mover which increases the transient torque and creates damage to the rotor.
2. High transient current may flow in the windings
3. Power system oscillations due to the transient effect
4. Possible power system protection operation which creates power system outage.
If only two generators have to be connected the generator with high power and rotational force tries to pull the other one if any improper matching
occurs. This may create a serious damage to the both generators.
Effects of the improper phase matching in Syncronization
The phase and frequency are closely related in the power system i.e. the phase can be controlled by the rotor angle with the stator which can be
controlled by the rotor rotation. Even if the frequencies of two power sources are matching together the phase angle should be matched to avoid the
damage to the power source. If the two phase angles are not in match then there will be a difference in rotor angle and stator flux angle as shown in
figure.
This difference causes a high transient torque when it synchronized to the grid power supply due to pull in force of large power system. Even more
damage to the rotor mass and generator windings compared to frequency difference.
 In addition to this when the unit is synchronized with improper phase angle match with the power system network, there will be high resultant transient
voltage at an instant which may damage the insulation of the equipment. In summarized way poor phase matching during synchronization causes the
following effects in power system.
1. High transient toque with high current which damages the windings of the generator.
2. High instant voltage which may damage the insulation of equipment
3. Power system protection operation.
Effects of improper Voltage magnitude matching in Syncronization
Magnitude is the terminal is the one of the matching parameter during synchronization. The magnitude can be varied by varying the excitation of the
generator. Low magnitude means low excitation high magnitude means high excitation. This magnitude difference two power system should be in safe
limits for a perfect synchronization. If the incoming voltage is higher compared to running voltage then there will be high reactive flow from the
generator which can damage the generator shaft and high mechanical forces on stator winding. If the incoming voltage magnitude is lower that
implicates weak excitation field. Once the machine synchronized due to this less excitation there will high reverse current from stator to rotor which
produces a double rotor current in the rotor windings. If this currents are high then there will serious damage to the windings. There is possibility of slip
protection operation during this condition which may interrupt the power generation. In a summarized way effect of poor voltage magnitude matching
during synchronization are as follows:
1. Due to high incoming voltage magnitude, high reactive power will flow through the generator which gives high mechanical shock to the stator and rotor
shaft.
2. Due to low incoming voltage magnitude results in weak magnetic flux which may cause reverse current and slip protection of the generator.
SHIPBOARD HIGH VOLTAGE APPLICATION and SAFETIES

High Voltage in Ships

We all know about the voltages used on board a ship. It is usually a 3phase, 60Hz, 440 Volts supply being generated and distributed on board.

Every day the owners and designers aim for bigger ships for more profitability. As the ship size increases, there is a need to install more powerful engines and other
machineries.

This increase in size of machineries and other equipment demands more electrical power and thus it is required to use higher voltages on board a ship.

Any Voltage used on board a ship if less than 1kV

(1000 V) then it is called as LV (Low Voltage) system and any voltage above 1kV is termed as High Voltage.
Typical Marine HV systems operate usually at 3.3kV or 6.6kV. Passenger Liners like QE2 operate at 10kV.

Defination of HV:
The numerical definition of high voltage depends on context. Two factors considered in classifying a voltage as “high voltage” are the possibility of causing a spark in
air, and the danger of electric shock by contact or proximity. The definitions may refer to the voltage between two conductors of a system, or between any
conductor and ground.
In electric power transmission engineering, HIGH VOLTAGE is usually considered any voltage over approximately 33,000 volts. This classification is based on the
design of apparatus and insulation.
The International Electro technical Commission and its national counterparts (IET, IEEE, VDE, etc.) define high voltage as above 1000 V for alternating current, and at
least 1500 V for direct current—and distinguish it from low voltage (50–1000 V AC or 120–1500 V DC) and extra-low voltage (<50 V AC or <120 V DC) circuits. This is
in the context of building wiring and the safety of electrical apparatus.
– In the United States 2005 National Electrical Code (NEC), high voltage is any voltage over 600 V (article 490.2).
– British Standard BS 7671:2008 defines high voltage as any voltage difference between conductors that is higher than 1000 V AC or 1500 V ripple-free DC, or any
voltage difference between a conductor and Earth that is higher than 600 V AC or 900 V ripple-free DC.
WHAT IS CLASSED AS HIGH VOLTAGE?
In marine practice,
– voltages below 1,000Vac (1kV) are considered low voltage, and
– high voltage is any voltage above 1kV. Typical marine high voltage system voltages are 3.3kV, 6.6kV and 11kV.

THE MAJOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HIGH VOLTAGE SUPPLY AND LOW VOLTAGE SUPPLY ON BOARD SHIPS ARE:
1. High voltage systems are more extensive with complex networks and connections,
2. Isolated equipment MUST BE earthed down
3. Access to high voltage areas should be strictly limited and controlled
4. Isolation procedures are more involved
5. Switching strategies should be formulated and recorded
6. Specific high voltage test probes and instruments must be used
7. Diagnostic insulation resistance testing is necessary
8. High voltage systems are usually earthed neutral and use current limiting resistors
9. Special high voltage circuit breakers have to be installed

Why High Voltage in Ships?

– Higher power requirements on board vessels is the foremost reason for the evolution of HV in ships.
– Higher power requirements have been necessitated by development of larger vessels required for container transport particularly reefer containers.
– Gas carriers needing extensive cargo cooling Electrical Propulsion.
– For ships with a large electrical power demand it is necessary to utilise the benefits of a high voltage (HV) installation.

– The design benefits relate to the simple ohms law relationship that current (for a given power) is reduced as the voltage is increased. Working at high voltage
significantly reduces the relative overall size and weight of electrical power equipment.

AS PER OHMS LAW

POWER = VOLTAGE x CURRENT
For a given Power,
Higher the Voltage, Lesser is the Current
440 KW = 440,000 Watts
= 440 Volts x 1000 Amps
=1100 Volts x 400 Amps
=11000 Volts x 40 Amps
– When large loads are connected to the LV system the magnitude of current flow becomes too large resulting in overheating due to high iron and copper losses.
P = VI CosФ
Copper loss =I² R [kW]
HV levels of 3.3 kV, 6.6 kV and 11 kV are regularly employed ashore for regional power distribution and industrial motor drives.

For example, a motor (let us assume a bow thruster), may be of a smaller size if it designed to operate on 6600 Volts.
For the same power, the motor would be of a smaller size if it is designed for 6600Volts when compared to 440Volts.

Thus these are the major reasons why recent ships have shifted towards high voltage systems.

The main disadvantage perceived by the user /maintainer, when working in an HV installation, is the very necessary adherence to stringent safety procedures.
Advantages/Disadvantages of using HV Advantages:

Advantages:
For a given power, Higher voltage means Lower current, resulting in:
– Reduction in size of generators, motors, cables etc.
– Saving of Space and weight
– Ease of Installation
– Reduction in cost of Installation
– Lower losses – more efficient utilization of generated power
– Reduction in short circuit levels in the system which decides the design and application of the electrical equipment used in the power system.

Disadvantages:
1. Higher Insulation Requirements for cables and equipment used in the system.
2. Higher risk factor and the necessity for strict adherence to stringent safety procedures.

Marine Electrical System

 – Some installations may feed the ships sub stations directly with HV and step- down to 440 V locally.

– The PEM drives in this example are synchronous motors which require a controlled low voltage excitation supply current to magnetise the rotor poles.
– This supply is obtained from the HV switchboard via a step-down transformer but an alternative arrangement would be to obtain the excitation supply from the
440 V ER sub switchboard.

 Hazardous Electrical Voltage Training ChecklistThe training requirements below apply to all employees who face a risk of electrical shock that is not reduced to a
safe level by electrical installation requirements and
who must work on or near energized components.
All Qualified High Voltage Electrical Workers who work on high voltage equipment (> 600 volts) are required
to be trained on safety-related work practices that pertain to their jobs and in the following topics below:

The skills and techniques necessary to distinguish exposed live parts from other parts of electrical equipment.
• The skills and techniques necessary to determine the nominal voltage of exposed live parts.

 The clearance distances and the corresponding voltage to which the Qualified Person will be exposed.
• Safely de-energizing of parts and subsequent electrical lockout and tagging procedures as required by the electrical standard.
• Proper precautionary work techniques.
• Proper use of PPE to include non-conductive gloves, aprons, head protection, safety glasses, and face shields.
 Proper selection and use of rated test instruments and equipment, including the capability to visually inspect all parts of the test equipment for defects.
• Use of insulating and shielding materials for employee protection to include auxiliary shields, guards, mats, or other specific equipment.
• Proper use of insulated tools or other non-conductive devices such as fuse pullers, fish tapes, hot sticks, ropes, or handlines.
• The importance of illumination and to work only in properly illuminated areas.
 Proper work techniques for work in enclosed or confined work spaces.
• Removal or special handing of any conductive materials and equipment.
• Proper and safe use of portable ladders around electrical equipment.
• Removal of any conductive jewelry or apparel.
• Proper alerting techniques such as using safety signs and tags, barricades,attendants, and work practices.
• Any other safety related work practice not listed above but necessary for them to safely do their job

 Electric Shock:
Voltages greater than 50 v applied across dry unbroken human skin can cause heart fibrillation if they produce electric currents in body tissues that happen to pass
through the chest area.
Accidental contact with high voltage supplying sufficient energy may result in severe injury or death. This can occur as a person’s body provides a path for current
flow, causing tissue damage and heart failure. Other injuries can include burns from the arc generated by the accidental contact. These burns can be especially
dangerous if the victim’s airways are affected.

Hazards of High Voltage

Arcing:
An unintentional electric arc occurs during opening of a breaker, contactor or switch, when the circuit tries to maintain itself in the form of an arc.
During an insulation failure, when current flows to ground or any other short circuit path in the form of accidental tool slipping between conducting surfaces,
causing a short circuit.
Results of an electric arc:
Temperatures at the arc terminals can reach or exceed 35,000° f or 20,000˚c or four times the temperature of sun’s surface. The heat and intense light at the point
of arc is called the arc flash.
Air surrounding the arc is instantly heated and the conductors are vaporised causing a pressure wave termed as ARC BLAST.

Hazards of an Arc Flash:

– During an arc flash, sudden release of large amounts of heat and light energy takes place at the point of arc.
– Exposure frequently results in a variety of serious injuries and may even be fatal, even when the worker is ten feet or more from the arc center.
– Equipments can suffer permanent damage.
– Nearby inflammable materials may be ignited resulting in secondary fires.
Hazards of Arc Blasts & ejected materials:
– An arc flash may be accompanied by an arc blast
– The arc blast causes equipment to literally explode ejecting parts with life threatening force. – Heated and vaporised conducting materials surrounding the arc
expand rapidly causing effects comparable to an explosive charge.
– They may project molten particles causing eye injuries. The sound that ensues can harm the hearing.

 Potential injuries:
– At some distance from the arc, temperatures are often high enough to instantly destroy skin and tissue. Skin temperatures above 100˚C ( about 210˚F) for 0.1sec
result in irreversible tissue damage, defined as an incurable burn.
– Heated air and molten materials from arc faults cause ordinary clothing to burst into flames even if not directly in contact with the arc. Synthetic fibers may melt
 and adhere to the skin resulting in secondary burns.
– Even when safety goggles are worn, arc flash may cause severe damage to vision and or blindness. Intense UV light created by arc flash can damage the retina.
Pressure created from arc blasts can also compress the eye, severely damaging vision.
– Hearing can also be affected by the loud noise and extreme pressure changes created by arc blasts. Sound blasts with arc blasts exceed 140dB which is equal to an
airplane taking off. Sudden pressure changes exceeding 720lbs/sq.ft for 400ms can also rupture eardrums. Even at lesser pressure, serious or permanent damage to
hearing may occur.


Short Circuit
A short circuit ( or a fault ) is said to have taken place when the current is not confined to its normal path of flow but diverted through alternate path(s).

– During short circuit, the current rises much above the normal value.
– Short circuit level is the maximum possible current that flows at the point of fault during a short circuit.

Effects of short circuit:

High currents during Short circuits can cause damage to electrical installation by giving rise to excessive
Thermal Stresses, Mechanical Stresses , Arcing.

Methods adopted to prevent effects of short circuit in a system:

– A well-designed Protective Relay system trips out a breaker(s) and isolates the faulty circuit from the power source within a short time to prevent/minimise
effects of high short circuit current, as and when it occurs.
– The equipment in the system, the cables, the switchgear, the busbar, the generators are designed to withstand the effects of short circuit during that short period.

Calculation of the short circuit levels in the system is therefore required to help in:
a. Designing an appropriate Protective Relay System
b. Choosing the right switchgear with suitable short circuit withstand capacity to be used in the system.
HIGH VOLTAGE SAFETY AND PRECAUTIONS

Making personal contact with any electric voltage is potentially dangerous. At high voltage (>1000 V) levels the electric shock potential is lethal. Body resistance
decreases with increased voltage level which enhances the current flow. Remember that an electric shock current as low as 15 mA can be fatal. So,the risk to people
working in HV areas is greatly minimised by the diligent application of sensible general and company safety regulations and procedures.
Personnel who are required to routinely test and maintain HV equipment should be trained in the necessary practical safety procedures and certified as qualified for
this duty.
Approved safety clothing, footwear, eye protection and hard hat should be used where danger may arise from arcs, hot surfaces and high voltage etc.
Safety equipment should be used by electrical workers includes insulated rubber gloves and mats. These protect the user from electric shock.
Safety equipment is tested regularly to ensure it is still protecting the user. Testing companies can test at up 300,000 volts and offer services from glove testing to
Elevated Working Platform or EWP Truck testing.
A insulated material or rubber mat can be used as a dead front of all electrical installations and equipments.
The access to HV switchboards and equipment must be strictly controlled by using a permit-to-work scheme and isolation procedures together with live-line tests
and earthing-down before any work is started. The electrical permit requirements and procedures are similar to permits used to control access in any hot-work
situation, e.g. welding, cutting, burning etc. in a potentially hazardous area.

HIGH VOLTAGE SAFETY RULES AND PROCEDURES

All safety rules presented in this document are intended to ensure safe working conditions while working with potentially dangerous voltages. It is assumed that all
personnel working with potentially dangerous voltages have been trained in basic electrical safety procedures.
1. This guidance does not apply where equipment has been isolated, discharged, disconnected and removed from the system or installation.
2. Equipment that is considered by an Authorised Person (HV) to be in a dangerous condition should be isolated elsewhere and action taken to prevent
it from being reconnected to the electricity supply.
3. All working on, or testing of, high voltage equipment connected to a system should be authorised by a permit-to-work or a sanction-for- test following
the procedures as described in Practical Exercises no. 4
4. No hand or tool (unless the tool has been designed for the purpose) must make contact with any high voltage conductor unless that conductor has
been confirmed dead by an Authorised Person (HV) in the presence of the Competent Person (HV).
5. Where any work or test requires an Accompanying Safety Person (HV) to be present, he/she should be appointed before that work or testing can
begin.
6. Voltage test indicators should be tested immediately before and after use against a test supply designed for the purpose.
7. Where the procedures involve the application of circuit main earths, the unauthorised removal of such earths should be prevented, wherever
practicable, by the application of safety locks.
8. Where the procedures involve the removal of circuit main earths, that is, testing under a sanction-for-test, the earths will be secured with working
locks. The keys to these locks will be
retained by the Duty Authorised Person (HV), who will remove and replace the earths as requested.

Precaution prior to live voltage and phasing checks:

1. Where live phasing is to be undertaken, the area containing exposed live conductors should be regarded as a high voltage test enclosure.
2. Approved equipment used for live voltage and phasing checking at high voltage should be tested immediately before and after use against a high voltage test
supply.
3. Live voltage and phase checking on high voltage equipment may only be undertaken by a Authorised Person (HV), with assistance if necessary from a Competent
Person (HV)
acting on verbal instructions from the Authorised Person (HV). Neither a permit-to-work nor a sanction-for-test is required, but the Authorised Person (HV) and any
assistant should
be accompanied by an Accompanying Safety Person
(HV).

Testing at high voltage:

1. Where high voltage tests are to be undertaken, a sanction-for-test should be issued to the Competent Person (HV) who is to be present throughout the duration
of the tests.
2. The areas containing exposed live conductors, test equipment and any high voltage test connection should be regarded as high voltage enclosures.
 High voltage test enclosures:
1. Unauthorised access to a high voltage test enclosure should be prevented by, as a minimum, red and white striped tape not less than 25 mm wide, suspended on
posts, and by the display of high voltage danger signs. An Accompanying Safety Person (HV) or the Duty Authorised Person (HV) should be present throughout the
duration of the tests, and the area should be continually watched while testing is in progress.

Work on busbar spouts of multi-panel switchboards

When work is to be carried out on busbar spouts, the following operations should be carried out in strict sequence:

a. the Authorised Person (HV) should record

the details of necessary safety precautions and switching operations on a safety programme and produce an isolation and earthing diagram;
b. the section of the busbar spouts on which work is to be carried out must be isolated from all points of supply from which it can be made live;
c. the isolating arrangements should be locked so that they cannot be operated, and shutters of live spouts locked shut. Caution signs should be fixed to the
isolating points;
d. where applicable, danger signs should be attached on or adjacent to the live electrical equipment at the limits of the zone in which work is to be carried out;

1. busbars should be checked by means of an approved voltage indicator to verify that they are dead, the indicator itself being tested immediately before and after
use. The checking with the voltage indicator should be done on the panel to which the circuit main earths are to be applied. This test should also be made on the
panel on which the work is carried out;
f. circuit main earths should be applied at a panel on the isolated section of the busbar other than that at which work is to be done using the method recommended
by the switchgear manufacturers. The insertion of hands or any tool into the contact spouts for this purpose is not an acceptable practice;
g. an earth connection should also be applied to all phases at the point-of-work;
h. the permit-to-work should be issued to cover the work to be done. During the course of the work, where applicable, the earth connection(s) at the point-of-work
may be removed one phase at a time. Each phase earth connection must be replaced before a second-phase earth connection is removed;
j. on completion of the work, the permit-to-work should be cancelled.
Definition of safety terms:

Definitions presented here are those deemed necessary and suitable for electrical laboratory applications present in the Electronics and Electrical Engineering
Laboratory. They should not be assumed to be directly related to definitions presented in other electrical standards or codes.
High Voltage: Any voltage exceeding 1000 V rms or 1000 V dc with current capability exceeding 2 mA ac or 3 mA dc, or for an impulse voltage generator having a
stored energy in excess of 10 mJ. These current and energy levels are slightly below the startle response threshold.
Moderate Voltage: Any voltage exceeding 120 V rms (nominal power line voltage) or 120 V dc, but not exceeding 1000 V (rms or dc), with a current capability
exceeding 2 mA ac or 3 mA dc.
Temporary Setups: Systems set up for measurements over a time period not exceeding three months.
Test Area: Area in which moderate voltages are accessible, and which has been clearly delineated by fences, ropes, and barriers.
Troubleshooting: Procedure during which energized bare connectors at moderate or high voltages might be temporarily exposed for the purpose of repair or
problem diagnosis.
Inter lock: A safety circuit designed to prevent energizing high- or moderate-voltage power supplies until all access doors are closed, and to immediately de-
energize such power supplies if the door is opened. Note that this function does not necessarily ensure full discharge of stored energy.
Bare Conductor: A conductor having no covering or electrical insulation whatsoever.
Covered Conductor : A conductor enclosed within a material of composition or thickness not defined as electrical insulation .
Insulated Conductor: A conductor encased within material of composition and thickness defined as electrical insulation.
Exposed Conductor: Capable of being inadvertently touched or approached nearer than a safe distance by a person. It applies to parts that are not suitably
guarded, isolated, or insulated.
Unattended Operation: The operation of a permanent setup for electrical measurements for a time period longer than can be reasonably attended by staff.
Enclosed: Surrounded by a case, housing, fence or wall(s) that prevents persons from accidentally contacting energized parts.
Temporary Setups

When troubleshooting a setup with exposed or bare conductors at high or moderate voltages, it may be necessary to temporarily bypass safety interlocks. Such
procedures may only be performed under two-person operating conditions.
In instances where troubleshooting a system or particular equipment becomes frequent (at least once every six months) Group Leader approval is required. In all
cases two staff members must be present when high voltage is energized and the interlock(s) bypassed. When troubleshooting a single piece of equipment in such a
way that personnel may have access to high or moderate voltage (for example, repairing an instrument), two persons should be present.
The “keep one hand in the pocket” rule is strongly encouraged.

Signs and Warning Lights

DANGER HIGH VOLTAGE signs must be on display on all entrances to all test areas where bare conductors are present at both moderate and high voltages. These
signs should be in the vicinity of the test area and on the outside of the door leading to the laboratory area.
A warning light, preferably flashing, must be on when high or moderate voltages are present, and ideally should be activated by the energizing of the apparatus. The
warning light must be clearly visible from the area surrounding the test area. In special cases where such a light interferes with an experiment, it can be omitted
with special permission from the Group Leader and Division Chief.
In all cases where there is direct access from the outside hallway to the area where high or moderate voltages are present, a warning light, DANGER HIGH
VOLTAGE sign, a safety interlock (for high voltages) and a locked door are required.
For unattended setups with bare conductors at high or moderate voltage, a warning sign with the names of two contact persons and the dates of unattended
operation must be posted on the door leading to the high-voltage area. In addition, written notice of unattended testing of high or moderate voltage with bare
conductors must be sent to the NIST Fire Department (in Gaithersburg) or to the Engineering, Safety, and Support Division (in Boulder) clearly stating the
anticipated dates of operation. A warning light on or near the door to the laboratory must be illuminated when high or moderate voltages with bare conductors are
present.
Grounding Stick

Before touching a high-voltage circuit or before leaving it unattended and exposed, it must be de-energized and grounded with a grounding stick. The grounding
stick must be left on the high-voltage terminal until the circuit is about to be re-energized. Grounding sticks must be available near entrances to high-voltage areas.
Automatic grounding arrangements or systems that employ audible warning tones to remind personnel to ground the high-voltage equipment are strongly
encouraged for two-person operation, and are mandatory for one-person or unattended operation.
For systems with bare conductors at moderate voltages, the use of a grounding stick is strongly recommended, particularly if the setup contains energy-storage
devices.
Modes of Operation
Two-person: Two-person operation is the normal mode of operation where high or moderated voltages are present. Allowed exceptions are:
When all potentially dangerous voltages are confined inside a grounded or insulated box, or where the voltages are constrained in a shielded cable, or where the is
no access to bare conductors
When one-person or unattended operation setups have been designed and approved according to the rules set out in this document and with appropriate
approval.
It is presumed that both individuals participating in two-person operation will follow basic high-voltage safety procedures and will monitor each other’s actions to
ensure safe behavior.

One-person: One-person operation of systems using high and moderate voltages with bare or exposed conductors, may be approved, after appropriate review and
authorization, in order to provide for the efficient use of staff for long-term applications where it is judged that safety would not be compromised.
 Unattended: It is recognized that in order to run efficient calibration services and maintain appropriate delivery schedules, unattended operation of systems using
high and moderate voltages may be necessary. In such cases, unattended operation is permitted.
with appropriate review and authorization, for systems having no bare or exposed conductors, and where required warning signs, lights, and barriers are present.

Unattended operation of setups with bare or exposed conductors at high and moderate voltages may be necessary under special circumstances, such as for
unusually long data- acquisition periods. This is meant to be a rare occurrence. Should this mode of operation be frequently employed, then the apparatus should
be modified to enclose all potentially dangerous voltages.

Circuit Breakers & Disconnects

Circuit breakers, disconnects or contactors used to energize a high-voltage source must be left in an open position when the supply is not in use. Laboratories
should always be left in a configuration that at least two switches must be used to energize high-voltage circuits. Whenever possible a “return-to-zero-before
energizing” interlock should be incorporated into the high-voltage supply.
Proper Circuit Design Recommendations
– Draw the circuit and study it before wiring it for operation at high voltage.
– Make sure all devices that require grounding are securely grounded.
– Allow adequate clearances between high-voltage terminals and ground.
– Solicit a second opinion before operation for the first time.

Transformers and Variacs:

– Make certain that one terminal of each transformer winding used to provide a separately derived system (this excludes the winding connected to the power
supply) as well as the transformer or Variac case are properly grounded.
– The common terminal of a Variac should be connected to the supply neutral.
– Cascade transformers and, in some cases, isolation transformers are exceptions.

 General Information PERMIT-T0-WORK:– Issued by an authorised person to a responsible person who will perform the task of repair/maintenance.
– Generally valid only for 24-Hrs. Permit to be re-validated by the permit-holder if work extends beyond 24 Hrs. after issue Formats will vary and be customized for
a particular vessel/marine installation.
Permit To Work- BROAD GUIDELINES:

Prepared in duplicate copy and has at least five sections:

– 1st section states the nature of work to be carried out.
– 2nd section declares where electrical isolation and earthing have been applied and where Danger /Caution notices have been displayed.
– 3rd section is signed by the Person receiving the Permit acknowledging that he is satisfied with the safety precautions taken and the Isolation/ Earthing measures
adopted.
– 4th section is signed by the Permit-holder that the work has been completed/suspended.
– 5th Section is signed by the Issuing authority cancelling the Permit.

High Voltage Safety and Precautions

For the purposes of safety, HV equipment includes the LV field system for a propulsion motor as it is an integrated part of the overall HV equipment. From the HV
generators, the network supplies HV motors (for propulsion, side thrusters and air conditioning compressors) and the main transformer feeders to the 440 V
switchboard. Further distribution links are made to interconnect with the emergency switchboard.
HV Circuit breakers and contactors

Probably the main difference between a HV and an LV system occurs at the HV main switchboard. For HV, the circuit breaker types may be air-break, oil-break, gas-
break using SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride) or vacuum-break. Of these types, the most popular and reliable are the vacuum interrupters, which may also be used as
contactors in HV motor starters.

Each phase of a vacuum circuit breaker or contactor consists of a fixed and moving contact within a sealed, evacuated envelope of borosilicate glass. The moving
contact is operated via flexible metal bellows by a charging motor/spring or solenoid operating mechanism. The high electric strength of a vacuum allows a very
short contact separation, and a rapid restrike-free interruption of the arc is achieved.

When an alternating current is interrupted by the separating contacts, an arc is formed by a metal vapour from the material on the contact surfaces and this
continues to flow until a current zero is approached in the a.c. wave form. At this instant the arc is replaced by a region of high dielectric strength which is capable
of withstanding a high recovery voltage. Most of the metal vapour condenses back on to the contacts and is available for subsequent arcing. A small amount is
deposited on the shield placed around the contacts which protects the insulation of the enclosure. As the arcing period is very short (typically about 15 ms), the arc
energy is very much lower than that in air-break circuit-breakers so vacuum contacts suffer considerably less wear.

Because of its very short contact travel a vacuum interrupter has the following advantages:

– compact quiet unit

– minimum maintenance

– non-flammable and non-toxic

– The life of the unit is governed by contact erosion but could be up to 20 years.

In the gas-type circuit breaker, the contacts are separated in an SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride) gas which is typically at a sealed pressure chamber at 500 kPa or 5 bar
(when tested at 20° C).

HV Insulation Requirements
The HV winding arrangements for generators, transformers and motors are similar to those at LV except for the need for better insulating materials such as
Micalastic or similar.

The HV windings for transformers are generally insulated with an epoxy resin/powdered quartz compound. This is a non-hazardous material which is maintenance
free, humidity resistant and tropicalised.

Conductor insulation for an HV cable requires a more complicated design than is necessary for an LV type. However, less copper area is required for HV conductors
which allows a significant saving in space and weight for an easier cable installation. Where the insulation is air (e.g. between bare-metal live parts and earth within
switchboards and in terminal boxes) greater clearance and creepage distances are necessary in HV equipment.

INSULATION RESISTANCE TESTS OF HV EQUIPMENT:

– A 5000 Vdc Megger, Hand-cranking or Electronic can be used for equipments upto 6.6KV.

– For routine testing of IR, 5000 Vdc must be applied for 1 minute either by cranking at constant speed with a Hand-cranking megger or by maintaining a 5000 Vdc
continuously by a PB in an Electronic Megger.

IR values taken at different temperatures are unreliable, particularly if the temperature differences are more than 10°C.
SAFETIES OF IR TEST TO HV EQUIPMENTS

1. Before applying an IR test to HV equipment its power supply must be switched off, isolated, confirmed dead by an approved live-line tester and then earthed for
complete safety.
2. The correct procedure is to connect the IR tester to the circuit under test with the safety earth connection ON. The safety earth may be applied through a switch
connection at the supply circuit breaker or by a temporary earth connection local to the test point. This is to ensure that the operator never touches a unearthed
conductor.
3. With the IR tester now connected, the safety earth is disconnected (using an insulated extension tool for the temporary earth). Now the IR test is applied and
recorded. The safety earth is now reconnected before the IR tester is disconnected.
This safety routine must be applied for each separate IR test.

At prescribed intervals and particularly after a major repair work on an equipment or switchgear, a Polarisation Index(PI) may be taken to assess the condition of
insulation of the equipment. PI readings are less sensitive to temperature changes.

POLARISATION INDEX ( PI ):

When the routine IR value tests (taken at different temperatures) are doubtful or during annual refit or after major repairs are undertaken, a PI test is conducted.

– PI value is the ratio between the IR value recorded after application of the test voltage continuously for 10 minutes to the value recorded after 1 minute of
application.
– PI value= 2.0 or more is considered satisfactory.

A motor-driven megger is essential for carrying out a PI test.

High Voltage Equipment Testing

The high voltage (e.g. 6.6 kV) installation covers the generation, main supply cables, switchgear, transformers, electric propulsion (if fitted) and a few large motors
e.g. for side-thrusters and air conditioning compressors. For all electrical equipment the key indicator to its safety and general condition is its insulation resistance
(IR) and this is particularly so for HV apparatus. The IR must be tested periodically between phases and between phases and earth. HV equipment that is well
designed and maintained, operated within its power and temperature ratings should have a useful insulation life of 20 years.

Large currents flowing through machine windings, cables, bus-bars and main circuit breaker contacts will cause a temperature rise due to I2R resistive heating.
Where overheating is suspected, e.g. at a bolted bus-bar joint in the main switchboard, the local continuity resistance may be measured and checked against the
manufacturers recommendations or compared with similar equipment that is known to be satisfactory.
A normal ohmmeter is not suitable as it will only drive a few mA through the test circuit. A special low resistance tester or micro-ohmmeter (traditionally called a
ducter) must be used which drives a calibrated current (usually I = 10 A) through the circuit while measuring the volt-drop (V) across the circuit. The meter
calculates R from V/I and displays the test result. For a healthy bus-bar joint a continuity of a few mΩ would be expected.

Normally the safe testing of HV equipment requires that it is disconnected from its power supply. Unfortunately, it is very difficult, impossible and unsafe to closely
observe the on-load operation of internal components within HV enclosures. This is partly resolved by temperature measurement with an recording infra-red
camera from a safe distance. The camera is used to scan an area and the recorded infra-red image is then processed by a computer program to display hot-spots
and a thermal profile across the equipment.

Safety testing of HV equipment:

Normally the safe testing of HV equipment requires that it is disconnected from its power supply. Unfortunately, it is very difficult, impossible and unsafe to closely
observe the on-load operation of internal components within HV enclosures. This is partly resolved by temperature measurement with an recording infra-red
camera from a safe distance. The camera is used to scan an area and the recorded infra-red image is then processed by a computer program to display hot-spots
and a thermal profile across the equipment.

SANCTION-FOR-TEST SYSTEM
– following work on a high voltage system, it is often necessary to perform various tests. testing should only be carried out after the circuit main earth (CME) has
been removed.
– a sanction-for-test declaration should be issued in an identical manner to a permit to work provided and it should not be issued on any apparatus where a permit
to work or where another sanction-fortest is in force.
Note That:
A sanction-for-test is not a permit to work.
An example of a sanction-for-test declaration is shown in the code of safe working practices (COSWP) 2010 edition annex 16.2.1.
Additional Procedures Needed for HV systems
Limitation of access form
When carrying out high voltage maintenance, it may be dangerous to allow anyone to work adjacent to high voltage equipment, as workers may not be familiar
with the risks involved when working on or nearby high voltage equipment. The limitation of access form states the type of work that is allowed near high voltage
equipment and safety precautions. the form is issued and signed by the chief engineer AND electrical officer, and countersigned by the persons carrying out
the work.

Additional Procedures Needed for HV systems

Earthing Down

Earthing down is a very important concept to understand when

working with high voltage systems. It is important to ensure that any stored electrical energy in equipment insulation after isolation is safely discharged to earth.
the higher levels of insulation resistance required on high voltage cabling leads to higher values of insulation capacitance (c) and greater stored energy (w). this is
demonstrated by the electrical formula:
energy stored joules = (capacitance x voltage²)/2

Earthing down ensures that isolated equipment remains safe. Additional Procedures Needed for HV systems

There are two types of earthing down a high voltage switchboard:

1. CIRCUIT EARTHING
– an incoming or outgoing feeder cable is connected by a heavy earth connection from earth to all three
conductors after the circuit breaker has been racked out. This is done at the circuit breaker using a special key. This key is then locked in the key safe. The circuit
breaker cannot be racked in until the circuit earth has been removed.
2. BUSBAR EARTHING
– when it is necessary to work on a section of the
busbars, they must be completely isolated from all possible electrical sources. This will include generator incoming cables, section or bus-tie breakers, and
transformers on that busbar section. The busbars are connected together and earthed down using portable leads, which give visible confirmation of the earthing
arrangement.

High voltage safety checklists for the following can be found in onboard “Company Safety Manual” and sample can be found in the “Code of Safe working Practices
for Merchant Seaman (COSWP)” 2010 edition:
• working on high voltage equipment/installations
• switchgear operation
• withdrawn apparatus not being used
• locking off
• insulation testing
• supply failure
• entry to high voltage enclosures
• earthing
• working on high voltage cables
• working on transformers
• safety signs
• correct personal protective equipment

Personnel should not work on High Voltage equipment unless it is dead, isolated and earthed at all high voltage disconnection points. The area should be secured,
permits to work or sanction for test notices issued, access should be limited and only competent personnel should witness the testing to prove isolation.
Work Procedures in High Voltage
Working procedures are divided in to three distinct groups.
1. Dead working
2. Live working
3. Working in the vicinity of live parts

Dead Working:
Work activity on electrical installations which are neither live nor charged, carried out after taking all measures to prevent electrical danger.

Precautions before starting work

– Obtain PTW/Sanction- to-Test Permit before commencing work
 – Test and prove that the equipment is DEAD before earthing. (with a HV line tester)
– Earth the equipment

Working in the vicinity of live parts:

– All work activity in which the worker enters the vicinity of live zone with his body or with tools and equipment without encroaching in to live zone.

– Using the correct personal protective equipment (PPE) and following safe work practices will minimize risk of electrical shock hazards

HIGH VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT

A typical high voltage installation will incorporate only high voltage rated equipment on the following:
1. Generating sets
2. High voltage switchboards with associated switchgear, protection devices and instrumentation
high voltage cables
3. high voltage/low voltage step-down transformers to service low voltage consumers
4. high voltage/high voltage (typically 6.6kV/2.9kV) step-down transformers supplying propulsion converters and motors
5. high voltage motors for propulsion, thrusters, air conditioning and compressors

A high voltage electrical shock is a significant danger to any person carrying out electrical work. Any simultaneous contact with a part of the body and a live
conductor will probably result in a fatal electric shock. There is also a risk of severe burn injuries from arcing if conductors are accidentally short-circuited.
A high voltage electric shock will almost certainly lead to severe injury or a fatality.
Factors that could increase the risk of receiving an electric shock:
1. High voltage work may be carried out close to a person that is not familiar with high voltage hazards. therefore, the area must be secured from the surrounding
non-electrical work and danger notices posted.
2. Areas of earthed metal that can be easily touched increase the possibility of electric shock from a high voltage conductor.

Dangers Working With High Voltage Equipment’s

3. High voltage insulation testing (flash testing) can be particularly hazardous when several parts of the equipment are energised for a period of time.
4. Equipment using water as part of the high voltage plant can lead to an increased risk of injury.
5. Using test instruments when taking high voltage measurements can increase the risk of injury if the protective earth conductor is not connected. This can result in
the enclosure of the instrument becoming live at dangerous voltages.
6. High voltage equipment will store energy after disconnection. for example, on a 6.6kv switchboard, a fatal residual capacitive charge may still be present hours or
even days later.
7. if, during maintenance, a high voltage circuit main earth is removed from the system, it must not be worked on as the high voltage cabling can recharge itself to a
high voltage (3–5kv).

Dangers Working with High Voltage Equipment’s

TRANSFORMER TESTING & MAINTENANCE

What is a transformer?

Transformer is a static device which transforms a.c. electrical power from one voltage to another voltage keeping the frequency same by electromagnetic induction.

Main features of transformer:

Outdoor, oil cooled, 3 phase, 50hz

Primary is delta connected and secondary is star connected.

Naturally cooled

Amongst all the types of transformers this is the most required and most used type.
 Parts of transformer:
 MAIN TANK
 RADIATORS
 CONSERVATOR
 EXPLOSION VENT
 LIFTING LUGS
 AIR RELEASE PLUG
 OIL LEVEL INDICATOR
 TAP CHANGER
 WHEELS
 HV/LV BUSHINGS
 FILTER VALVES
 OIL FILLING PLUG
 DRAIN PLUG
 CABLE BOX

TESTING OF TRANSFORMER:
 Testing is carried out as per PMS or Company checklist.
 Routine , type tests & special tests
 Routine tests ( to be carried out on each job):
1. Measurement of winding resistance
2. Measurement of insulation resistance
3. Separate source voltage withstand test
(high voltage tests on HV & LV)

4. Induced over voltage withstand test (dvdf test)

5. Measurement of voltage ratio

6. Measurement of no load loss & current.

 7. Measurement of load loss & impedence.(efficiency & regulation)

8. Vector group verification

9. Oil bdv test.

10.Tests on oltc (if attached)

MAINTENANCE OF TRANSFORMER
– Transformer is the heart of any power system. Hence preventive maintenance is always cost effective and time saving. Any failure to the transformer can
extremely affect the whole functioning of the organization.

MAINTENANCE PROCEDURE
OIL:

1. Oil level checking. Leakages to be attended.

2. Oil BDV & acidity checking at regular intervals. If acidity is between 0.5 to 1mg KOH, oil should be kept under observation.
3. BDV, Colour and smell of oil are indicative.
4. Sludge, dust, dirt, moisture can be removed by filtration.
5. Oil when topped up shall be of the same make. It may lead to sludge formation and acidic contents.
6. Insulation resistance of the transformer should be checked once in 6 months.
7. Megger values along with oil values indicate the condition of transformer.
8. Periodic Dissolved Gas Analysis can be carried out.

MAINTENANCE BUSHINGS
1. Bushings should be cleaned and inspected for any cracks.
2. Dust & dirt deposition, Salt or chemical deposition, cement or acid fumes depositions should be carefully noted and rectified.

MAINTENANCE
1. Periodic checking of any loose connections of the terminations of HV & LV side.
2. Breather examination. Dehydration of Silica gel if necessary.
3. Explosion vent diaphragm examination.
4. Conservator to be cleaned from inside after every three years.
5. Regular inspection of OIL & WINDING TEMPERATURE METER readings.
6. Cleanliness in the Substation yard with all nets, vines, shrubs removed.

W O R K O N D I S T R I B UT I O N T R A N S F O R M E R S
When work is to be carried out on the connections to, or the windings of, a distribution transformer:

a. the Authorised Person (HV) should record

the details of necessary safety precautions and switching operations on a safety programme, and produce an isolation and earthing diagram;
b. the switchgear or fuse gear controlling the high voltage windings should be switched off, and a safety lock and caution sign fitted;
c. the low voltage windings of the transformer switch or isolator should be switched off, and a safety lock and caution sign fitted, or other physical means should be
used to prevent the switch being energised during the course of work;
d. where applicable, danger signs should be attached on or adjacent to the live electrical equipment at the limits of the zone in which work is to be carried out;
e. the transformer should be proved dead at the points-of-isolation if practicable;
f. an earth should then be applied to the high voltage winding via the switchgear and a safety lock fitted. If the proprietary earthing gear is available for the low
voltage switchgear, it should be fitted and safety locks applied (it is advisable to retest for dead before fitting this earthing gear);
g. before a permit-to-work is issued – the Authorised Person (HV) should, at the point- of-work in the presence of the Competent
Person (HV), identify and mark the transformer to be worked on. The permit-to-work and the key to the key safe should then be issued to the Competent Person
(HV);

PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS
1. The best way of protecting a transformer is to have good preventive maintenance schedule.
2. Oil Temperature Indicators.
3. Winding Temperature indicators.
4. Buchholz Relay.
5. Magnetic Oil level Gauge.
6. Explosion Vent.
7. HT fuse & D.O. fuse.
8. LT circuit breaker.
9. HT Circuit breaker with Over load, Earth Fault relay tripping.
10. Oil Surge Relay for OLTC.
11. PRV for OLTC.
12. HORN GAPS & Lightening Arrestor.
13. Breather.

FAILURES & CAUSES

 Insufficient Oil level.
 Seepage of water in oil.
 Prolonged Over loading.
 Single Phase loading.
 Unbalanced loading.
 Faulty Termination (Improper sized lugs etc)
 Power Theft.
 Prolonged Short Circuit.
 Faulty operation of tap changer switch.
 Lack of installation checks.
 Faulty design
 Poor Workmanship
-Improper formation of core.

– Improper core bolt insulation.

– Burr to the lamination blades

– Improper brazing of joints.

 – Burr /sharp edges to the winding conductor.

– Incomplete drying.

– Bad insulation covering.

– Insufficient cooling ducts in the winding.

 Bad Quality of raw material.

 Transit damaged transformers.
 After failure , transformer is removed and replaced with new/repaired one without removing the cause of failure which results in immediate or short time failure.

HIGH VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE

1. MAINTENANCE OF SWITCHGEAR ENCLOSURES
2. Strictly adhere to required procedures for system switching operations. Switching, de-energizing and energizing shall be performed by authorized personnel only.
3. Install temporary grounding leads for safety.
4. Remove necessary access and coverplates.
5. Fill out inspection test form. Record data in reference to equipment.
1. Completely isolate switchgear enclosure to be tested and inspected from sources of power.
6. Mechanical Inspection:
I. Check mechanical operation of devices.
II. Check physical appearance of doors, devices, equipment and lubricate in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions.
III. Check condition of contacts.
IV. Check disconnects, starters, and circuit breakers in accordance with inspection and test reports and procedures.
V. Check condition of bussing for signs of overheating, moisture or other contamination, for proper torque, and for clearance to ground.
VI. Inspect insulators and insulating surfaces for cleanliness, cracks, chips, tracking.
VII. Report discovered unsafe conditions.
VIII. Remove drawout breakers and check drawout equipment.
IX. Check cable and wiring condition, appearance, and terminations. Perform electrical tests as required.
 X. Inspect for proper grounding of equipment.
XI. Perform breaker and switch inspection and tests
7. Cleaning:
i. Check for accumulations of dirt especially on insulating surfaces and clean interiors of compartments thoroughly using a vacuum or blower.
ii. Remove filings caused by burnishing of contacts.
iii. Do not file contacts. Minor pitting or discoloration is acceptable.
iv. Report evidence of severe arcing or burning of contacts.
v. Degrease contacts with suitable cleaners
8. Electrical Testing:
i. Check electrical operation of pilot devices, switches, meters, relays, auxiliary contacts, annunciator devices, flags, interlocks, cell switches, cubicle
lighting. Visually inspect arrestors, C/T’s and P/T’s for signs of damage. Record data on test report form.
ii. Megger test insulators to ground.
iii. Megger test bussing phase to ground, and phase to phase, using a 1000 volt megger.
iv. DC hipot phases to others and to ground using step voltage method as specified for cables with withstand levels held for not less than one minute. Record decay
curve, current versus time to completion of test, and indicate withstand level.
.
9. Electrical Testing:v. Maximum DC hipot test levels shall be as follows:
a) 25kV class 50kV DC
b) 15kV class 28.5kV DC
c) 5kV class 9kV DC
vi. Test contact resistance across bolted sections of buss bars. Record results and compare test values to previous acceptance and maintenance results and
comment on trends observed.

9. At completion of inspection and test, remove temporary grounds, restore equipment to serviceable condition and recommission equipment.

10. Compare test results to previous maintenance test results

10. MAINTENANCE OF HIGH VOLTAGE AIR/OIL CIRCUIT BREAKERS:1. Strictly adhere to required procedures for system switching operations. Switching, de-energizing
and energizing shall be performed by authorized personnel only.
2. Completely isolate circuit breakers to be worked on from power sources.
3. Install temporary grounds.
4. Remove circuit breaker from cubicle unless bolted type.
5. Record manufacturer, serial number, type and function of breaker, reading of operations counter, date of inspection, and signature of person responsible for
inspection on report sheet.

11. Mechanical Inspection:

Inspect for:
I. accumulations of dirt, especially on insulating surfaces.
II. condition of primary contact clusters.
III. condition of control wiring plug-in contacts.
IV. condition of moving and fixed main contacts, excessive heating or arcing.
V. condition of arcing contacts.
VI. cracks or indications of tracking on insulators.
VII. tracking or mechanical damage to interphase barriers.
VIII.flaking or chipping of arc chutes.
IX. broken, damaged or missing springs on operating mechanism.
X. damage to or excessive wear on operating linkage, ensure all clevis pins are securely retained in position.
Inspect for:
XI. correct alignment of operating mechanism and contacts.
XII. evidence of corrosion and rusting of metals, and deterioration of painted surfaces.

XIII. Oil breakers only:

a) Refer to manufacturer’s maintenance manual for special tools that may be required to check oil breaker contacts.
b) Check oil holding tanks in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions.
c) Check for proper oil level and condition of level gauge.
7. Cleaning:
i. Remove accumulations of dirt from insides of cubicles with vacuum cleaner and/or blower.
Ii. Clean insulating surfaces using brush or wiping with lint free cloth.8. Check fixing bolts of hardware and breaker components for tightness.
9. ‘Dress’ pitting on contact surfaces, using a burnishing tool. ‘Dress’ major arcing on contacts to smooth condition. Remove filings before switchgear is re-
energized. Report unsafe conditions resulting from severe arcing or burning of contacts.

8. On completion of foregoing tasks, lightly lubricate bearing points in operating linkage with manufacturer’s specified lubricant. Operate breaker several times to
ensure smoothness of mechanical operation.11. Check potential and current transformer cable connections for tightness.
12. Replace inspection lamp where fitted.

13. On first inspection, record data to auxiliary equipment, i.e. primary fuses, potential transformer, potential fuses, and current transformers. Record serial
numbers, catalogue numbers, sizes, ratios.
14. On completion of inspection and test, remove temporary grounds. Restore equipment to serviceable condition.

9. Electrical Maintenance Tests:

a) General:
i. Test contact resistance across closed line-load contacts, and line and load circuit breaker plug-in clusters. Record results. Clean contacts using appropriate tools
to get lowest contact resistance reading possible.
ii. Test insulation resistance for all phases to others and to ground.
iii. Test electrical function in accordance with breaker manufacturer’s instructions and drawings.b) Air Breakers:
i. Prior to hipot test being carried out, ensure surrounding primary connections to main equipment are properly grounded and isolated.
ii. DC hipot test at test levels indicated for switchgear enclosure.
c) Oil Breakers:
i. Do not perform DC hipot tests on oil circuit breakers.
ii. Dielectric (hipot) test on insulating oil per ASTM D877. Compare dielectric strength test results to previous test data where applicable, and comment on
changes.

FUSED OR UNFUSED LB AND NLB DISCONNECT SWITCHGEAR

.1 Strictly adhere to required procedures for system switching operations. Switching, de-energizing and energizing shall be performed by authorized personnel
only.
 .2 Completely isolate switchgear to be worked on from power sources.

.3 Remove access covers and plates.

.4 Test and discharge equipment to be worked on.

.5 Install temporary safety grounds.

.6 Report manufacturer, serial number, type, function of switchgear assembly, date of inspection, and signature of person responsible for inspection.

7. Mechanical Inspection: inspect for:

I. accumulations of dirt, especially on insulating surfaces.
II. condition of moving and fixed contact, excessive heating or arcing.
III. cracks, or tracking on insulators.
IV. tracking or mechanical damage to interphase barriers.
V. chipping or flaking of arc chutes or arc shields.
VI. fixing bolts being fully tightened where bolted-on shields are fitted.
VII. overheating or arcing on fuses and fuse holders.
VIII. correct fuse clip tension.
IX. broken, missing or damaged springs on operating mechanism.
X. damage to or excessive wear on operating linkage. Check that all clevis pins are securely retained in position.
XI. correct alignment of contact blades and operating linkage.
XII. corrosion & rusting of metals, deterioration of painted surfaces.
XIII. proper operation of key interlock or other mechanical interlock (if applicable).
XIV. evidence of corona deterioration.
8. Cleaning:I. Remove accumulations of dirt from insides of switchgear cubicles using vacuum cleaner and/or blower.
II. Clean insulating surfaces using brush or wiping with lint free cloth.
III. Do not file contacts. Minor pitting or discoloration is acceptable.
IV. Report evidence of severe arcing or burning of contacts.
V. Degrease contacts with suitable cleaners.
9. Check that connections, including current limiting fuses, are secure. Torque to manufacturer’s requirement.
9. Electrical Maintenance Tests:
I. Test insulation resistance for all phases to others and to ground.
II. Test contact resistance across switch blade contact surfaces.
III. Test electrical charging mechanism of switch if applicable.
IV. Test electrical interlocks for proper function.
V. DC hipot test phases to the others and to ground using step method to levels specified for switchgear.
VI. Operate blown fuse trip devices if applicable.11. After testing is completed, remove temporary grounds and restore equipment to serviceable condition.
10. MAINTENANCE OF PROTECTION RELAYS1. Strictly adhere to required procedures for system switching operations. Switching, de-energizing and energizing shall be
performed by authorized personnel only.
2. Completely isolate protective relays to be tested and inspected from sources of power.

3. Set and test protective relays to “as found” settings or to new settings provided by Minister prior to maintenance commissioning.

4. Use manufacturer’s instructions for information concerning connections, adjustments, repairs, timing, and data for specific relay.

11. Mechanical Inspection of Induction Disc Relays:

I. Carefully remove cover from relay case. Inspect cover gasket. Check glass for tightness and cracks.
II. Short-circuit current transformer secondary by careful removal of relay test plug or operation of appropriate current blocks.
III. Ensure disc has proper clearance and freedom of movement between magnet poles.
IV. Check connections and taps for tightness.
V. Manually operate disc to check for freedom of movement. Allow spring to return disc to check proper operation.
VI. Check mechanical operation of targets.
VII. Check relay coils for signs of overheating and brittle insulation

12. Cleaning:
I. Clean glass inside and out.
II. Clean relay compartment as required. Clean relay plug in contacts, if applicable, using proper tools.
III. Remove dust and foreign materials from interior of relay using small brush or low pressure (7 lbs.) blower of nitrogen.
IV. Remove rust or metal particles from disc or magnet poles with magnet cleaner or brush.
V. Inspect for signs of carbon, moisture and corrosion.
VI. Clean pitted or burned relay contacts with burnishing tool or non-residue contact cleaner.
13. Electrical Testing: Tests for typical overcurrent relays include:
I. Zero check.
II. Induction disc pickup.
III. Time-current characteristics.
IV. Target and seal-in operation.
V. Instantaneous pickup.
VI. Check C/T & P/T ratios and compare to coordination data.
VII. Proof test each relay in its control circuit by simulated trip tests to ensure total and proper operation of breaker and relay trip circuit by injection of the relay
circuit to test the trip operation.
14. Solid State Relays:
I. Inspect and test in accordance with manufacturer’s most recent installation and maintenance brochure.
II. Perform tests using manufacturer’s relay test unit as applicable, with corresponding test instructions.
III. If the manufacturer’s tester is not available, use a relay tester unit approved by relay manufacturer, with proper test data and test accessories.
IV. Proof test each relay in its control circuit by simulated trip tests to ensure total and proper operation of breaker and relay trip circuit by injection of relay circuit
to test trip operation.
V. Check C/T and P/T ratios and compare to coordination date.9. At completion of inspection and test, restore equipment to serviceable condition and
recommission equipment. Compare test results to previous maintenance test results.

15. MAINTENANCE OF OVERHEAD RADIAL POWER LINES:1.

Strictly adhere to required procedures for system switching operations. Switching, de-energizing and energizing shall be performed by authorized personnel only.
2. Completely isolate overhead radial power lines to be tested and inspected from sources of power.
3. Install temporary grounding leads for safety.
4. Inspect insulators and insulating surfaces for cleanliness, cracks, chips, tracking, and clean insulators thoroughly.

16. Check cable connections to insulators and check cable sag between poles. Report discovered unsafe conditions.
6. Visually check wooden poles and sound test with 18 oz. wooden mallet.
7. Visually inspect metal line structures for rust, deterioration, metal fatigue, and report discovered unsafe conditions.
8. Inspect crossarms, bolts, rack assemblies, guys, guy wires, and dead ends. Report discovered unsafe conditions.
9. Visually inspect grounding connections.
10. On completion of inspection, remove temporary grounding, restore equipment to serviceable condition
17. SURGE ARRESTORS:
1. Strictly adhere to required procedures for system switching operations. Switching, de-energizing and energizing shall be performed by authorized personnel only.
2. Completely isolate surge arrestors to be tested and inspected from sources of power.
3. Install temporary grounding leads for safety.
4. Inspect surge arrestors for cleanliness, cracks, chips, tracking and clean thoroughly.
5. Perform insulation power factor test. Record results.
6. Perform grounding continuity test to ground grid system, record results.
7. On completion of inspection and testing, remove temporary grounds, restore equipment to serviceable condition.

DISCONNECTION PROCEDURE:
Safety of Disconnection Switch:
1. When a disconnect switch is installed in this manner, the frame of the disconnect switch, the upper and lower steel operating rod and the switch handle are all
bonded together and connected to the common neutral and the pole’s ground rod, effectively eliminating any insulating value of the insulated insert. The electrical
worker operating the switch has no protection and could have as much as full system voltage from the worker’s hands on the switch handle to the worker’s feet.
2. The use of rated rubber gloves can eliminate touch potential if the switch were to fail and go to ground. But there is also the hazard of step potential for the
worker operating the switch, and rated rubber gloves does nothing to eliminate step potential. Also, the maximum ASTM rating for rubber gloves is limited to 36 kV,
eliminating worker protection from higher voltages.
3. Properly installed ground mats provide the best protection for workers operating disconnect switches while standing on the ground.

If the disconnect switch were to fail and go to ground, the switch handle could be energized at potentially full system voltage, say 7,200 volts, energizing the switch
handle at 7,200 volts, less the voltage drop in the grounding conductor from the switch handle to the ground mat (typically 20 to 25 volts).

– But if the worker were wearing rated rubber gloves and standing on a ground mat attached to the switch handle, would they be safe? Yes!

– If they were not wearing rated rubber gloves but still standing on a ground mat attached to the switch handle, would they be safe? Yes!

– When the worker wears rated rubber gloves while standing on a ground mat attached to the switch handle, the gloves are insulating the worker from the 20 to
25 volts developed across the ground mat and switch handle; well below any hazardous voltage. They are safe with or without rated rubber gloves if they are
standing on a ground mat properly connected to the switch handle.
 PPE to WORK in HV

HV Disconnection Procedure:
Almost every major line or equipment in a substation has associated with it a means of completely isolating it from other energized elements as a prudent means of
insuring safety by preventing accidental energization. These simple switches, called disconnects, or disconnecting switches. They are usually installed on both sides
of the equipment or line upon which work is to be done.

How to operate these switches:

1. They should not be operated while the circuit in which they are connected is energized, but only after the circuit is deenergized.
2. They may be opened by means of an insulated stick that helps the operator keep a distance from the switch.
3. Locking devices are sometimes provided to keep the disconnects from being opened accidentally or from being blown open during periods of heavy fault currents
passing through them.

ISOLATION OF ANY HIGH VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT:

What is isolation:
Isolation is a means of physically and electrically separating two parts of a measurement device, and can be categorized into electrical and safety isolation. Electrical
isolation pertains to eliminating ground paths between two electrical systems. By providing electrical isolation, you can break ground loops, increase the common-
mode range of the data acquisition system, and level shift the signal ground reference to a single system ground. Safety isolation references standards have specific
requirements for isolating humans from contact with hazardous voltages. It also characterizes the ability of an electrical system to prevent high voltages and
transient voltages from transmitting across its boundary to other electrical systems with which you can come in contact.
1. Isolation of individual circuits protected by circuit breakersWhere circuit breakers are used the relevant device should be locked-off using an appropriate locking-off
clip with a padlock which can only be opened by a unique key or combination. The key or combination should be retained by the person carrying out the work.
Note
Some DBs are manufactured with ‘Slider Switches’ to disconnect the circuit from the live side of the circuit breaker. These devices should not be relied upon as the
only means of isolation for circuits as the wrong switch could easily be operated on completion of the work.

2. Isolation of individual circuits protected by fuses

Where fuses are used, the simple removal of the fuse is an acceptable means of disconnection. Where removal of the fuse exposes live terminals that can be
touched, the incoming supply to the fuse will need to be isolated. To prevent the fuse being replaced by others, the fuse should be retained by the person carrying
out the work, and a lockable fuse insert with a padlock should be fitted as above. A caution notice should also be used to deter inadvertent replacement of a spare
fuse. In addition, it is recommended that the enclosure is locked to prevent access as stated above under ‘Isolation using a main switch or distribution board (DB)
switch-disconnector’.Note
In TT systems, the incoming neutral conductor cannot reliably be regarded as being at earth potential. This means that for TT supplies, a multi-pole switching device
which disconnects the phase and neutral conductors must be used as the means of isolation. For similar reasons, in IT systems all poles of the supply must be
disconnected. Single pole isolation in these circumstances is not acceptable.
High voltage insulation testing (flash testing) can be particularly hazardous when several parts of the equipment are energized for a period of time.

Isolation Procedure:
1. Isolate from all sources of supply.
2. Prevent unauthorised connection by fixing safety locks and caution signs at points-of- isolation.
2. Fix danger signs on live equipment adjacent to the point-of-work.

PROVING THE SYSTEM IS DEAD:

How to prove:
Before starting work it should be proved that the parts to be worked on and those nearby are dead. It should never be assumed that equipment is dead because a
particular isolation device has been placed in the off position.
1. The procedure for proving dead should be by use of a proprietary test lamp or two pole voltage detectors.
2. Non-contact voltage indicators (voltage sticks) and multi-meters should not be used.
3. The test instrument should be proved to be working on a known live source or proprietary proving unit before and after use.
4. All phases of the supply and the neutral should be tested and proved dead.

Proving dead unused or unidentified cables

• Where there is uncertainty regarding isolation when removing unidentified cables or proving dead an ‘unused’ cable, particularly where insufficient conductor is
exposed to enable the use of test probes, those conductors should be assumed to be live until positively proven to be dead and any work carried out on them
should employ live working practices until the conductors are proved dead.
• Clamp meters can be used as a means of identifying cables by testing for current flow in the conductors.
• Non-contact voltage indicators (voltage sticks) can also be useful in these situations to test for voltage where cables without a metallic sheath are to be identified.
However, once insulation is pared using live working practices to reveal the underlying conductors, contact voltage detectors should be used as the means of
proving dead.
Prove Dead:
(i) Prove dead with a high voltage potential indicator at all accessible points-of-isolation.
(ii) Where appropriate, prove dead on the low voltage side of a transformer, that is LV feed pillars, LV distribution boards etc.

EARTHING AND DISCHARGING OF HV:

Earthing down is a very important concept to understand when working with high voltage systems.
It is important to ensure that any stored electrical energy in equipment insulation after isolation is safely discharged to earth.
The application of earthing on high voltage conductors is controlled in accordance with the provisions of the Power System Safety Rules.
The following general requirements and principles are applicable for portable earthing.

Safety:
1. Always carry earthing equipment below shoulder level;
2. Ensure that clamps and leads are kept a safe distance from any high voltage conductor;
3. Apply clamps to stirrup (if provided) or a horizontal conductor where possible;
4. Avoid clamp application to bushing caps and to braids; and
5. Position clamp so that tension on the earth lead is minimised.
6. Assemble and inspect earthing equipment on the ground;
7. Extend or otherwise prepare any earthing equipment such as shot gun sticks on the ground.
8. Proving High Voltage Conductors De-Energised
9. Do not allow any part of the earthing system to encroach on safe approach distances. Where practicable, keep the earthing leads away from the body;
10. Earthing equipment is to be removed carefully from high voltage conductors to prevent the equipment encroaching on or coming into contact with adjacent live
high voltage conductors.
11. Check that the rating of the earthing equipment is appropriate for the fault level at the location at which it is to be applied.
12. Ensure that the earthing equipment is in a serviceable condition. Any portable earthing equipment found to be defective shall be removed from service for
repair or disposal.

There are two types of earthing down a high voltage switchboard:

1. CIRCUIT EARTHING
– an incoming or outgoing feeder cable is connected by a heavy earth connection from earth to all three
 conductors after the circuit breaker has been racked out. This is done at the circuit breaker using a special key. This key is then locked in the key safe. The circuit
breaker cannot be racked in until the circuit earth has been removed.

2. BUSBAR EARTHING
– when it is necessary to work on a section of the
busbars, they must be completely isolated from all possible electrical sources. This will include generator incoming cables, section or bus-tie breakers, and
transformers on that busbar section. The busbars are connected together and earthed down using portable leads, which give visible confirmation of the earthing
arrangement.
Earthing Procedure:
(i) Earth conductors at all points-of-isolation and fix safety locks to earths.
(ii) Identify with certainty or spike underground cables at the point/s of work if the conductors are to be cut or exposed.
(iii) Earth overhead lines near the working places.

ISSUING OF A PERMIT-TO-WORK or
SANCTION- FOR-TEST:
1. Before a permit-to-work or a sanction-for-test is issued, the Authorised Person or Electrical Engineer should identify the equipment on which the work or test is
to be undertaken.
2. If the work involves, or may involve, obtaining access to items of equipment over which confusion could occur, the Authorised Person (HV)/ Electrical Engineer
should identify such items to the Competent Person (HV) and apply temporary marking to them.
3. Before issuing a permit-to-work or sanction-for- test, the Authorised Person (HV)/ Electrical Engineer should show the Competent Person (HV) the isolation and
earthing diagram and indicate the safety arrangements at the points-of-isolation and at the point-of-work or test.

4. The Authorised Person (HV)/ Electrical Engineer should ensure that the Competent Person (HV) understands all the relevant safety procedures and precautions.
5. If the Competent Person (HV) thereafter accepts the permit or sanction, that person becomes responsible for the defined work or test until the permit or
sanction is cancelled.
6. Mark the point-of-work.
7. Issue the permit-to-work, isolation and earthing diagram, and the key to the safety key box to the Competent Person (HV).
8. Authorised Persons (HV)/ Electrical Engineer undertaking tasks requiring permits-to-work or sanctions-for-test should issue the documents to themselves.
9. Adjust mimic diagram and complete the site logbook.
10. All such documents must be countersigned by a site- certified Authorised Person (HV)/ Electrical Engineer before the work or test starts.
Undertake the work:
The Competent Person (HV) is to undertake or directly supervise the work and on completion, or when the work is stopped and made safe, is to return the original
of the permit-to-work, the isolation and earthing diagram and the Competent Person’s (HV) key to the safety key box to the Duty Authorised Person (HV)/ Electrical
Engineer, and complete part 3 of the permit retained in the pad.
Check the equipment:
If the work has been completed, check to ensure it is safe to energize. If the work has been stopped, check the equipment has been made safe.
Cancel the permit-to-work:
(i) Cancel the permit-to-work by signing the “completion of work” part and by cancel the permit in the presence of the Competent Person (HV).
(ii) File the isolation and earthing diagram in the operational procedure manual and permit-to-work in respective file.
(iii) Return key to key safe.
Issue the sanction-for-test :
(i) The Competent Person (HV) is to be shown the safety arrangements at all the point/s of isolation and at the locations of the test, and is to initial the isolation
and earthing diagram.
(ii) Issue the sanction-for-test, isolation and earthing diagram, and the key to the safety key box to the Competent Person (HV).
(iii) Retain working lock keys, and remove and replace earths as requested.
Cancel the sanction-for-test:
(i) Cancel the sanction-for-test by signing part 4 and by destroying the sanction in the presence of the Competent Person (HV).
(ii) File the isolation and earthing diagram in the operational procedure manual.
(iii) Return key to key safe.
RE-ENERGIZING EQUIPMENT:
i. Conduct tests and visual inspections to ensure all tools, electrical jumpers, shorts, grounds, and other such devices have been removed.
ii. Warn others to stay clear of circuits and equipment.
iii. Each lock and tag must be removed by the person who applied it.
iv. Visually check that all employees are clear of the circuits and equipment.

PROTECTIONS OPERATING PRINCIPLES

SF6 Circuit Breaker:
A circuit breaker in which the current carrying contacts operate in sulphur hexafluoride or SF6 gas is known as an SF6 circuit breaker.
SF6 has excellent insulating property. SF6 has high electro-negativity. That means it has high affinity of absorbing free electron. Whenever a free electron collides
with the SF6 gas molecule, it is absorbed by that gas molecule and forms a negative ion.
The attachment of electron with SF6gas molecules may occur in two different ways,
These negative ions obviously much heavier than a free electron and therefore over all mobility of the charged particle in the SF6 gas is much less as compared other
common gases. We know that mobility of charged particle is majorly responsible for conducting current through a gas.
Working of SF6 Circuit Breaker:
The working of SF6 CB of first generation was quite simple it is some extent similar to air blast circuit breaker. Here SF6 gas was compressed and stored in a high
pressure reservoir. During operation of SF6 circuit breaker this highly compressed gas is released through the arc in breaker and collected to relatively low pressure
reservoir and then it pumped back to the high pressure reservoir for re utilize.
The working of SF6 circuit breaker is little bit different in modern time. Innovation of puffer type design makes operation of SF6 CB much easier. In buffer type
design, the arc energy is utilized to develop pressure in the arcing chamber for arc quenching.
During opening of the breaker the cylinder moves downwards against position of the fixed piston hence the volume inside the cylinder is reduced which produces
compressed SF6 gas inside the cylinder. The cylinder has numbers of side vents which were blocked by upper fixed contact body during closed position. As the
cylinder move further downwards, these vent openings cross the upper fixed contact, and become unblocked and then compressed SF6 gas inside the cylinder will
come out through this vents in high speed towards the arc and passes through the axial hole of the both fixed contacts. The arc is quenched during this flow of
SF6 gas.
During closing of the circuit breaker, the sliding cylinder moves upwards and as the position of piston remains at fixed height, the volume of the cylinder increases
which introduces low pressure inside the cylinder compared to the surrounding. Due to this pressure difference SF6 gas from surrounding will try to enter in the
cylinder. The higher pressure gas will come through the axial hole of both fixed contact and enters into cylinder via vent and during this flow; the gas will quench
the arc.

PROTECTIONS OPERATING PRINCIPLES

Principles of Distance Relays
Since the impedance of a transmission line is proportional to its length, for distance measurement it is appropriate to use a relay capable of measuring the
impedance of a line up to a predetermined point (the reach point).
Such a relay is described as a distance relay and is designed to operate only for faults occurring between the relay location and the selected reach point, thus giving
discrimination for faults that may occur in different line sections.
The basic principle of distance protection involves the division of the voltage at the relaying point by the measured current. The apparent impedance so calculated
is compared with the reach point impedance. If the measured impedance is less than the reach point impedance, it is assumed that a fault exists on the line
between the relay and the reach point.
The reach point of a relay is the point along the line impedance locus that is intersected by the boundary characteristic of the relay.
Since this is dependent on the ratio of voltage and current and the phase angle between them, it may be plotted on an R/X diagram. The loci of power system
impedances as seen by the relay during faults, power swings and load variations may be plotted on the same diagram and in this manner the performance of the
relay in the presence of system faults and disturbances may be studied.
Solid State Switching Principle
– High voltage testing does not usually require high power.
Thus special methods may be used which are not applicable.
– Then generating high voltage in high power applications.
 – In the field of electrical eng. & applied physics, high voltages are required for several applications as:
1. a power supply (eg. hv dc) for the equipments such as electron microscope and x-ray machine.
2. required for testing power apparatus – insulation testing.

-High impulse voltages are required for testing purposes to simulate over voltages due to lightning and switching.

Solid State Switching Principle

Solid State Switching Principle

 Both full-wave as well as half-wave circuits can produce a maximum direct voltage corresponding to the peak value of the alternating voltage.
 When higher voltages are required voltage multiplier circuits are used. The common circuits are the voltage double circuit
 Used for higher voltages.
 Generate very high dc voltage from single supply transformer by extending the simple voltage doubler circuit.
Electric Propulsion and High Voltage Practice

Marine Electric Propulsion

Integrated electric propulsion (IEP) or full electric propulsion (FEP) or integrated full electric propulsion (IFEP) is an arrangement of marine propulsion systems such
that gas turbines or diesel generators or both generate three phase electricity which is then used to power electric motors turning either propellers.

It is a modification of the combined diesel-electric and gas propulsion system for ships which eliminates the need for clutches and reduces or eliminates the need
for gearboxes by using electrical transmission rather than mechanical transmission of energy.

Electric propulsion for many new ships is now re-established as the popular choice where the motor thrust is governed by electronic switching under computer
control.

The high power required for electric propulsion usually demands a high voltage (HV) power plant with its associated safety and testing procedures.
 Passenger ships have always been the largest commercial vessels with electric propulsion and, by their nature, the most glamorous. This should not, however,
obscure the fact that a very wide variety of vessels have been, and are, built with electric propulsion.

Early large passenger vessels employed the turboelectric system which involves the use of variable speed, and therefore variable frequency, turbo-generator sets
for the supply of electric power to the propulsion motors directly coupled to the propeller shafts. Hence, the generator/motor system was acting as a speed
reducing transmission system. Electric power for auxiliary ship services required the use of separate constant frequency generator sets.

A system that has generating sets which can be used to provide power to both the propulsion system and ship services has obvious advantages, but this would have
to be a fixed voltage and frequency system to satisfy the requirements of the ship service loads. The provision of high power variable speed drives from a fixed
voltage and frequency supply has always presented problems. Also, when the required propulsion power was beyond the capacity of a single d.c. motor there was
the complication of multiple motors per shaft.
Developments in high power static converter equipment have presented a very convenient means of providing variable speed a.c. and d.c. drives at the largest
ratings likely to be required in a / marine propulsion system.
The electric propulsion of ships requires electric motors to drive the propellers and generator sets to supply the electric power. It may seem rather illogical to use
electric generators, switchgear and motors between the prime-movers (e.g. diesel engines) and propeller when a gearbox or length of shaft could be all that is
required.

There are obviously sound reasons why, for some installations, it is possible to justify the complication of electric propulsion:

1. Flexibility of layout
2. Load diversity between ship service load and propulsion
3. Economical part-load running
4. Ease of control
5. Low noise and vibration characteristics

FLEXIBILITY OF LAYOUT
The advantage of an electric transmission is that the prime-movers, and their generators, are not constrained to have any particular relationship with the load as a
cable run is a very versatile transmission medium. In a ship propulsion system it is possible to mount the diesel engines, gas turbines etc., in locations best suited for
them and their associated services, so they can be remote from the propeller shaft. Diesel generator sets in containers located on the vessel main deck have been
used to provide propulsion power and some other vessels have had a 10 MW generator for ship propulsion duty mounted in a block at the stern of the vessel above
the ro-ro deck.
Another example of the flexibility provided by an electric propulsion system is in a semi-submersible, with the generators on the main deck and the propulsion
motors in the pontoons at the bottom of the support legs.
LOAD DIVERSITY
Certain types of vessels have a requirement for substantial amounts of electric power for ship services when the demands of the propulsion system are low. Tankers
are one instance of this situation and any vessel with a substantial cargo discharging load also qualifies. Passenger vessels have a substantial electrical load which,
although relatively constant, does involve a significant size of generator plant. There are advantages in having a single central power generation facility which can
service the propulsion and all other ship loads as required.
ECONOMICAL PART-LOAD RUNNING
Again this is a concept that is best achieved when there is a central power generation system feeding propulsion and ship services, with passenger vessels being a
good example.
It is likely that a typical installation would have between 4-8 diesel generator sets and with parallel operation of all the sets it becomes very easy to match the
available generating capacity to the load demand. In a four engine installation for example, increasing the number of sets in operation from two that are fully
loaded to three partially loaded will result in the three sets operating at a 67% load factor which is not ideal but also not a serious operating condition, It is not
necessary to operate generating sets at part-load to provide the spare capacity to be able to cater for the sudden loss of a set, because propulsion load reduction
may be available instantaneously, and in most vessels a short time reduction in propulsion power does not constitute a hazard.
The propulsion regulator will continuously monitor the present generator capability and any generator overload will immediately result in controlled power
limitation to the propulsion motors. During manoeuvring, propulsion power requirements are below system capacity and failure of one generator is not likely to
present a hazardous situation.

EASE OF CONTROL
The widespread use of controllable pitch propellers (cpp) has meant that the control facilities that were so readily available with electric drives are no longer able to
command the same premium. Electric drives are capable of the most exacting demands with regard to dynamic performance which, in general, exceed by a very
wide margin anything that is required of a ship propulsion system.

LOW NOISE
An electric motor is able to provide a drive with very low vibration characteristics and this is of importance in warships, oceanographic survey vessels and cruise
ships where,/-for different reasons, a low noise signature is required. With warships and survey vessels it is noise into the water which is the critical factor whilst
with cruise ships it is structure borne noise and vibration to the passenger spaces that has to be minimised.

For very high power, the most favoured option is to use a pair of high efficiency, high voltage a.c. synchronous motors with fixed pitch propellers (FPP) driven at
variable speed by frequency control from electronic converters. A few installations have the combination of controllable pitch propellers (CPP) and a variable speed
motor. Low/medium power propulsion (1-5 MW) may be delivered by a.c. induction motors with variable frequency converters or by d.c. motors with variable
voltage converters.
The prime-movers are conventionally constant speed diesel engines driving a.c. generators to give a fixed output frequency. Gas turbine driven prime- movers for
the generators are likely to challenge the diesel option in the future.
Conventionally, the propeller drive shaft is directly driven from the propulsion electric motor (PEM) from inside the ship. From experience obtained from
smaller external drives, notably from ice-breakers, some very large propulsion motors are being fitted within rotating pods mounted outside of the ship’s hull. These
are generally referred to as azipods , as the whole pod unit can be rotated through 360° to apply the thrust in any horizontal direction, i.e. in azimuth. This means
that a conventional steering plate and stern side-thrusters are not required.
Ship manoeuvrability is significantly enhanced by using azipods and the external propulsion unit releases some internal space for more cargo/passengers while
further reducing hull vibration.

Gradual progress in the science and application of superconductivity suggests that future generators and motors could be super-cooled to extremely low
temperatures to cause electrical resistance to become zero.

Marine Electric Propulsion

– Podded drives offer greater propulsion efficiency and increased space within the hull by moving the propulsion motor outside the ships hull and placing it in a pod
suspended underneath the hull.
– Podded drives are also capable of azimuth improving ship maneuverability. Indeed, podded drives have been widely adopted by the cruise ship community for
these reasons.
– The motors being manufactured now are as large as 19.5 MW, and could provide the total propulsion power.

– In an AC drive, a frequency converter is used to control the speed and torque of electric motor. The speed of the AC electric motor can be controlled by varying
the voltage and frequency of its supply. A frequency converter works by changing the constant frequency main electrical supply into a variable frequency output.

– The ideal simplicity of the induction motor, its perfect reversibility and other unique qualities render it eminently suitable for ship Propulsion.

Electric propulsion
– Diesel-Generator sets to produce electricity to common grid for propulsion and ship use.
– Variable speed drives to rotate fixed pitch propellers.
 – Commonly used in Cruise vessels, LNG tankers, Off-shore vessels and Ice breaking vessels due to reduced fuel oil consumption, lower emissions and increased
pay-load
 Large Diesel Engine for Main Engine
 Configuration of Electric Propulsion
 System for Ships
 Configuration of Electric Propulsion
 System for Ships
 Configuration of Electric Propulsion
 System for Ships
 Configuration of Electric Propulsion
 Configuration of Electric Propulsion
 System for Ships
 Configuration of Electric Propulsion
 System for Ships
 Configuration of Electric Propulsion
 System for Ships
 Comparison with Conventional and
 Electric Propulsion system

SHORE SUPPLY FACILITIES

Shore power supply facilities have adopted high voltage rather than low voltage by necessity in order to keep the physical size of related electrical equipment such
as shore connection cables manageable.
Inevitably high voltage would otherwise introduce new risks to ship’s crew and the shipboard installations if necessary safety features were not built into the HVSC
system or safe operating procedures were not put in place.
Those onboard systems that are designed to accept high voltage shore power, typically involving the following things:
– incoming power receptacles,
– shore connection switchgear,
– step-down transformer or isolation transformer,
– fixed power cables,
– incoming switchgear at the main switchboard and
– associated instrumentation. HVSC is often referred to as cold ironing.
The system nominal voltage is considered to be in the range from 1 kv ac to 15 kv ac.

Infrastructure Considerations

Electrical System Grounding Philosophy:

The manner in which electrical system is grounded (e.g., ungrounded system, solid neutral grounding system, low impedance neutral grounding system, or high
impedance neutral grounding system), including ground potential transformer method. Circuit.

protection strategy is built around the selected method of system grounding in terms of over voltage prevention, over current prevention or continued operability
under single phase grounded condition.

SYSTEM GROUNDING COMPATIBILITY

Arrangements are to be provided so that when the shore connection is established, the resulting system grounding onboard is to be compatible with the vessel’s
original electrical system grounding philosophy (for instance, the shipboard ungrounded power distribution system is to remain ungrounded, or the shipboard high
impedance grounding system is to remain high impedance grounded within the design grounding impedance values). Ground fault detection and protection is to
remain available after the shore connection has been established.

Cable Management System:

The cable management system is the ship’s interface point with the shore power system. The cable management system is typically composed of flexible hv cables
with the plug that extends to the shore power receptacle, cable reel, automatic tension control system with associated control gears, and instrumentation. shore
power is fed to the shore connection switchboard via the cable management system.
SHORE CONNECTION SWITCHBOARD
where no cable management system is provided onboard, the shore connection switchboard is normally the ship’s interface point with the shore power system. hv
shore power is connected to this shore connection switchboard by means of an hv plug and socket arrangement. the shore connection switchboard is provided
with a shore power connecting circuit breaker with circuit protection devices.

ONBOARD RECEIVING SWITCHBOARD

The receiving switchboard is normally a part of the ship’s main switchboard to which the shore power is fed from the shore connection switchboard.

EQUIPOTENTIAL BONDING
Equipotential bonding between the ship and the shore is to be provided. An interlock is provided such that the HV shore connection cannot be established until the
equipotential bonding has been established. The bonding cable may be integrated into the HV shore power cable. If the equipotential bonding cable is intended to
carry the shipboard ground fault current, the cable size is to be sufficient to carry the design maximum ground fault current.
LOAD TRANSFER
Temporary Parallel Running:
Where the shipboard generator is intended to run in parallel with the shore power for a short period of time for the purpose of connecting to the shore power or
back to ship power without going through a blackout period, the following requirements are to be complied with:
i) Means are to be provided to verify that the incoming voltage is within the range for which the shipboard generator can be adjusted with its automatic voltage
regulator (AVR)
ii) Means are to be provided for automatic synchronization
iii) Load transfer is to be automatic
iv) The duration of the temporary parallel running is to be as short a period as practicable allowing for the safe transfer of the load. In determining the rate of the
gradual load transfer, due regard is to be paid to the governor characteristics of shipboard generator in order not to cause excessive voltage drop and frequency
dip.

Load Transfer via Blackout

Where load transfer is executed via blackout (i.e., without temporary generator parallel running), safety interlock arrangements are to be provided so that the
circuit breaker for the shore power at the shore connection switchboard cannot be closed while the HV switchboard is live with running shipboard generator(s).

Safety Interlocks
An interlock, which prevents plugging and unplugging of the HV plug and socket outlet arrangements while they are energized, is to be provided.

Marine Shore Connection Concept

Shore Connection System Solutions

(Example)
On board Installation

Handling of HV Plug
While the HV shore connection circuit breakers are in the open position, the conductors of the HV supply cables are to be automatically kept earthed by means of
an earthing switch. A set of pilot contactors embedded in the HV plug and socket-outlet may be used for this purpose. The earthing switch control is to be designed
based on a fail-to-safe concept such that the failure of the control system will not result in the closure of the earthing switch onto the live HV lines.

HV Shore Connection Circuit Breakers

Arrangements are to be provided to prevent the closing of the shore connection circuit breaker when any of the following conditions exist:

i) Equipotential bonding is not established

ii) The pilot contact circuit is not established
iii) Emergency shutdown facilities are activated
iv) An error within the HV connection system that could pose an unacceptable risk to the safe supply of shoreside power to the vessel. These errors may occur
within the alarm system, whether on board the ship or at the shoreside control position, or within any relevant
safety systems including those which monitor system performance.
v) The HV supply is not present

HVSC Circuit Breaker Control:

HV shore connection circuit breakers are to be remotely operated away from the HVSC equipment.
HV shore connection circuit breakers are to be made only when it has been established that personnel are evacuated from the HV shore connection equipment
compartments. The operation manual is to describe these established procedures.

HVSC Emergency Shutdown:

In the event of an emergency, the HV system shall be provided with shutdown facilities that immediately open the shore connection circuit breaker. These
emergency shutdown systems are to be automatically activated.

Any of the following conditions are to cause emergency shutdown of the shore power supply:

i) Loss of equipotential bonding

ii) High tension level of HV flexible shore connection cable, or low remaining cable length of cable management system
iii) Shore connection safety circuits fail
iv) The emergency stop button is used
v) Any attempts to disengage the HV plug while live (this may be achieved by the pilot

contactors embedded in the plug and socket such that the pilot contactors disengage before the phase contactors can disengage)

Tests of HV Switchboards
Type Test
HV switchboards are to be subjected to an AC withstand voltage test in accordance with Table-2
or other relevant national or international standards. A test is to be carried out at the manufacturer’s test facility in the presence of the Surveyor.

Onboard Test
After installation onboard, the HV switchboard is to be subjected to an insulation resistance test in accordance with Table-2 in the presence of the Surveyor.

EQUIPMENT DESIGN:
Air Clearance
Phase-to-phase air clearances and phase-to-earth air clearances between non-insulated parts are to be not less than the minimum, as specified in Table
Creepage Distance
Creepage distances between live parts and between live parts and earthed metal parts are to be adequate for the nominal voltage of the system, due regard being
paid to the comparative tracking index of insulating materials under moist conditions according to the IEC Publication 60112 and to the transient overvoltage
developed by switching and fault conditions.

Shore Connection Switchboard:

Construction
The HV shore connection switchboard is to be designed, manufactured and tested in accordance with a recognized standard code of practice as given by IEC.
Circuit Breaker
i) Shore connection HV circuit breaker is to be equipped with low voltage protection (LVP)
ii) The rated short-circuit making capacity of the circuit breaker is not to be less than the prospective peak value of the short-circuit current
iii) The rated short-circuit breaking capacity of the circuit breaker is not to be less than the maximum prospective symmetrical short-circuit current
iv) HV shore connection circuit breaker is to be remotely operated
 HV Circuit Breakers may beAir-Break (scarcely used)
2. Oil-Break (not used in ships)
3. Gas-Break (SF – 6 – Sulphur Hexafluoride)
4. Vacuum-Break (Most Popular)
 OBJECTIVE OF HIGH VOLTAGE COURSE

The purpose of this program is to establish minimum standards to prevent hazardous electrical exposures to personnel and ensure compliance with
regulatory requirements applicable to electrical systems. Working on the equipment in a de-energized state is required unless de-energizing introduces
an increased hazard or is infeasible. This program is designed to help ensure that energized high voltage electrical work is performed safely by
authorized employees, who are trained and provided with the appropriate safe work procedures, protective equipment and other controls. The program is
intended to ensure the employees are protected against electrical shock, burns and other potential electrical safety hazards as well as comply with
regulatory requirements.

The objective of High Voltage Course is to impart knowledge of operation, protection, maintenance and fault diagnosis on a wide range of marine /
offshore installation to improve the understanding of HV / LV power system (including statutory regulations) and to understand the operating power
equipment safety. It will also enable candidates to perform HV Switching operations on marine offshore power equipment.

As High voltage application have great use in electrical propulsion / drive systems, it will also be taken into consideration to include electrical
propulsion in the syllabus is of importance. The participant will

a) Know the switching / isolation process to make working on HV equipment safe and use of safety rules related with High Voltage

b) Understand the fault tracing procedures and aim at restoring the system and maintain supply availability.
c) Understand maintenance, testing and operation of various HV systems on board ship.

INDEX
CHAPTER PAGE
TOPICS
NO NO
Introduction
WHY HIGH VOLTAGE ON SHIPS?

1
STATUTORY REQUIREMENTS AND ELECTRICITY RULES

2
THE HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH VOLTAGE SYSTEMS
THE FUNCTIONAL, OPERATIONAL AND SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR
3
A MARINE HIGH VOLTAGE SYSTEMS

SWITCHING AND ISOLATION PROCEDURE ON A MARINHIGH

4
VOLTAGE SYSTEMS COMPLETE WITH SAFETY DOCUMENTATION
 BASIC ARRANGEMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE SYSTEMS AND THEIR
5
PROTECTIVE DEVICES

6 THE FUCTIONAL, OPERATIONAL AND SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR

MARINE HIGH VOLTAGE SYSTEMS
7 SAFETY PROCEDURES RELATED TO HIGH VOLTAGE SYSTEMS

8 IMMEDIATE ACTION TO BE TAKEN UNDER FAULT CONDITIONS

9 TREATMENT OF SYSTEM NEUTRAL POINT

10 MARINE / OFFSHORES APPLICATION OF ELECTRICAL PROTECTION

11 HIGH VOLTAGE ELECTRICAL PROPULSION

CABLES & CABLE FAULTS, TESTING & DIAGNOSIS ( CABLE

12
TRUNKING / DUCTS & PROTECTIONS

SUITABLE APPARATUS FOR OLATION AND TESTING OF HV

13
EQUIPMENT

14 CONTROL CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS OF V.C.B

INSULATION RESISTANCE TEST AND POLARIZATION INDEX TEST ON

15
HIGH VOLTAGE
GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

UF Microfarad
ABB Asea Brown Boveri
AC Alternating current
C Celsius
cm Centimetre
COSWP Code of Safe Working Practices for Merchant Seamen
CSM Continuous survey of machinery
DC Direct current
DG Diesel engine driven generator
DNV Det Norske Veritas
ECR Engine control room
EMI Electromagnetic interference
FSS International Code for Fire Safety Systems
FWBLAFF Fixed water-based local application fire-fighting system
GTG Gas turbine driven generator
GUI Graphical User Interface
HF Harmonic filter
HV High voltage
Hz Hertz
IACS International Association of Classification Societies
IAS Integrated automation system
IEC International electro technical committee
IEEE The Institution of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
IMO International Maritime Organization
IO Input-output
IP Ingress protection
ISM International Safety Management code
ISO International Organization for Standardization
K Kelvin
kA Kilo amperes
kg Kilograms
kV Kilovolts
LR Lloyd’s Register (Europe, Middle East and Asia)
mA mill ampere
MCA Maritime and Coastguard Agency
mg/g Milligram/gram
mH Millihenry
ml Milliliter
mS Millisecond
MSB Main switchboard
MV Megavolts
Mva Megavolts Amperes
Mw Megawatts
NK Nippon Kiji Kyokai
PMS Power management system
RMS root mean square
RPM revolutions per minute
SMS Safety management system
SOLAS International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974
THD Total harmonic distortion
THDv Total harmonic distortion of voltage
UPS Uninterruptible power supply

Definitions
The following defines the terms are used with respect to the High Voltage
Equipment / Installations
Additional Earth - An earth connection applied to apparatus after the application of a Circuit Main Earth, normally applied at the point of work if not
already fitted with Circuit Main Earth.

Approved - A type of form sanctioned for use by the Superintendent / Senior Electrical Engineer.

Authorized Person - An Authorized Person is appropriately trained and appointed in writing by the Superintendent / Electrical Engineer to carry out
work as permitted by these Rules.

Caution Notice - A notice conveying a warning against interference with the apparatus to which it is attached.

Chief Engineer – Senior Engineer onboard the vessel responsible for all vessel technical operations and maintenance.

Charged: the item has acquired a charge either because it is live or because it has become charged by other means such as by static or induction
charging, or has retained or regained a charge due to capacitance effects even though it may be disconnected from the rest of the system;

Circuit Main Earth - An earth connection applied for the purpose of making apparatus safe to work on before a Permit to Work or Sanction for Test is
issued and which is nominated on the document.

Competent person - A Competent Person is appropriately trained and has sufficient technical knowledge or experience to enable him to avoid danger.
It is the duty of the Authorised Person issuing a permit to work covered by these Rules to satisfy himself that persons are competent to carry out the
work involved.

Danger Notice- A notice calling attention to the danger of approach or interference with the apparatus to which it is attached.

Dead - At or about zero voltage and disconnected from all sources of electrical energy. Not electrically ‘live’ or ‘charged’.

Designated competent person (also known in some industries as ‘authorized person’ and ‘senior authorized person’): a competent person
appointed by the employer, preferably in writing, to undertake certain specific responsibilities and duties, which may include the issue and/or receipt
of safety documents such as permits-to-work. The person must be competent by way of training, qualifications and/or experience and knowledge of
the system to be worked on;

Disconnected: equipment (or a part of an electrical system) that is not connected to any source of electrical energy;

Earthed - Connected to the general mass of earth in such a manner as will ensure at all times an immediate discharge of electrical energy without
danger.

Equipment: electrical equipment including anything used, intended to be used or installed for use, to generate, provide, transmit, transform, rectify,
convert, conduct, distribute, control, store, measure or use electrical energy.

High Voltage - A voltage exceeding 1000 Volts.

High Voltage Apparatus - Any apparatus, equipment or conductors normally operated at a voltage higher than 1000 Volts.

Isolated - The disconnection and separation of the electrical equipment from every source of electrical energy in such a way that this disconnection
and separation is secure.

Key safe - A device for the secure retention of keys used to lock means of isolation, Earthing or other safety devices.

Limitation of Access - A form issued by an Authorized Person to a Competent Person, defining the limits of the work to be carried out in the vicinity of,
but not on, High Voltage electrical apparatus.

Live - Electrically charged from a supply of electricity.

Live work: work on or near conductors that are accessible and ‘live’ or ‘charged’. Live work includes live testing, such as using a test instrument to
measure voltage on a live power distribution or control system.

Permit to Work - A form of declaration signed and given by an Authorized

Person to a Competent Person in charge of the work to be carried out on or in close proximity to High Voltage Apparatus, making known to him the
extent of the work, exactly what apparatus is Dead, is Isolated from all Live conductors, has been discharged and Earthed and, insofar as electric
hazards are concerned, on which it is safe to work.

Safety lock - A lock used to secure points of isolation, safety devices and circuit earths, being unique from any other locks used on the system.

Sanction for Test - A form of declaration, signed and given by an Authorized Person to another Authorized Person in charge of testing High Voltage
Apparatus making known to the recipient what apparatus is to be tested and the conditions under which the testing is to be carried out.
Superintendent / Senior Electrical Engineer - A senior Electrical/Mechanical
Engineer suitably qualified and appointed in writing by the Company to be responsible for compilation and administration of rules for High Voltage
Installations and Operations.
 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH VOLTAGE

HIGH VOLTAGE ON SHIPS

As the demand for electrical power on ships increases the supply current ratings becomes too high at 440 V. To reduce the size of both steady state
and fault current levels it is necessary to specify a higher power system voltage at the higher power ratings.

ln marine practice voltages below 1000 V are considered LV (low voltage). HV (high voltage) is any voltage above 1KV
 Typical marine HV system voltages are 3.3 KV and G.6 KV. 10KV Systems are emerging with the still increasing power demands.

HIGH VOLTAGE VERSUS LOW VOLTAGE lN PRACTICE

1. HV systems have more extensive and complex networks and connections

2. Access to HV areas is often strictly limited and securely controlled
3. lsolation procedures are more involved and switching strategies have to be formulated and recorded
4. lsolated equipment, must be Earthed down
5. Appropriate test probes and instruments must be used
6. Diagnostic, insulation resistance testing is necessary
7. Sometimes HV systems are Earthed neutral and use current limiting resistors
8. Special HV circuit breakers are installed
9. Current magnitude is used for discrimination

Why HIGH VOLTAGE?

 By generating electrical power at 6.6 KV instead of MA V the distribution and switching of power levels above about 6 MW becomes more practicable
and manageable.

lf we consider a ship delivering 6 MW of electrical power at 440 V from three 2 MW, 0.8 power factor diesel-generator sets. Each generator's feeder
cable and circuit breaker has to handle a full load current of:

2000000
𝑙= 𝑋440𝑋0.8 = 3300𝐴
√3

lf a short circuit fault occurs on one of the outgoing feeder cables from the main switchboard the feeder circuit breaker would need to be rated to
break a prospective fault current of about 90 KA.

HIGH VOLTAGE SAFETY AND SWITCH GEAR

For the same system at 6.6 KV the full-load current of each generator is:

2000000
𝑋6600𝑋0.8 = 220𝐴
√3

Also, the fault level at the main board would be as low as 9 KA.

H.V. EQUIPMENT

The principal items of a high voltage electrical system would be:

1. The main generating sets.
2. The main and auxiliary HV switchboards with associated switch gear, protective devices and instrumentation
3. High voltage cables.
4. HV to LV transformers.
5. HV to HV transformers typically step down or isolating transformers supplying propulsion converters and motors.
6. HV motors for propulsion, thrusters, ballast-pumps, cargo-pumps and compressors.
HV INSULATION REQUIREMENTS

The winding arrangements for marine HV generators and motors are similar to those at LV except for the need for much better insulating materials
such as Mica-lastic or similar.

The windings of HV transformers are usually insulated with an epoxy resin and quartz powder compound. This is a non-hazardous material which is
maintenance free, humidity resistant and tropicalized. The insulation for the HV conductors requires a more complicated design than is necessary for
LV cables. Both HV cables provide a significant saving in weight, and space, leading to easier installation and a more compact result. Where air is being
used as the insulating medium between bare copper bus-bars and terminals, the creepage and clearance distances between live parts and earth are
greater on HV systems.

H.V. SAFETY

Making personal contact with any electric voltage is potentially dangerous. At high voltage levels the electric shock potential is lethal. Body resistance
decreases with increased voltage level which enhances the current flow. Remember that an electric current shock of as low as 15mA can be fatal. The
risk to people working in HV areas ran be greatly minimized by the diligent application of sensible general and company regulations and procedures.
The access procedure to HV switchboards and equipment must be strictly controlled by using a. Electrical-Permit-Work-system (EPTW), isolation
procedure involving a safety key system, and Earthing Down.

ELECTRICAL PERMIT TO WORK SYSTEM

Before work is commenced on HV equipment an EPTW must be issued. This permit is usually the last stage of a planned maintenance task organized
and approved by the authorizing officer to be carried out by the responsible per-son' The format of a permit will vary for different companies and
organizations. The broad guidelines for the necessary declarations and procedures are outlined below as copied from the Code Of Save Working
Practice or COSWP.
 CHAPTER-02
THE HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH VOLTAGE SYSTEMS .

ARC FLASH INJURIE S TO HUMAN BODIE

 Electrical Hazards
Electricity has become such an integral part of our society that it is often taken for granted. Yet,
electricity remains a very dangerous hazard for people working on or near it. Hazards can include poor
work conditions, equipment or practices. It may also include careless, inadvertent actions made on the
part of individuals. Avoiding hazards requires that as many reasonable precautions be taken as possible
to provide a safe work environment. This starts at the design of the facility and electric system. It
includes the design and specification of the electrical components and equipment, through the
installation, start-up, and operations and during equipment maintenance.

First, we must recognize the three common electrical' hazards that cause injury and even death, while
working on or near electrical equipment and systems:
• Electrical shock
• Arc-flash burns from contact (current) and flash (radiant)
• And arc-blast impact from expanding air and vaporized materials
Many electrical circuits do not directly pose serious shock or burn hazards by themselves. However,
many of these circuits are found adjacent to circuits with potentially lethal levels of energy. Even a
minor shock can cause a worker to rebound into a lethal circuit or cause the worker to drop a tool into
the circuit. Involuntary reaction to a shock may also result in bruises, bone fractures, and even death
from collisions or falls.

A. Electrical Shock
It is estimated that more than 30,000 non-fatal electrical shock accidents occur each year. The National
Safety Council estimates that between 600 and 1,000 people die every year from electrocution. Of those
killed with voltages below 600 volts, nearly half were working on "hot" energized equipment at the time
the fatal injury occurred. Electrocution continues to rank as the fourth highest cause of industrial
fatalities (behind traffic, violence/homicide, and construction accidents).
Most personnel are aware that there is a danger of electrical shock, even electrocution. It's the one
electrical hazard that most electrical safety standards have been built around. However, few really
understand just how little current is required to cause injury, even death. Actually, the current drawn by
a 7 1/2 watt, 120 v lamp, passing across the chest, from hand to hand or foot, is enough to cause fatal
electrocution.
The effects of electric current on the human body depend on:
a Circuit characteristics (current, resistance, frequency and voltage)
b Contact and internal resistance of the body c
The current's pathway through the body,
determined by contact location and internal body
chemistry. d
duration of contact
e Environmental conditions affecting the body's
contact resistance To understand the currents possible in the

2
human body, it is important to understand the contact resistance of skin (see Table Ii). The skin's
resistance can change as a function of the moisture present in its external and internal layers, with
changes due to ambient temperatures, humidity, fright, anxiety, etc. Body tissue, vital organs, blood
vessels and nerve (non-fat) tissue in the human body contain water and electrolytes and are highly
conductive with limited resistance to alternating electrical current. As the resistance of the skin is
broken down by electrical current, resistance drops and current levels increase.

Table I. Human Resistance Values for Various Skin-contact Conditions in ohms

Condition Resistance, (ohms) Dry Wet

Finger Touch 40,003 to 1, 000,000 4,000 4,000 to 15,000

Hand Holding Wire 15,000 to 50,000 3,000 to 6,000

Finger-Thumb Grasp 10,000 to 30,000 2,000 to 5,000

Hand Holding Pliers 5,000 to 10,000 1,000 to 3,000

Palm Touch 3,000 to 8,000 1,000 to 2,000

Hand Immersed 200 to 500

Foot Immersed 100 to 300

Human Body, Internal,

Excluding Skin 200 to 1,000

Consider the human body as a resistor with a resistance R (hand to hand) of just 1,000 ohms. The
voltage V will determine the amount of current passing through the body:

3
• While 1,000 ohms may appear to be rather low, even lower levels can be approached by someone
having sweat-soaked cloth gloves on both hands, and a full hand grasp of a large energized conductor
and a grounded pipe or conduit. Moreover, cuts, abrasions or blisters on hands can negate skin
resistance, leaving only internal body resistance to oppose current flow. A circuit in the range of 50 volts
could be dangerous in this instance. Ohm's Law: I (Amperes) = V
(Volts) / R (Ohms) Example 1: I = 480 / 1000 = 480 mA (or 0.480amps)
Product standards consider 4 to 6 mA to be the safe upper limit for children and adults (hence the reason
a 5 milliamp rated GFCI circuit). (The ground-fault circuit interrupter, or GFCI).
[Note: GFCIs do not protect against a line-to-neutral or a line-to-line shock.]

Electrical currents can cause muscles to lock up. This results in an inability to release the
hand's grasp from the current source. This is known as the "let go" threshold current.
This current level will vary with the frequency (see Table III). DC currents usually cause
a single twitch and are considered less dangerous at lower voltage levels.

Arc Flash Pictures identify the hazard of this explosive energy. Think of an arc flash as a
short circuit through the air. In an arc flash incident, an enormous amount of
concentrated radiant energy explodes out wards from the electrical equipment (see
video), creating pressure waves that can damage a person’s hearing, a high-intensity
flash that can damage their eyesight and a superheated ball of gas that can severely burn
a workers body and melt metal. The pressure waves can also send loose material like
pieces of damaged equipment, tools and other objects flying through the air.

Watch An Arc Flash Video

Arc Flash Pictures show burn injuries and deaths that are caused each year by arc flash
explosions. Arc flashes present numerous dangers to electrical workers due to the
extremely intense high-level heat generated in an arc flash and the pressure wave from
an arc blast incident. The electrical industry is continuously working to advance the level
of knowledge and understanding of arc flash burn incidents. The development of NFPA
70E has provided a national work practice standard to deal with this hazard. This, along
with OSHA law, is an effort to decrease the number of arc flash burn injuries that occur
as a result of an electrical incident. Some recent advances have caused forward
movement in safety and increased knowledge and understanding in this area.

Arc Flash Pictures

In these arc flash burn pictures you can see how severe arc flash burns can cause a slow,
painful death, but even when they aren't fatal, they can do severe damage. Hot gases can
injure lungs and impair breathing. Even curable burns can result in painful skin and
tissue injury that can take weeks or months to heal. Here are a few arc flash burn photos
of typical injuries.

4
ARC_FLASH_BURN_NON_CONTACT_INJURY

5
 Direct Current Alternating Current
60 Hz 10 kHz
Men Women Men Women Men Women
Slight sensation 1 • 0.6 0.4 0.3 7 5
o n
Perception h go"
"let a n d 6.2 3.5 1.1 0.7 12 8
threshold, median
Shock - not painful and no 9 6 1.8 1.2 17 11
loss of muscular control
Painful shock - muscular 62 41 9 6 55 37
control lost by 1/2%
Painful shock - "let-go" 76 51 16 10.5 75 50
threshold, median
Painful and severe shock - 90 60 23 15 94 63
breathing difficult,
muscular control lost

The Effects of Electrical Current on the Body

At 60 Hz. most females have a "let go" limit of about 6 milliamps, with an average of 10.5
milliamps. Most males have a "let go" limit above 9 milliamps, with an average of 15.5 milliamps.

6
Sensitivity, and potential injury, also increases with time. A victim, who cannot "let-go" of a
current source, is much more likely to be electrocuted than someone whose reaction removes
them from the circuit more quickly. The victim who is exposed for only a fraction of a second is
less likely to sustain an injury.

The most damaging path for electrical current is through the chest cavity and head . In short,
_

any prolonged exposure to 60 Hz current of 10ma or more may be fatal. Fatal ventricular
fibrillation of the heart (stopping of rhythmic pumping action) can be initiated by a current flow
of as little as several mili-amperes (mA). These injuries can cause fatalities resulting from either
direct paralysis of the respiratory system, failure of the rhythmic heart pumping action, or
immediate heart stoppage Alternating currents in
the frequently range of skeletal muscles (40 150 Hz) are more serious.
-

During fibrillation, the victim may become unconscious. On the other hand, he may be
conscious, deny needing help, walk a few feet and then collapse. Death may occur within a
few minutes or take hours. Prompt medical attention is needed for anyone receiving electrical
shock. Many of these people can be saved provided they receive proper medical treatment
including cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) quickly.

Table Ill. Effects of Electrical Shock (60 Hz AC)

7
 Response* . 60 Hz. AC Current
Tingling Sensation 0.5 - 3 mA
Muscle Contraction and Pain 3 - 10 mA
"Let Go" Threshold 10 - 40 mA
Respiratory Paralysis 30 - 75 mA
Heart Fibrillation and May Clamp Tight 100 - 200 mA
Tissue and Organs Burn Over 1,500 mA

Think of electrical shock injuries as "icebergs" where most of the injury is unseen below the
surface. Entrance and exit wounds are usually coagulated areas, and may have some charring,
or these areas may be missing, having "exploded" away from the body due to the level of energy
present. The smaller the area of contact, the greater the heat produced. For a given current, damage
in the limbs may be the greatest, due to the higher current flux per unit of cross-sectional area.

Within the body, the current can burn internal body parts in its path. This type of injury may be difficult to
diagnose, as the only initial sign of injury is the entry and exit wounds. Damage to the internal tissues, while
not apparent immediately, may cause delayed internal tissue swelling and irritation. Prompt medical
attention will minimize possible loss of blood circulation and the potential for amputation of the affected
extremity as well as avoid death.

Most electrocutions are preventable. A significant part of the OSHA code is dedicated to
electrical safety. It would be an oversimplification to state that everyone should comply
with the code. However, OSHA code compliance is considered a minimum requirement and seen as a very
good place to start for improving the safety of the workplace.

Any time an electrocution occurs there is the potential for both a civil lawsuit and an OSHA citation. it
is always a good proactive measure to review internal safety procedures when investigating industrial
accidents. Make sure that you have an accurate set of facts to work with. Accidents are always costly -
most can be avoided!

Several standards offer guidance regarding safe approach distances to minimize the possibility of shock
from exposed electrical conductors of different voltage levels. The most recent and probably the most
authoritative guidance is presented in NFPA 70E. Safe approach distances to exposed energized
electrical conductors are discussed in this handbook.

B. Arc Flash

8
Nearly everyone is aware that an electrical shock is a hazard that can ultimately lead to death. In fact,
while many people have experienced minor shocks, few have found any real consequences making them
somewhat complacent. Few appreciate the extreme nature of electrical arc flash and the potential of
severe burns, but this is starting to change.

In recent years, awareness of arc-flash hazards has been increasing. Recent studies of reported electrical
injuries have indicated that as many as 80% of documented injury cases were burns resulting from
exposure to radiant energy from electrical arcs:/ Each year more than 2,000 people are admitted to burn

9
centers with severe electrical burns. Standards organizations are now taking a more active role in
addressing the problem. Electrical burns are considered extremely
hazardous for a number of reasons. One important reason is that contact with the circuit is not necessary
to incur a serious, even deadly, bum.

Fire:-
A fierce conductive-plasma fireball can develop when fault currents occur where poor electrical contacts
or insulation failure allow an arc flash to develop. Serious or fatal burns can occur at distances of more
than 10 ft. from the source of a flash. ''In addition to burns from the flash, flammable clothing can ignite.
Failure to remove or extinguish the clothing quickly enough can cause serious burns over much of the
body.

Electrical workers are frequently required to work on or near energized electrical equipment. Safety
standards and procedures are being developed that recognize the fact that arcs cause serious injuries at
significant distances from energized sources. Spectators should stay away from electrical equipment.
Although they think they are far enough away, they generally do have an understanding of what is a
safe approach
distance.

Radiant Heat

An electrical arc flash is the passage of electric current between two conducting metals through an
ionized gas or vapor, usually air. It is initiated by a flashover, or from the introduction of some
conductive material (ex. screwdriver). Arc temperatures can exceed 35,000 °F at the arc terminals.
Compare this to the surface of the sun where the temperature is about 9,000 °F. No material on earth
can withstand this temperature. In fact, not only do all materials melt at this temperature but they
vaporize. The

10
misconception is that the magnitude of an arc is solely due to the magnitude of the voltage. The
amount of arc energy generated is actually dependent on the current available and the time taken by
the circuit breaker of fuse to clear the fault

Burns suffered in electrical accidents are of three basic types: Electrical

burns — tissue damage (whether skin deep or deeper) occurs because the body is unable
to dissipate the heat from the current flow. Typically, electrical burns are slow to heal.

Arc burns — caused by electric arcs and are similar to heat burns from high temperature
sources. Temperatures generated by electric arcs can melt near by material, vaporize
metal in close vicinity, and bum flesh and ignite clothing at distances of 10 ft or more.

Thermal contact burns — normally experienced from skin contact with the hot surfaces of
overheated electric conductors or clothing once ignited. The human body survives in a relatively
narrow temperature range around 97.7 °F. Studies show that when the skin temperature is as low
as 110 °F, the body's temperature equilibrium begins to break down in about 6 hours. At 158 °F,
only one-second duration is sufficient to cause total cell destruction. Exposure of the skin- to
temperatures of 200 °F for more than one tenth (1/1 0th) of a second will cause incurable "third
degree" burns.

Skin Temperature Tolerance Relationship

Skin Temperature Time of Skin Temp. Damage Caused
110 °F 6 Hours Cell breakdown starts

11
 158 °F 1 sec. Total cell destruction
176 °F 0.1 sec Curable bum
200 °F 0.1 sec Incurable bum

C. Arc Blast

High-energy arcing faults generate a tremendous amount of heat. This heat causes melting,
vaporization and expansion of -conducting material as well as expansion of air creating a pressure
wave. This pressure wave ("blast") is a serious electrical hazard that is often not recognized. While
it has been known to save many lives by rapidly hurling victims away from the arc heat source, more
often it causes serious falls and other injuries.
Physical injuries include:
a)impact with objects b)Hearing
damage
c) concussion-- a stunning, damaging, or shattering effect from a hard blow; especially : a jarring injury of the
brain resulting in disturbance of cerebral liquid.

d).Flying shrapnel from damaged electrical and mechanical components, as well as molten
conductive metals, may cause injuries to individuals in close proximity may be subjected to severe
pressures and also likely to suffer short-time loss of memory or may not remember the intense
explosion of the arc itself.

The main sources of this pressure wave coming from an electrical arc include:

a Heating of the air passage of the arc through it (much like lightning)
b Expansion from melting, boiling and vaporizing of the conducting metal

Copper expands by a factor of 67,000 times as it vaporizes, in the same way that water expands about
1,670 times when it becomes steam. This accounts for the expulsion of near-vaporized droplets of
molten metal from an arc. It also generates plasma (ionized vapor) that moves outward from the arc for
distances proportional to the arc energy. As discussed earlier, this heat with the addition of molten metal
droplets emanating from the arc can cause serious burns to nearby personnel.

Another consequence of arcs is damage to equipment and nearby structures. One study found that the
pressure from a 100 kA, 10 kV arc reached a pressure level of about 400 lb/ft2 at a distance of just over
three feet. This force could easily destroy a conventional wall at a distance up to 40 feet away. A smaller
25 kA arc blast could destroy a wall or equipment at a distance of nearly 10 feet.

This same 25 kA arc can create as much as 160 lb/ft2 of pressure on an individual two feet from the arc
source. This would place 480 lbs. of force upon an average person's body. It is certainly enough energy
to knock a person from a ladder or throw them across the room. This level of pressure has also been
found to cause ear damage. Hearing protection even in low noise level locations should be considered.

12
Electrical equipment must sometimes be maintained while energized. This means that workers could be
exposed to energized circuits during a fault. The risk of a fault occurring while people are in close
proximity to equipment must be taken into account. As in shock and arc flash, the ideal method to avoid
this hazard is to stay away from exposed energized electrical systems. Unfortunately, this is not always
possible.

Attending to Electrical Accident Victims Preparedness:-

Site personnel need to be trained in CPR and first-aid techniques to prepare for possible electrical
accidents. CPR training and periodic retraining of site personnel must be carefully planned and
documented. .
First-aid supplies approved by the consulting physician should be easily accessible when required. The
first-aid kit should consist of materials approved by the consulting physician, in a weatherproof
container with individually sealed packages for each type of item. The contents of the first-aid kit should
be checked weekly to ensure that all supplies are present and in good order.
Plans must be in place for transporting accident victims to a physician or hospital. Recovery of electrical
accident victims can be greatly enhanced if they can be transported as quickly as possible to a burn
center or other medical facility that specializes in electrical trauma. 23Employers should evaluate
medical facilities in their area and determine in advance where such victims should be taken and how
they will be transported. Emergency telephone numbers and specific instructions should be con-
spaciously posted.

Locations of eyewash stations and safety showers must be posted so that they are easily found to cool
and flush the burn victim after an accident.

Effects of Electrical Accidents

Electrical accidents and the complexities of the trauma they cause to the human body have historically
been surrounded by mystery and lack of understanding. As more knowledge is gained about electrical
trauma, strategies for effectively handling the emergency and ways to improve hospital treatment of
victims become more apparent. In addition, research suggests ways in which workplace supervisors and
responders can help an accident victim's caregivers provide appropriate medical attention.
In the case of an electrical accident, the extent of injury to the victim often is not immediately apparent.
Some symptoms may be masked by the more readily apparent thermal effects of the injury (burns).
Caregivers must be aware of additional possible biological effects of electric shock.
In an arc-flash or arc-blast energy accident , the victim's skin, ears, eyes, lungs, internal organs, and
nervous, muscular, and skeletal systems can be affected not only by the direct effects of electrical
current, but also by the following:
• Radiant heat from an electrical arc that produces extremely high temperatures
• Disturbance of the heart's electrical conduction, causing changes in the heart rhythm or

13
 possible cardiac arrest
• Barotrauma-- Damage to the lung from rapid or excessive pressure changes, as may occur when a
patient is on a ventilator and is subjected to high from the acoustic and vibratory forces around arc blast.
• Inhaled or deposited vapors released through an arc explosion
Accident victims are also subject to the following types of injury related to contact with electricity:
• Low-voltage contact wounds •
High-voltage contact wounds of entry and exit of electrical current
• Bums.
• Respiratory difficulties (The tongue may swell and obstruct the airway, or vaporized metal or
heated air may have been inhaled.) •
Infectious complications.
• Injury to bone through falls, heat necrosis (death of tissue), and muscle con traction (Shoulder
joint injuries and fracture of bones in the neck are common injuries caused by muscle contraction.)
• Injury to the heart such as ventricular fibrillation, cardiac arrest or stoppage
• Internal and organ injuries
• Neurological (nerve) injury. •
Injury to the eyes (Cataracts from electrical injury have been reported up to three years after an
accident.)

Enhancement of Chances for Recovery

In most electrical accidents, the inability to diagnose the extent of injury at the time of admission to the
hospital can delay the patient's treatment. Recovery can be enhanced by more detailed information about
the accident, including the system voltage, amount of available current, length of contact with current,
and possibility of arc flash. Recovery can be maximized by transporting the victim as quickly as
possible to a burn center or other facility that specializes in treatment of electrical tra

A. Procedures
In response to an electrical accident, the following procedures should be followed immediately:
• Remove the immediate hazard; turn off the power. If you are a witness to an electrical accident,
exercise great caution that you do not sustain injury as well. Always assume that the source of electricity
is still energized unless you or another qualified person determines that the power has been turned off.
Unless you are using insulated equipment (e.g., voltage-rated gloves, hot sticks, a rubber blanket, etc.) to
dislodge a victim, you must delay the rescue effort until the circuit can be interrupted.
Devices and CPR training • Speed
is essential. The victim's potential for injury increases with contact time. The resistance of the body is
mostly in the skin. If the skin breaks down electrically, only the low internal body resistance remains to
impede current. • Call for help.
Delegate someone else to get help, if possible. Make sure that an ambulance or emergency medical
service is on the way. • Begin CPR. If the
victim's pulse or breathing has stopped, cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) is essential to avoid brain
damage, which usually begins in four to six minutes. If CPR is needed, make sure assistance is on the

14
way but do not wait for help to arrive. Make sure you and the victim are in a safe zone (not in contact
with any electrical source and out of reach of any downed or broken wires). If the person is unconscious,
begin the CPR sequence.
• Apply first aid to the victim. •
- If the person's clothing is on fire, remind him/her to drop and roll, or tackle him/her, if necessary, to
smother the flames. -• Cool the
burn with water or saline for a few minutes or until the skin returns to normal temperature. (For flash
bum victims, safety showers may be the best method due to the possibility of wide-spread surface burns
on the body.) Do not attempt to remove clothing that is stuck to a bum.
- Remove constricting items such as shoes, belts, jewelry, and tight collars from the victim.
--Elevate burned limbs to reduce swelling. -
Handle the victim with care, being aware that he or she might have bro ken bones or spinal injuries.
- Treat for shock: maintain body temperature, do not give anything by mouth; administer high
concentrations of oxygen, if available.
- Keep the victim warm and as comfortable as possible while awaiting transport to the medical facility.
Cover him or her with clean, dry sheets or blankets. Cover burn wound(s)

15
 with sterile
dressings or clean sheets

B. Additional Information

After the victim's immediate needs are met, note as many details of the accident as possible. The details
can help an accident victim's caregivers provide appropriate medical attention. It is especially

16
important that hospital personnel know the cause of the victim's injuries. They need to know if the
victim had contact with electricity or if arc flash caused the injuries.

While the victim of electrical contact may suffer some surface burns where the current entered the body,
he or she often suffers additional, less visible (internal) damage because of the path of the current
through the body.

The flash burn victim is more likely to have greater evident burn damage on the surface of the body, due
to the extremely high temperatures from arc flash. He or she is likely to suffer first, second, and third-
degree burns, especially on the face, wrists, ears, back of the head, neck, and ankles. Any skin surface
that is not adequately covered by protective clothing or equipment is at risk.

In addition to burns to the skin, the flash burn victim may also have inhaled metal vapor (such as
copper) into the lungs or suffered adverse effects (such as damage to the eardrum) due to the pressure
wave caused by arc blast.

C. Advance Help for Accident Victims

Prepare a checklist in advance to provide detailed information about an accident (see the sample
checklist in the Appendix). This list should be a part of a site's emergency response plan for electrical
injuries. Make this checklist readily available on site and communicate its existence to all employees. A
completed copy should accompany the victim to the hospital or treatment center if at all possible.

The information will help to ensure the best possible evaluation and treatment by initial medical
caregivers.

III. Who's Responsible for Safety?

In most instances, three distinctly different entitle% are associated with a project or site: the employer,
the employee, and the owner. When discussing responsibility, it is important to understand the existence
of these different roles.

• The "Employer “can be thought of in terms of a person who represents "the Company." The
employer, then, can be the owner of the company or any member of the line management of the
organization.

• On the other hand, the "Employees the electrician or other worker. A first or second-line
supervisor, then, has two roles. He or she may be a representative of the company, operating as an
employer, in addition to being an employee.

17
• The term "Owner" has still a different twist. Rather than a person, the owner is the entity that
owns the equipment or facility. The owner has a role and responsibility that is somewhat different from
either employer or employee.

In The Act, OSHA is chartered to establish requirements for "Employers". It has no jurisdiction to
assign responsibilities to employees. Therefore, meeting requirements defined by OSHA is the
responsibility of the employer (management of .the company). It is the employer who must provide for a
safe workplace. It is the employer who must establish and implement a safety program. It is the
employer who must establish an enforcement policy to ensure that employees follow established
practices.

In the case where a "Contractor" is performing work on a site or facility owned by someone else, some
inherent responsibilities must be assumed by the "Owner". Perhaps the most important of those
responsibilities is to make sure that the contractor is fully apprised of all hazards existing that might
impact the work.

National consensus standards are not similarly constrained. As a result, NFPA 70E also assigns
responsibility. Responsibility assigned to the employer is the same as in 29 CFR 1910 Subpart S. The
employer's responsibilities include the development and implementation of an electrical safety program,
and the development of safety procedures and guidelines for an employee safety training program on
proper implementation of those procedures.

NFPA 70E suggests that employees are responsible for implementing the program and procedures
provided by the employer. The standard goes on to suggest that although responsibility of employer and
employee are distinct and clear, the most effective process is to establish a close working relationship
between employer and employee in which each has value for the other as they work together.

IV. Electrical Accident and Hazard Prevention

Before working on electrical equipment it is important to provide an "Electrically Safe Work

Condition". This is defined by the NFPA 70E as a state in which the conductor or circuit component to
be worked on, or near, has been:

• disconnected from energized parts (verified by checking S/L drawings) NOTE: Current drawings
are very important to make sure that alternate sup plies are known

• locked out/tagged out in accordance with established standards

• tested to ensure the absence of voltage

• grounded if determined necessary

Before approaching the equipment disconnect it is important to wear the appropriate Personal Protective
Equipment. This is to provide proper protection form potential electrical hazards. Once this process is

18
 complete the individual may start to work on the equipment. At this point Personnel Protection
Equipment may be reevaluated and some equipment removed to match the potential hazards. It is always
a good idea to be overly cautious, aware, alert, yet efficient.

Because workers may need to work on or near equipment not in an electrically safe work condition,
additional safety measures must be taken. Because it is possible for electrical arcs to seriously burn
employees, the NFPA 70E has adopted procedures to provide safe working distances from a hazardous
arc. One formula used for these calculations is based upon the work and a technical paper by Ralph H.
Lee, "The Other Electrical Hazard: Electrical Arc Blast Burns," IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Applications, Volume

Arc Flash Safety

Preventing arc flash accidents or minimizing their impact requires a comprehensive safety program
involving both electrical workers and management. The following steps should be taken to ensure
worker safety:

Perform an electrical hazard analysis. Use the guidelines in NFPA 70E (NFPA 70E requirements for safe
work practices to protect personnel by reducing exposure to major electrical hazards. Originally
developed at OSHA's request and IEEE 1584 (to identify and assess electrical shock and arc flash risks
throughout your facility. IEEE Std.1584tm, IEEE Guide for Performing Arc Flash Hazard Calculations
defines the practice for performing detailed arc flash calculations
1. To ensure you have a safe workplace, and that you are meeting NEC, (NEC Corporation is a Japanese
multinational provider of information technology services and products, with its headquarters in Minato,
Tokyo, Japan) OSHA, (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) IEEE,( Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers ) and NFPA 70E requirements, use specialized arc flash software to calculate
protection boundaries. These include the Flash Protection Boundary, Limited Approach Boundary,
Restricted Approach Boundary and the Prohibited Approach Boundary.
Use Lockout/Tag-out procedures to ensure equipment is de-energized, or live components are isolated.

19
 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT IS REQUIRED UNTIL ELECTRICAL
EQUIPMENT IS PLACED INTO AN ELECTRICALLY SAFE WORK CONDITION
AT THE START OF A SHUTDOWN.

CHAPTER 03
THE FUNCTIONAL, OPERATIONAL AND SAFETY REQUIREMENTS
FOR A MARINE HIGH VOLTAGE SYSTEMS

20
 Electrical Safety Program
Reducing and even eliminating exposure to electrical hazards requires continuous attention. An overall
electrical safety program must be implemented that emphasizes specific areas of concern. The program
must be well thought out and based upon solid principles, resulting in a program which includes an
action plan and required tasks. People who are well-versed in safety standards and procedures must
write the program. Program authors should include safety professionals, technical professionals, and
practitioners. And the program must be published and readily available to all employees.

There are at least three good reasons for practicing electrical safety:

 Personal reasons, which affect us as caring individuals and employers

 Business reasons, because safety makes good business sense
 Regulatory and legal reasons, because violations can result in fines and / or imprisonment.

21
 An essential element in an effective electrical safety program is training. From both a legal and
effective point of view, training records are important. Training should be based on the program and
procedures in place within an organization. The training should focus first on building knowledge and
understanding of electrical hazards and second on how to avoid exposure to these hazards. As a person
completes a specific segment of training, a record should be established and maintained.

There are five objectives of an electrical safety program:

 To make personnel aware that there are rules, responsibilities and procedures for working
safely in an electrical environment.
 To demonstrate the employer's intention to fully comply with the federal law.
 To document general requirements and guidelines for providing workplace facilities free from
unauthorized exposure to electrical hazards.
 To document general requirements and guidelines to direct the activities of personnel, who
could be deliberately, or accidentally, exposed to electrical hazards.
 To encourage, and make it easier for each employee to be responsible for his or her own
electrical safety self-discipline.

VI. Planning Work Procedures

All electrical work should be planned before the work begins. For non-hazardous

Electrical work, the plan is typically unwritten. Written or not, all plans must consider all hazards and
guard against them. Jobs that are done repeatedly should have a written procedure, which is followed
each time the work is performed. If at any time the plan is not clear, all work must stop and the plan
reviewed.

A. Procedures
Procedures typically come in two varieties: plans written specifically for a particular job, or one that may
take the form of a more general procedure which may include a check list or simply a verbal plan.

Written procedures should be prepared by a person who understands the work to be done and the
hazards involved (qualified person). He, or she, should also be familiar with the equipment being
worked on. Procedures for work performed should be reviewed with the appropriate individuals
responsible.

22
 Written procedures must include a step-by-step outline of the work to be performed and a one-line
diagram or other appropriate drawings to be used to discuss the job.

B. Documentation
When planning electrically hazardous tasks, the following documentation may be required:

 Hazard/Risk Analysis. This will include a review of the available hazards including a flash
hazard analysis.
 Approach Dist ances to e xposed Energiz ed Electri cal Conductors and Circuit Devices.
Use Table VII for these distances. Note: the flash hazard boundary can be calculated using the
formulas in section VI, C. of this handbook.
 Requirements Checklist for Electrical Hazardous Tasks. This should be a checklist developed by
the proper authorities, which outlines the protection requirements, requirements for review and
approval, etc. for various work tasks, voltage levels and approach boundaries, etc.
VII. Principles for Safety
Electrical safety starts with training, planning and education. To reduce electrical hazards, we need to
address each hazard as the work is being assigned and planned. An excellent overview of electrical
safety requirements can be found in 29 CFR Parts 1910.331 - 1910.335; "Safety-Related Work
Practices." These requirements contain information on "qualified" vs. "unqualified" persons, training
requirements, work practice selection, use of electrical equipment, and safeguards for personnel
protection. If these requirements had been followed completely few, if any, injuries or deaths would occur.

Shock and Burn Recommendations:

 Review programs for the inspection and/or repair of portable electrical equipment for completeness
and effectiveness.
 Review policies concerning work permits on "live" circuits with a goal of reduc ing the frequency of
such work.
 Emphasize electrical worker training in certain areas such as the following:
 Lockout/tag out practices
 Use of protective equipment
 Use of insulated tools
 Minimum approach distances
 Meter selection/testing/use
 Electrical rescue/CPR

- Include a pre-task review of the following for supervision of selected

electrical work:
 Goals of the task
 Task methodology (live vs. lockout/tagout)

23
 Qualifications of assigned personnel - proper instrumentation/tools
 Adequate protective equipment and usage
 Methods of preventing a fall should a shock occur
 Perform an inventory of energized electrical circuits with a goal of disconnecting unused circuits
from the source and removing the wiring
Employees should be provided training that covers information regarding electrical risks such as
inadequate grounding and reverse polarity and likely electric shock producing equipment, including
extension cords, plugs, and portable power tools. The dangers of energized and unattended appliances
should be stressed in this training as well as the theory behind lockout and tag out procedures.
Employees working with electricity must also be informed on how to recognize electric shock
victims, safe methods of rescue, and

A. TRAINING, PLANNING AND WRITTEN PROCEDURES

Here are some principles which, when implemented, will help ensure proper preparation for working on
electrical equipment:

1. PLAN EVERY JOB. Most accidents occur when something unexpected hap pens. Take time
to prepare a plan that considers all possible eventualities. Before you start the job, think
about each step and try to visualize the potential for a hazard. Conduct a "Flash Protection
Boundary" analysis.

1. ANTICIPATE UNEXPECTED RESULTS. When thinking about a job, break each task into small steps.
Understand that plans can change, so be ready to modify the plan if necessary. Make sure
that everyone involved in the job is working according to the same plan. Whenever work is
required near an electrical haz ard, a written plan is needed to outline the scope of the job.

2. USE PROCEDURES AS TOOLS. Procedures are the best way to help you pre pare, execute, and
complete the job. Like any tools, make sure your procedures are maintained.

3. IDENTIFY THE HAZARD. After your work plan is complete, review each step. Consider that the
equipment might be perfectly safe under normal conditions and very unsafe when systems are not
working properly. Also consider potential hazards that may be unrelated to electrical energy.

4. ASSESS PEOPLE'S ABILITIES. Any person assigned to tasks associated with electrical energy must be
qualified and trained for the job at hand. He or she must be able to identify electrical hazards, avoid
exposure to those hazards, and understand the potential results of all action taken. Don't forget to
include yourself in this analysis. And don't forget to establish and maintain training records.
B. PROVIDING AN ELECTRICALLY SAFE WORK CONDITION

24
 "Electrically Safe Work Condition" is a concept first introduced in a consensus standard, NFPA 70E. The
concept embraces several ideas and suggests that six different steps must be taken before an
electrical circuit is safe to touch without personal protective equipment. Electricians and other
workers tend to believe that a circuit is safe to touch if it is de-energized. The fact that injuries continue
rather frequently, based upon this belief, proves that additional steps are needed.

It seems people believe that if a lock and tag are placed on a labeled disconnecting means, the
equipment is safe to work on. However, issues need to be considered. For example, labels can be
marked incorrectly, equipment can be supplied from more than one source, or a temporary
conductor could have been installed. It's also feasible that an unrelated energized circuit conductor
could contact the conductor leading to the work area.

In still different instances, other workers or complicated systems can affect the work area. We
sometimes take for granted that if the contact point is tested for absence of voltage, the point is safe
for executing the task. But this only proves that there is no voltage present at the time of the
voltage test. Voltage can be absent due to a process interlock being open, or a second source of
energy could simply be turned off for the moment. Avoiding accidents and injury requires training,
planning and preparation.

Section 2-1.1.3 of the NFPA 70E requires a process of six discrete and independent steps be
executed prior to declaring the existence of an electrically safe work condition. Only after these six
steps have been executed can work begin without possible exposure to an electrical hazard. The six
steps are as follows:

 Determine all possible sources of energy. Review all reliable and up-to-date drawings, documentation,
and identification tags and labels. Drawings must include ALL energy sources, including temporary and
backup power sources.
 After properly interrupting the load, open all disconnecting devices for the circuit. At this
point, the equipment or circuit is simply de-energized.
 Where possible, visually verify that all disconnecting devices, including draw out circuit breakers
are open. Also check that all disconnecting devices meet proper codes and standards.
 Apply lockout tag out devices in accordance with documented and established policy. An
established policy is an enforced written procedure made available to all employees.
 Use adequately rated voltage testers to verify the absence of voltage on each point where
physical contact is expected. Employees are required to use only voltage testing equipment
that is rated by a third party.
 Where the possibility of induced Voltage or stored energy exists, ground the phase
conductors before touching them. Where it is reasonable to expect that the conductors
could be re-energized due to accidental contact with another source of energy, install

25
 grounding devices rated for the available fault current. Until these six steps have been adequately
executed, there exists some potential of exposure to an electrical hazard
Here are some additional principles which, when implemented, will help to ensure a safe work area:

1. USE THE RIGHT TOOL FOR THE JOB. Use the appropriate tools for the job at hand, keeping them
accessible and in good working condition. Using a screwdriver for a job that requires a fuse puller is an
invitation to an accident.

2. ISOLATE THE EQUIPMENT. The best way to avoid an accident is to reduce exposure to hazards.
Keep doors closed. Keep barricades in place. Install te mporary voltage rated blankets covering
exposed live parts.

3. PROTECT THE PERSON. Use the proper personal protective equipment for the job. This may
include safety glasses or goggles, head protection, voltage -rated gloves, safety belts and
harness, or flame-resistant clothing.

4. MINIMIZE THE HAZARD. If it is impossible to establish an electrically safe work environment, be

sure to shut down every possible energy source. Understand that sometimes a de-
energized circuit can become re-energized and to do some

5. AUDIT THESE PRINCIPLES. A principle is something you believe in enough to be willing to do. Are you
willing to take the steps necessary to avoid injury? Review these principles often. Add to them when
necessary.

6. DESIGNING AN ELECTRICALSYSTEM FOR SAFETY

Here are some principles which, when added to electrical system and equipment specifications, will
improve safety for workers.

ISOLATE THE CIRCUIT.

Electrical systems must be designed to support preventative maintenance, with easy access to the
equipment. Designers need to make it easy to isolate equipment for repair with a disconnecting means
that pro-vides for
proper implementation of
lockout/tag out
procedures.

A sound design
provides
disconnecting
means at all motor loads.

26
This is in addition to the disconnecting means required at the controller that can be locked in the open
position. Disconnecting means at the motor provide improved isolation and safety for maintenance and
for use in case of an emergency.
Isolate the Circuit - Motor Disconnecting Means NEC 430.102 requires a disconnecting means within
sight, and on the line side, of every low voltage motor controller. In general, a disconnecting means is
also required in sight of every motor. There are exceptions for large industrial facilities with written
electrical safety program§ where only qualified personal work on equipment and for situations where the
disconnect would introduce additional or increased hazards. It is good practice to place a disconnect at
every motor or machine. This allows for the immediate shut down of a motor or machine if someone
gets "caught-up" in the equipment. Can you imagine being hung-up in a machine and having to wait
while someone runs some distance to a motor control center, tries to find the right bucket, and finally
disconnects the circuit? Finally, some industrial plants do not allow a disconnect on the other side of an
isle from the motor/machine, for those times when a lift truck might be blocking the aisle.

Use of Motor Disconnecting Means

An orderly system shutdown should also be required to minimize the hazards to personnel and
equipment, resulting from an electrical event. To address this situation the National Electrical Code
provides for a system of coordinated over-current protection devices.

Isolate the Circuit - Selective Coordination

Today, more than ever, one of the most important parts of any installation is the electrical distribution system.
Nothing will stop all activity, paralyze production, inconvenience and disconcert people, and possibly
cause a panic more effectively' than a major power failure.
Isolation of a faulted circuit from the remainder of the installation is MANDATORY in today's

27
modern electrical systems. Power Blackouts cannot be tolerated.
Isolating the faulted circuit can also be a serious safety issue. where an orderly shutdown is
required to minimize hazards to personnel and equipment, a system of coordinated short-circuit
protection shall be permitted. Therefore it is not enough to select protective devices based solely on their
ability to carry the system load current and interrupt the maximum fault current at their respective levels.
A properly engineered system will allow only the protective device nearest the fault to open, leaving the
remainder of the system undisturbed and preserving continuity of service. Selective coordination is
considered the act of isolating a faulted circuit from the remainder of the electrical system, thereby
eliminating unnecessary power outages. The faulted circuit is isolated by the selective operation of only
that over current protective device closest to the over current condition
COVER EXPOSED COMPONENTS. Equipment must be "Finger-Safe" (IP2X) where possible
to avoid potential contact with energized conductors. It is not always possible to de-energize the
equipment before working on it. If energized metal components could be exposed during
routine maintenance, covers, shields, and insulating barriers must be used in accordance with safety
standards .

Isolating barriers provide increased protection from an electrical shock hazard. If possible, place the
barrier on while the equipment is temporarily shut down. For new equipment, or equipment being
modified, provide equipment that meets IP2X requirements.
Note: The use of IP2X devices or the placement of insulating barriers may effectively protect personnel
from shock hazards, but may not protect personnel from flash hazards. Therefore, the use of these
devices may change the electrical shock hazard classification but does not always eliminate the
requirements of flash protection if the task involves work inside the flash hazard boundary.
LIMIT THE ENERGY. Circuits should also be designed to limit the available arc-flash energy.
The use of smaller or higher impedance transformers and current-limiting over current devices will
help to reduce the flash energy. This will provide improved protection for both equipment and
employees.

28
 CHAPTER 4
SWITCHING AND ISOLATION PROCEDURE ON A MARINHIGH
VOLTAGE SYSTEMS COMPLETE WITH SAFETY
DOCUMENTATION

Safety precautions and procedures for work on high voltage equipment

General This
guidance does not apply where equipment has been isolated, discharged, disconnected and removed
from the system or installation.

Equipment that is considered by an Authorized Person (HV) to be in a dangerous condition should be

isolated elsewhere and action taken to prevent it from being reconnected to the electricity supply.

29
 All working on, or testing of, high voltage equipment connected to a system should be authorized by a
permit-to-work or a sanction-for test following the procedures. No hand or tool (unless the tool has been
designed for the purpose) must make contact with any high voltage conductor unless that conductor has
been confirmed dead by an Authorized Person (HV) in the presence of the Competent Person (HV).

Where any work or test requires an Accompanying Safety Person (HV) to be present, he/she should be
appointed before that work or testing can begin.

Voltage test indicators should be tested immediately before and after use against a test supply designed
for the purpose.

Where the procedures involve the application of circuit main earths, the un-authorized removal of such
earths should be prevented, wherever practicable, by the application of safety locks.

Where the procedures involve the removal of circuit main earths, that is, testing under a sanction-for-
test, the earth’s will be secured with working locks. The keys to these locks will be retained by the Duty
Authorized Person (HV), who will remove and replace the earths as requested.

Testing at high voltage

Where high voltage tests are to be undertaken, a sanction-for-test should be issued to the Competent
Person (HV) who is to be present throughout the duration of the tests.

The areas containing exposed live conductors, test equipment and any high voltage test connection
should be regarded as high voltage enclosures.

High voltage test enclosures

Un-authorized access to a high voltage test enclosure should be prevented by, as a minimum, red and
white striped tape not less than 25 mm wide, suspended on posts, and by the display of high voltage
danger signs. An Accompanying Safety Person (HV) or the Duty Authorized Person (HV) should be
present throughout the duration of the tests, and the area should be continually watched while testing is
in progress.

Withdrawable equipment

Voltage transformers must not be removed or replaced if any of the windings are energized. If they need
to be removed, the equipment supplying the voltage transformer must be isolated.

When withdraw able electrical equipment has been disconnected from all supplies and withdrawn from
its normal live position, its conductors must be discharged to earth but need not remain connected to
earth. The enclosure and any shutters should be locked off.

Work on remotely and automatically controlled electrical equipment

30
Before work is carried out on remotely or automatically controlled equipment such as circuit breakers,
isolators, tap-changing gear or associated air compressors, all remote-control and automatic features
should first be rendered inoperative. No work must be carried out on the controlling equipment, wiring
or relays except by the Authorized Person (HV) or Competent Person (HV) working under the personal
supervision of the Authorized Person (HV).

Electrical equipment which can be made live from a DNO’s supply system

Except in an extreme emergency, any switching which may affect a DNO’s network should be carried
out with the full knowledge and agreement of the DNO’s

Distribution control engineer concerned. The switching operation should be recorded by the Authorized
Person (HV).

Switching to the distribution control engineer’s instructions, or with his/her consent, should be carried
out without undue delay. All switching – whether to a distribution control engineer’s instructions or with
his consent, or under conditions of emergency – should be reported to the distribution control engineer
as soon as possible after each operation.

Where work is to be carried out on electrical equipment which is directly connected to a DNO’s high
voltage network, then switching, earthing, the depositing of safety keys in the key safes, and the issuing
of any permit-to-work or sanction-for-test should be the responsibility of an Authorized Person (HV)
appointed by the distribution network operation.

Work on busbar spouts of multi-panel Switchboards

When work is to be carried out on bursar spouts, the following operations should be carried out in strict
sequence:

a. the Authorized Person (HV) should record the details of necessary safety precautions and switching
operations on a safety program and produce an isolation and earthing diagram;

b. the section of the bus bar spouts on which work is to be carried out must be isolated from all points of
supply from which it can be made live; c. the
isolating arrangements should be locked so that they cannot be operated, and shutters of live spouts
locked shut. Caution signs should be fixed to the isolating points;

d. where applicable, danger signs should be attached on or adjacent to the live electrical equipment at
the limits of the zone in which work is to be carried out;

e. bus bars should be checked by means of an approved voltage indicator to verify that they are dead, the
indicator itself being tested immediately before and after use. The checking with the voltage indicator
31
should be done on the panel to which the circuit main earths are to be applied. This test should also be
made on the panel on which the work is carried out;

f. circuit main earths should be applied at a panel on the isolated section of the bus bar other than that at
which work is to be done using the method recommended by the switchgear manufacturers. The
insertion of hands or any tool into the contact spouts for this purpose is not an acceptable practice;

g. an earth connection should also be applied to all phases at the point-of-work;

h. the permit-to-work should be issued to cover the work to be done. During the course of the work,
where applicable, the earth connection(s) at the point-of-work may be removed one phase at a time.
Each phase earth connection must be replaced before a second-phase earth connection is removed;

j. on completion of the work, the permit-to-work should be cancelled.

Work on feeder spouts, voltage transformer spouts or single-panel bus bar spouts
When work is to be carried out on feeder or voltage transformer spouts, or on bus bar spouts of a single
panel, the following operations should be carried out in strict sequence:

a. the Authorized Person (HV) should record the details of necessary safety precautions and switching
operations on a safety program and produce an isolation and earthing diagram;

b. the spouts on which work is to be carried out must be isolated from all points of supply from which
they can be made live;

c. the isolating arrangements should be locked so they cannot be operated, and the shutters of live spouts
should be locked shut. Caution signs should be fixed to all isolating points;

d. where applicable, danger signs should be attached on or adjacent to the live electrical equipment at
the limits of the zone in which work is to be carried out;

e. spout contacts should be checked by means of an approved voltage indicator to verify that they are
dead, the indicator itself being tested before and after use;

f. the circuit should be earthed with approved earthing equipment at the point-of-work and where
practicable at all points of the isolation from the supply. For the purpose of earthing metal-clad
switchgear, approved appliances only should be used. The insertion of hands or any tools into contact
spouts for this purpose is not an acceptable practice;

g. a permit-to-work should be issued;

h. during the course of the work, where practicable, the earth connection(s) at the pointof- work may be
removed one phase at a time. Each phase earth connection must be replaced before a second-phase earth
connection is removed;

j. on completion of the work, the permit-to-work should be cancelled.

32
Work on distribution transformers

When work is to be carried out on the connections to, or the windings of, a distribution transformer:

a. the Authorized Person (HV) should record the details of necessary safety precautions and switching
operations on a safety program, and produce an isolation and earthing diagram;

b. the switchgear or fuse gear controlling the high voltage windings should be switched off, and a safety
lock and caution sign fitted;

c. the low voltage windings of the transformer switch or isolator should be switched off, and a safety
lock and caution sign fitted, or other physical means should be used to prevent the switch being
energized during the course of work;
d. where applicable, danger signs should be attached on or adjacent to the live electrical equipment at
the limits of the zone in which work is to be carried out;

e. the transformer should be proved dead at the points-of-isolation if practicable;

f. an earth should then be applied to the high voltage winding via the switchgear and a safety lock fitted.
If the proprietary earthing gear is available for the low voltage switchgear, it should be fitted and safety
locks applied (it is advisable to retest for dead before fitting this earthing gear);

g. before a permit-to-work is issued – the Authorized Person (HV) should, at the point of- work in the
presence of the Competent Person (HV), identify and mark the transformer to be worked on. The permit-
to-work and the key to the key safe should then be issued to the Competent Person (HV);

h. if the conductors of the transformer are exposed during the work – the Authorized Person (HV)
should confirm dead via a high voltage indicator to the satisfaction of the Competent Person (HV)
before any physical contact is made.

The transformer must be isolated from all common neutral earthing equipment from which it may
become live. This does not require the disconnection of solidly earthed neutrals or neutral equipment
connected solely to the transformer on which work is to be done.

Work on generators
When work is to be carried out on the connections to, or the windings of, a generator:

a. the Authorized Person (HV) should record the details of necessary safety precautions and switching
operations on a safety program and produce an isolation and earthing diagram;

33
b. the switchgear supplied by the high voltage windings should be switched off and a safety lock and
caution sign fitted. Care should be taken to ensure that any auxiliary supplies are also isolated with
safety locks and caution signs are fitted;

c. the engine starting mechanism should be inhibited and safety locks and caution signs fitted. Caution
signs should be fitted to the engine start panel;

d. where applicable, danger signs should be attached on or adjacent to the live electrical equipment at
the limits of the zone in which work should be carried out;

e. the generator should be proved dead at the points-of-isolation if practicable;

f. an earth should then be applied to the high voltage winding via the switchgear and a safety lock fitted;

g. before a permit-to-work is issued – the Authorized Person (HV) should, at the point of- work in the
presence of the Competent Person (HV), identify and mark the generator to be worked on. The permit-
to-work and the key to the key safe should then be issued to the Competent Person (HV);

h. if the conductors of the generator are exposed during the work – the Authorized Person (HV) should
confirm dead via a high voltage indicator to the satisfaction of the Competent Person (HV) before any
physical contact is made.

Issuing of a permit-to-work or sanction for Test

Before a permit-to-work or a sanction-for-test is issued, the Duty Authorized Person (HV) should
identify the equipment on which the work or test is to be undertaken. If the work involves, or may
involve, obtaining access to items of equipment over which confusion could occur, the Duty Authorized
Person (HV) should identify such items to the Competent Person (HV) and apply temporary marking to
them.

Before issuing a permit-to-work or sanction-for test, the Authorized Person (HV) should show the
Competent Person (HV) the isolation and earthing diagram and indicate the safety arrangements at the
points-of-isolation and at the point-of-work or test. The Authorized Person (HV) should ensure that the
Competent Person (HV) understands all the relevant safety procedures and precautions. If the
Competent Person (HV) thereafter accepts the permit or sanction, that person becomes responsible for
the defined work or test until the permit or sanction is cancelled.

Authorized Persons (HV) undertaking tasks requiring permits-to-work or sanctions-for-test should issue
the documents to themselves. All such documents must be countersigned by a site certified Authorized
Person (HV) before the work or test starts. The Authorized Person (HV) then becomes the Competent
Person (HV).

34
 WORK PROCEDURES
Working procedures are divided in to three distinct groups.
1. Dead working
2. Live working
3. Working in the vicinity of live parts
Working in the vicinity of live parts:
All work activity in which the worker enters the vicinity of live zone with his body or with tools and
equipment without encroaching in to live zone.

Using the correct personal protective equipment (PPE) and following safe work practices will
Minimize risk of electrical shock hazards

Dead Working:
Work activity on electrical installations which are neither live nor charged, carried out after taking all
measures to prevent electrical danger.

PRECAUTIONS BEFORE STARTING WORK

- Obtain PTW/Sanction- to- Test Permit before commencing work
- Test and prove that the equipment is DEAD before earthing. (With a HV line tester)
- Earth the equipment

35
General Information PERMIT-T0-WORK:
Issued by an authorized person to a responsible person who will perform the task of
Repair/maintenance
Generally valid only for 24-Hrs. Permit to be re-validated by the permit-holder if work extends beyond
24 Hrs. after issue
Formats will vary and be customized for a particular vessel/marine installation.

Permit to Work- BROAD GUIDELINES:

Prepared in Carbon-copied Duplicate and has at least five sections.
FIRST section states the nature of work to be carried out.
SECOND section declares where electrical isolation and earthing have been applied and where Danger
/Caution notices have been displayed.
THIRD section is signed by the Person receiving the Permit acknowledging that he is satisfied
with the safety precautions taken and the Isolation/ Earthing measures adopted.
FOURTH section is signed by the Permit-holder that the work has been completed/suspended.
FIFTH Section is signed by the Issuing authority cancelling the Permit.
INSULATION RESISTANCE TESTS OF HV EQUIPMENT:
A 5000 VDC Megger, Hand-cranking or Electronic can be used for equipments up to 6.6KV.
For routine testing of IR, 5000 VDC must be applied for 1 minute either by cranking at constant speed
with a Hand-cranking megger or by maintaining a 5000 VDC continuously by a PB in an Electronic
Megger.
IR values taken at different temperatures are unreliable, particularly if the temperature
Differences are more than 10 degrees.

Before applying an IR test to HV equipment its power supply must be switched off, isolated,
Confirmed dead by an approved live-line tester and then earthed for complete safety.
The correct procedure is to connect the IR tester to the circuit under test with the safety earth connection
ON. The safety earth may be applied through a switch connection at the supply circuit breaker or by a
temporary earth connection local to the test point. This is to ensure that the operator never touches a
unearthed conductor. With the IR tester now connected, the safety earth is disconnected (using an
insulated extension tool for the temporary earth). Now the IR test is applied and recorded. The safety
earth is now reconnected before the IR tester is disconnected. This safety routine must be applied for
each separate IR test. At prescribed intervals and particularly after a major repair work on an equipment
or switchgear, a Polarization Index (PI) may be taken to assess the condition of insulation of the
equipment. PI readings are less sensitive to temperature changes.

POLARISATION INDEX ( PI ):

When the routine IR value tests (taken at different temperatures) are doubtful or during annual refit or
after major repairs are undertaken, a PI test is conducted.

PI value is the ratio between the IR values recorded after application of the test voltage continuously for
10 minutes to the value recorded after 1 minute of application.

36
A PI value of 2.0 or more is considered satisfactory.
A motor-driven megger is essential for carrying out a PI test.

Safety testing of HV equipment:

Normally the safe testing of HV equipment requires that it is disconnected from its power supply.
Unfortunately, it is very difficult, impossible and unsafe to closely observe the on-load operation of
internal components within HV enclosures. This is partly resolved by temperature measurement with an
recording infra-red camera from a safe distance. The camera is used to scan an area and the recorded
infra-red image is then processed by a computer program to display hot-spots and a thermal profile
across the equipment.

CHAPTER 05
BASIC ARRANGEMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE
SYSTEMS AND THEIR PROTECTIVE DEVICES

37
Arrangement of Switch rooms
Offshore & Marine Units

Dangers and precautions while Switching

One of the most common causes of arc-flash injuries happens when switching on electrical circuits
Small arcs usually form in switches when the contacts first touch, and can provide a place for an arc
flash to develop. If the voltage is high enough, and the wires leading to the fault are large enough to
allow a substantial amount of current, an arc flash can form within the panel when the breaker is turned
on.
.Circuit breakers are often the primary defense against current runaway, especially if there are no
secondary fuses, so if an arc flash develops in a breaker there may be nothing to stop a flash from going
out of control. Once an arc flash begins in a breaker, it can quickly migrate from a single circuit to
the bus bars of the panel itself, allowing very high energies to flow. Precautions must usually be used
when switching circuit breakers, such as standing off to the side while switching to keeps the body out

38
of the way, wearing protective clothing, or turning off equipment, circuits and panels down line prior to
switching. Very large switchgear is often able to handle very high energies and, thus, many places
require the use of full protective equipment before switching on one.

In addition to the heat, light and concussive forces, an arc flash also produces a cloud of plasma and
ionized particles. When inhaled, this ionized gas can cause severe burns to the airways and lungs. The
charged plasma may also be attracted to metallic objects worn by people in the vicinity, such as ear
rings, belt buckles, keys, body jewelry, or the frames of glasses, causing severe, localized burns. Care
should usually be taken when switching circuits to remove any metals from a person's body, to hold
their breath and close their eyes. An arc flash is more likely to form in a switch that is closed slowly, by
allowing time for an arc to form between the contacts, so it is usually more desirable to "throw" switches
with a fast motion, quickly and firmly making good contact. High-amperage switches often have a
system of springs and levers to assist with this

Protecting personnel

There are many methods of protecting personnel from arc flash hazards. This can include personnel
wearing arc flash personal protective equipment (PPE) or modifying the design and configuration of
electrical equipment. The best way to remove the hazards of an arc flash is to de-energize electrical
equipment when interacting with it, however de-energizing electrical equipment is in and of itself an arc
flash hazard. In this case, one of the newest solutions is to allow the operator to stand far back from the
electrical equipment by operating equipment remotely, this is called remote racking.

The need for higher power levels for both offshore and marine use has spawned a breed of High Voltage
Sub/Generating Stations totally divorced from land supplies. These stations have 11 kV, 6.6V or 3.3kV
as the primary generating and transmission voltage and of necessity are very compact.

Switch rooms containing the switchgear can also be utilized to house the transformer albeit in separate
compartments but in the same secure area. The circuit breakers are designed for minimum maintenance
and rarely use oil as the insulating/arc quenches medium, vacuum or Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) taking
preference being non-flammable. The majority of such substations are indoor, totally enclosed,
with in many cases, forced ventilation/cooling.

In such installations, control is rarely from the local switch rooms, but rather from a remote mimic control
board or more recently from computer screens. Access to such switch rooms should therefore be
infrequent and can be limited to authorized personnel.

39
Most modern High Voltage switch rooms, due to their importance in the operation of the vessel, are
protected by either smoke detection systems or automatic fire protection systems.

Smoke detection systems detect the presence of smoke within the protected area and the system
normally alarms to a central control area, who will initiate the agreed procedure.

Automatic fire protection systems are normally of the gas flooding type, upon detection of a fire, the
system automatically discharges a predetermined amount of gas into the protected area. The type of
gas used in the protected area should be displayed at all entry doors and local written procedures must be
followed, i.e. isolating the automatic feature before entering the protected area and re-instating upon
leaving.

Switch room Equipment Marine equipment falls into the following categories:
1) Switchboards containing the switchgear and control gear
2) Transformers
3 Protection Relays
4) Tripping and Auxiliary Supplies (Batteries)
5) Earthing
1. Switchgear and Control Gear
Switchgear and Control Gear in the general term cover switching devices and their combination with
the associated control, measuring, protective current transformers and the assembly of such devices
and equipment, together with their enclosures usually termed switchboards.

On ships with an installed generating capacity in excess of 3MW the switchboard is usually subdivided
the subdivision may be effected by removable links, circuit breakers or other suitable means with
generator feeders and duplicated services split equally. The switchboard should have non-conducting
handrails placed at the front and hack. The switchboard may also be
mounted on shock/vibration mounts and dependant on its location also be constructed with the circuit
breakers raised from the deck to cope with partial flooding.

Ship
based 1 lkV, 6.6kV and 3.3kV switchgear is metal enclosed meaning that it has metal enclosure
intended to be earthed and complete except for external connection. Circuit Breakers are mechanical
(as opposed to electronic) switching devices which are capable of making, carrying and breaking
currents under normal conditions and also making, carrying for a specified time and breaking abnormal
currents such as those of short circuit.

Switches used in marine applications are commonly termed LOAD BREAK FAULT MAKE in that they will
make, carry and break their normal rated current but will also make and carry for a specified time
abnormal currents such as those short circuit but are incapable of breaking that current.

40
Isolators are mechanical switching devices which provide in the open position, an isolating distance
such that the circuit cannot be’re-established by arcing. They will carry normal and for a specified time
abnormal currents but are not generally intended to break any current. Isolating contacts of withdraw
able Circuit Breakers, Contactors, Voltage Transformers fall into this category.

Transformers

The majority of transformers used on ships are of the dry type or epoxy resin encased these are
preferred primarily due to the reduced fire risk. Due to the cramped conditions found in machinery
spaces and switch rooms of most seagoing vessels one of the most onerous tasks is supplying
adequate cooling, therefore forced air systems are not uncommon. Marine transformers also tend to
be subjected to larger volt drops, switching surges and over voltages caused by un-cleared earth faults.
Mechanical stresses caused by shock and vibration in heavy seas also play a part in the design of
transformers used.

Protection
The type and complexity of the electrical protection afforded any circuit is dependent upon the type of
equipment and its role within the overall system. Important items which could cause major disruptions
to the function of the system are fitted with comprehensive protection schemes whilst minor items are
fitted only with a basic form. ***

The current transformers for the operation of these protective schemes are usually fitted in the
switchgear, the relays they operate sited as close as possible, often on a relay panel which is an integral
part of the unit. This is to reduce the burden (load) on the CTs which if excessive can affect the
satisfactory operation of the protection.

In addition the way in which the protection system operates can vary from vessel to vessel due to the
different ways in which earthing can be applied. Prospective fault levels could also vary due to changes
made in generation or the introduction of a shore supply these may have an effect on protective
equipment.

Security
Switch rooms whether in living or machinery spaces should be adequately enclosed to prevent un-
authorized access bulkhead doors and hatch ways which gain access to switch rooms should have
warning signs and the voltage indicated by clear and indelible means. Doors should be secured, closed
with locks of a type for which keys are not readily available and such keys should only be issued to
authorized personnel. Whilst the equipment within such a classified area should contain and safely
disperse electrical energy released under fault conditions, when catastrophic failures have occurred to
avoid injuring personnel, access to a switch room should be restricted.

41
 Access and Lighting
Switchboards should have an unobstructed passageway not less than lm wide in front of the
switchboard if the switchboard contains withdraw able equipment e.g. a circuit breaker and starter chassis
the unobstructed passage should not be less than 0.4m wide. Anti slip
coverings, which in addition are insulated, should also be used in marine applications.
Access at the rear of a switchboard should be not less than 0.6m to allow adequate room for
maintenance account should be taker of any stiffeners or frames.

Switch rooms should not be used as workshop or storage areas, the lighting should be sufficient for
personnel to work safely and avoid danger as stated in the Electricity at Work Regulations 1989.
Emergency lighting within such areas is recommended as they are frequently the focal point when a
power failure occurs.

42
4. Tripping and Auxiliary Supplies

Where dc tripping/closing supplies have lead 2rid batteries on continuous trickle charge in a self
contained unit they should be sited where there is adequate ventilation. In cases where the batteries
are a separate unit they should not be sited in the same area as switchgear or transformers but in a
designated battery room complying with all the relevant regulations for such rooms. It is not always
appreciated that without a healthy tripping supply the whole system is place I in jeopardy, yet they
often tend to be neglected and ill maintained.

Also bear in mind the additional hazards batteries have in marine applications, the corrosive nature of
electrolyte whether acid or alkaline and the threat posed to ship structures from such material and the
danger of lead acid batteries being exposed to salt water with the liberation of chlorine gas.

(The following discussion extracted from Wiki Projects-Energy)

There are two ways that chlorine can be generated when it comes to batteries:

(1) If seawater gets between the terminals of any battery, chorine can be generated by electrolysis―a
well known bloating concern.

(2) If seawater gets into the cells of a lead storage battery, i.e., into the electrolyte, the lead dioxide in
the electrodes, which is a strong oxidizing agent, can convert chloride ion to chlorine:

2Cl- + PbO2 +SO4 +4H+ = Cl2 +PbSO4 + 2H2O

Chlorine gas poisoning, also known as bertholite poisoning is illness resulting from the toxic effect
of chlorine in its gaseous states. It occurs after the inhalation of chlorine gas beyond the threshold limit
value. Chlorine gas is a toxic gas and pulmonary irritant with intermediate water solubility that causes
acute damage to the receptors in the epithelium of the respiratory tract. The dose inhaled determines
the toxicity on the respiratory tract. Prolonged exposure to low concentration of chlorine gas may have
lethal effects, as can short-term exposure to high concentrations. Excess chlorine gas in the lung and
bloodstream deregulate the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen through the chloride ion.

Symptoms of mild acute poisoning include sneezing, tearing, nose irritation and throat irritation, while
larger exposures can lead to significant toxicity of the respiratory tract and heart and sometimes death.
Following acute poisoning, long-term squeal often occur and chronic exposure to low levels of chlorine
gas can lead to memory loss. It is easily absorbed through the lungs and its inhalation result in CNS
damage and death. Different people and races may have different chlorine gas tolerance

43
levels. Chlorine gas exposure may lead to a significantly shorter life span due to heart damage.
Individual tolerance level for chlorine gas may be altered by several factors, such as metabolic rate,
hematological disorders and barometric pressure.
The primary manifestations of chlorine gas poisoning develop in the organ systems most dependent
on oxygen use: the central nervous system and the heart. The initial symptoms of acute chlorine gas
poisoning include dyspnea, nausea and vomiting, violent cough, chest pains, lightheadedness,
headache and muscle weakness. Headache is the most common symptom of acute chlorine gas
poisoning; it is often described as dull, frontal, and continuous. Increasing exposure produces cardiac
abnormalities including fast heart rate, cardiac arrhythmia, hypotension and respiratory arrest. Less
common symptoms of acute chlorine gas poisoning include hypertension, myocardial ischemia, muscle
necrosis, skin lesions and pneumonia.

5. Earthing
Marine electrical earthing systems have a number of significant characteristics which differentiate them
from typical land based systems.

The wet, salty, high vibration level operating environment is harsh and may cause earth faults to occur,
particularly in exposed electrical fittings.

Whether or not to intentionally earth the neutral point in marine electrical power system has been subject
to debate ever since A.C. generation and distribution systems were introduced into ships.

High
reactance or intentionally unearthed systems have the advantage of low earth fault currents with the
possibility of sustained operation under fault conditions and are usually supported by alarm and
indication, however faults are not normally self revealing. High resistance earthing is similar in that
operation may be possible under fault conditions (though not advisable), and earth alarms and indicators
are fitted but due to marginally higher fault magnitude the use of earth fault relays becomes possible.
Low reactance and low resistance systems have higher fault levels typically 200 — 400A therefore
sustained operation under fault conditions is not possible, protection is likely to be afforded by earth
fault relays or over current devices. Solid connection of earth has the highest fault level, with the most
risk of arcs and fires. Faults are however self revealing and over current devices and RCD's can be
employed for electrical safety. It also allows for the use of land based lighting and hotel services
equipment.

It is of course possible that a ship may have a variety of earthing methods employed dependant on the
application. Unearthed or high resistance earthing on a propulsion system and a transformer with star
point solidly earthed feeding domestic lighting systems for instance.

44
What protection does an electrical mat offer?

Important safety information!

Electrical safety floor mats can only protect against earth contact through the floor: -
It is important to note that electrical mats will not provide any protection against electric shock if
the operator or user simultaneously touches a large area of metal likely to have an earth (such as
those found on control panels) and an exposed live conductor.

Persons could receive a lethal shock unless they are also protected by personal protective
equipment such as our electrical safety gloves.

Only suitably qualified personnel should work on electrical equipment.

BS EN 61111 2009 - Electrical Safety Rubber

Matting
This is industry standard for electrical safety matting following the withdrawal of the previous standard BS
921:1976. Under the BS EN 61111:2009, the matting has to undergo a far more comprehensive testing process
compared to the BS 921:1976 standard. It is available in 5 different classes (classes 0-4) with a fluted pattern on
one side and a cloth impression on the reverse. It is also printed with colour coded text denoting working
voltage and class. Class 0 and Class 1 grades are available as standard.

Applications: Protection around areas where high voltage equipment is being used.

The BS EN 61111 specification also requires that manufacturers test the material
against the following criteria:

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 Mechanical Puncture Resistance
Oil Resistance
Acid Resistance
Slip Resistance
Flame Retardancy
Ageing
Marking Durability

Inspection of rubber matting

Prior to and after each use, insulating mats, covers and barriers are to be visually inspected for the
following defects:
1. Blisters, cracks, cuts. tears, perishing, patches, protuberances, cracking and holes in the insulation
material,
2. signs of damage or physical deterioration,
3. embedded foreign matter, and
4. defective fastenings.

Insulating mats, covers and barriers are to be individually labelled or marked with a means of
establishing the last test date and next test date due
They are to be stored and handled carefully, away from sharp objects, tools, chemicals or other
equipment, which might cause damage. Insulating mats, covers and barriers are to be washed at intervals
not more than six months. Insulating mats are to be tested as specified by AS2978 at intervals not more
than six months. Mats, covers or barriers that are cut down are to be individually marked, or tagged
(legible and durable) with electrically non-conductive material for identification.
The tag is to be securely attached. The following information is to be marked on the item or tag: name of
the manufacturer, year and month of manufacture, the classification and provision for a re-test date.

46
 CHAPTER – 06
THE FUCTIONAL, OPERATIONAL AND SAFETY
REQUIREMENTS FOR MARINE HIGH VOLTAGE SYSTEMS
Protection against Electrical Hazards
What is the best way to protect you against electrical hazards?
Most electrical accidents result from one of the following three factors:
• Unsafe equipment or installation,
• Unsafe environment, or
• Unsafe work practices.

Some ways to prevent these accidents are through the use of insulation, guarding, grounding, electrical
protective devices, and safe work practices.

What protection does insulation provide?

Insulators such as glass, mica, rubber, or plastic used to coat metals and other conductors help stop or reduce the
flow of electrical current. This helps prevent shock, fires, and short circuits. To be effective, the insulation must
be suitable for the voltage used and conditions such as temperature and other environmental factors like moisture,
oil, gasoline, corrosive fumes, or other substances that could cause the insulator to fail.
How do you identify different types of insulation?
Insulation on conductors is often color coded. Insulated equipment grounding conductors usually are either solid
green or green with yellow stripes. Insulation covering grounded conductors is generally white or gray.
Ungrounded conductors, or “hot wires,” often are black or red, although they may be any color other than green,
white, or gray.
Before connecting electrical equipment to a power source, it’s a good idea to check the insulation for any exposed
wires for possible defects. Insulation covering flexible cords such as extension cords is particularly vulnerable to
damage. The insulation that covers conductors in non-construction applications is regulated by Subpart S of 29
CFR 1910.302 through 1910.308, Wiring Design and Protection. Subpart S generally requires insulation on
circuit conductors. It also specifies that the insulation used should be suitable for the voltage and conditions.
Conductors used in construction applications are regulated by Subpart K of 29 CFR 1926.402 through 1926.408.
What is guarding and what protection does it offer?
Guarding involves locating or enclosing electric equipment to make sure people don’t accidentally come into
contact with its live parts. Effective guarding requires equipment with exposed parts operating at 50 volts or more
to be placed where it is accessible only to authorized people qualified to work with it. Recommended locations are
a room, vault, or similar enclosure; a balcony, gallery, or elevated platform; or a site elevated 8 feet (2.44 meters)
or more above the floor. Sturdy, permanent screens also can serve as effective guards. Conspicuous signs must be
posted at the entrances to electrical rooms and similarly guarded locations to alert people to the electrical hazard
and to forbid entry to unauthorized people. Signs may contain the word “Danger,” “Warning,” or “Caution,” and
beneath that, appropriate concise wording that alerts people to the hazard or gives an instruction, such as
“Danger/High Voltage/Keep Out.”

47
What is grounding and what protection does it offer?
“Grounding” a tool or electrical system means intentionally creating a low-resistance path that connects to the
earth. This prevents the buildup of voltages that could cause an electrical accident. Grounding is normally a
secondary protective measure to protect against electric shock. It does not guarantee that you won’t get a shock or
be injured or killed by an electrical current. It will, however, substantially reduce the risk, especially when used in
combination with other safety measures discussed in this booklet. 29 CFR, Part 1910.304, Subpart S, Wiring
Design and Protection, requires at times a service or system ground and an equipment ground in non-construction
applications. A service or system ground is designed primarily to protect machines, tools, and insulation against
damage. One wire, called the “neutral” or “grounded” conductor, is grounded. In an ordinary low-voltage circuit,
the white or gray wire is grounded at the generator or transformer and at the building’s service entrance. An
equipment ground helps protect the equipment operator. It furnishes a second path for the current to pass through
from the tool or machine to the ground. This additional ground safeguards the operator if a malfunction causes the
tool’s metal frame to become energized. The resulting flow of current may activate the circuit protection devices.
What are circuit protection devices and how do they work?
Circuit protection devices limit or stop the flow of current automatically in the event of a ground fault, overload,
or short circuit in the wiring system. Well-known examples of these devices are fuses, circuit breakers, ground-
fault circuit interrupters, and arc-fault circuit interrupters.

Fuses and circuit breakers open or break the circuit automatically when too much current flows through them.
When that happens, fuses melt and circuit breakers trip the circuit open. Fuses and circuit breakers are designed to
protect conductors and equipment. They prevent wires and other components from overheating and open the
circuit when there is a risk of a ground fault.

Ground-fault circuit interrupters, or GFCIs, are used in wet locations, construction sites, and other high-risk areas.
These devices interrupt the flow of electricity within as little as 1/40 of a second to prevent electrocution. GFCIs
compare the amount of current going into electric equipment with the amount of current returning from it along
the circuit conductors. If the difference exceeds 5 milliamperes, the device automatically shuts off the electric
power.

Arc-fault devices provide protection from the effects of arc-faults by recognizing characteristics unique to arcing
and by functioning to deenergize the circuit when an arc-fault is detected.
What work practices help protect you against electrical hazards?
Electrical accidents are largely preventable through safe work practices. Examples of these practices include the
following:
• deenergizing electric equipment before inspection or repair,
• keeping electric tools properly maintained,
• exercising caution when working near energized lines, and
• using appropriate protective equipment. Electrical safety-related work practice requirements for general industry
are detailed in Subpart S of 29 CFR Part 1910, in Sections 1910.331–1910.335. For construction applications,
electrical safety-related work practice requirements are detailed in Subpart K of 29 CFR Part 1926.416 to
1926.417.
How can you protect yourself against metal parts that become energized?
A break in an electric tool’s or machine’s insulation can cause its metal parts to become “hot” or energized,
meaning that they conduct electricity. Touching these energized parts can result in an electrical shock, burn, or
electrocution. The best way to protect yourself when using electrical tools or machines is to establish a low-
resistance path from the device’s metallic case to the ground. This requires an equipment grounding conductor, a
low-resistance wire that directs unwanted current directly to the ground. A properly installed grounding conductor
has a low resistance to ground and greatly reduces the amount of current that passes through your body. Cord and
plug equipment with a three-prong plug is a common example of equipment incorporating this ground conductor.

48
16 Another form of protection is to use listed or labeled portable tools and appliances protected by an approved
system of double insulation or its equivalent. Where such a system is employed, it must be marked distinctively to
indicate that the tool or appliance uses an approved double insulation system.
How can you prevent an accidental or unexpected equipment startup?
Proper lockout/tag out procedures protect you from the dangers of the accidental or unexpected startup of
electrical equipment and are required for general industry by OSHA Standard 1910.333, Selection and Use of
Work Practices. Requirements for construction applications are in 29 CFR 1926.417, Lockout and Tagging of
Circuits. These procedures ensure that electrical equipment is de-energized before it is repaired or inspected and
protects you against electrocution or shock.

The first step before beginning any inspection or repair job is to turn the current off at the switch box and padlock
the switch in the OFF position. This applies even on so-called low-voltage circuits. Securely tagging the switch or
controls of the machine or equipment being locked out of service clarifies to everyone in the area which
equipment or circuits are being inspected or repaired.

Only qualified electricians who have been trained in safe lockout procedures should maintain electrical
equipment. No two of the locks used should match, and each key should fit just one lock. In addition, one
individual lock and key should be issued to each maintenance worker authorized to lock out and tag the
equipment. All employees who repair a given piece of equipment should lock out its switch with an individual
lock. Only authorized workers should be permitted to remove it.
How can you protect yourself from overhead power lines?
Before working under or near overhead power lines, ensure that you maintain a safe distance to the lines and, for
very high-voltage lines, ground any equipment such as cranes that can become energized. If working on power
lines, ensure that the lines have been deenergized and grounded by the owner or operator of the lines. Other
protective measures like guarding or insulating the lines help prevent accidental contact.

Employees unqualified to work with electricity, as well as mechanical equipment, should remain at least 10 feet
(3.05 meters) away from overhead power lines. If the voltage is more than 50,000 volts, the clearance increases by
4 inches (10 centimeters) for each additional 10,000 volts.

When mechanical equipment is operated near overhead lines, employees standing on the ground should avoid
contact with the equipment unless it is located outside the danger zone. When factoring the safe standoff distance,
be sure to consider the equipment’s maximum reach.
What protection does personal equipment offer?
Employees who work directly with electricity should use the personal protective equipment required for the jobs
they perform. This equipment may include rubber insulating gloves, hoods, sleeves, matting, blankets, line hose,
and industrial protective helmets designed to reduce electric shock hazard. All help reduce the risk of electrical
accidents.
What role do tools play?
Appropriate and properly maintained tools help protect workers against electric hazards. It’s important to
maintain tools regularly because it prevents them from deteriorating and becoming dangerous. Check each tool
before using it. If you find a defect, immediately remove it from service and tag it so no one will use it until it has
been repaired or replaced. When using a tool to handle energized conductors, check to make sure it is designed
and constructed to withstand the voltages and stresses to which it has been exposed.
What special training do employees need?
All employees should be trained to be thoroughly familiar with the safety procedures for their particular jobs.
Moreover, good judgment and common sense are integral to preventing electrical accidents. When working on
electrical equipment, for example, some basic procedures to follow are to:
• deenergize the equipment,

49
• use lockout and tag procedures to ensure that the equipment remains deenergized,
• use insulating protective equipment, and
• maintain a safe distance from energized parts.
What’s the value of a safety and health program in controlling electrical hazards?
Every good safety and health program provides measures to control electrical hazards.
The measures suggested in this booklet should be helpful in establishing such a program. The responsibility for
this program should be delegated to someone with a complete knowledge of electricity, electrical work practices,
and the appropriate OSHA standards for installation and performance. Everyone has the right to work in a safe
environment. Safety and health add value to your business and your workplace. Through cooperative efforts,
employers and employees can learn to identify and eliminate or control electrical hazards.

OPERATIONAL & SAFETY FEATURES OF SWITCH GEAR

Switchgear is a General term covering mechanical switching devices and their combination with
associated control, measuring, and protective equipment and the assemblies of such devices and equipment
in enclosures and supporting structures often called Switchboards in power engineering.
The majority of modern 11kV, 6.6k'T and 3.3kV switchgear is metal enclosed meaning that it has a
metal enclosure, intended to be earthed, and complete with all ancillary equipment except for external
connections. Switching devices must conform to The Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 regulation
5) which states that "No electrical equipment shall be put into use where its strength capability may

50
 be exceeded in such a way as to give rise in danger". Therefore, they are all capable of carrying, currents
under normal circuit conditions such as those of short circuit. Switching devices however play different
roles in a circuit and while their definition “a device designed to make and break in one or more
circuits`(BS4727) is concise it does not differentiate between the capabilities and limitations of such
devices.

‘Isolator; Disconnector
An isolator, whilst - classified as a switching device, cannot in High Voltage Equipment make or
break any significant current and only provides in the open n- ...don an isolating distance such that
the circuit cannot remake under normal or abnormal voltage conditions. Dedicated
isolators are to be found :-on duplicate Bus bar systems to facilitate the changeover from one Bus bar
to another without the interruption of the circuit.

a) Where isolation is required other than for electrical purposes.

b) On non-withdraw able circuit breakers equipped for selecting circuit earth. (Often termed selectors).

c) All withdraw able circuit breakers, contactors and voltage transformers have isolating contacts and thus
fall into this category, a point often overlooked. Safety Feature

a)All isolators must have interlocking to prevent as far as practicable opening or closing of a circuit
on load, they are essentially an OFF LOAD device.

Standard Units

Bus bar Earth Service Circuit Earth

51
 Front Bus bar Rear Bus bar

Bus Section

Front Bus bar Earth Service Rear Busbar Earth

 Features •The most important interlock on a Circuit-breaker is the isolating interlock which
prevents the isolation of the Circuit-breaker whilst in the closed position.
On withdraw able units mechanical interlocks ensure that the Circuit-breaker is in a predetermined
position before it can be replaced in the cubicle and racked into the Service position.
All withdraw able units have automatic shutters which cover any conductors which could be Live
when the carriage is withdrawn. Oil Circuit-breakers have a pressure relief valve to prevent a buildup
of pressure due to the gases produced in the arc quench process Gas Circuit-breakers (Sulphur
Hexatiouride SF6) are fitted with alarms for low gas pressure and in some cases a stage of 'lock out'
preventing. Operation Locking facilities are provided to enable any Live orifices to be secured
closed.

AWARENESS WHEN OPERATING SWITCHGEAR

 When isolating circuit breakers using operating handle, cease operation if mechanism becomes tight or
stiff and seek advice from an instructor. DO NOT USE UNDUE FORCE.
1. Remove circuit breakers/contractor making sure your hands are clear as carriage is removed & replaced.
Ensure your head is clear of enclosure when entering or leaving panel compartment.
2. Allow yourself sufficient space, withdraw the carriage from switchboard to give safe access. Do not
operate switch gear mechanisms if you are not familiar with safe operation
 3. The switchgear is operated more frequently than normal plant conditions, it therefore suffers more
wear and mechanisms/interlocks sometimes can become loose or misalign. To prevent damage closely
observe when operating equipment

52
V.C.B IN OPERATIONAL POSITION V.C.B. IN TEST POSITION

V.C.B. IN MAINTENANCE POSITION

53
VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKER
A vacuum circuit breaker is such kind of circuit breaker where the arc quenching takes place in vacuum.
The technology is suitable for mainly medium voltage application. For higher voltage Vacuum
technology has been developed but not commercially viable. The operation of opening and closing of
current carrying contacts and associated arc interruption take place in a vacuum chamber in the
breaker which is called vacuum interrupter. The vacuum interrupter consists of a steel arc chamber in
the centre symmetrically arranged ceramic insulators. The vacuum pressure inside a vacuum
interrupter is normally maintained at 10– 6 bar.

The material used for current carrying contacts plays an important role in the performance of
the vacuum circuit breaker. Cu Cr is the most ideal material to make VCB contacts. Vacuum interrupter
technology was first introduced in the year of 1960. But still it is a developing technology. As time goes
on, the size of the vacuum interrupter is being reducing from its early 1960’s size due to different
technical developments in this field of engineering. The contact geometry is also improving with time,
from butt contact of early days it gradually changes to spiral shape, cup
shape and axial magnetic field contact. The vacuum circuit breaker is today recognized as most reliable
current interruption technology for medium voltage system. It requires minimum maintenance
compared to other circuit breaker technologies.
Advantages of vacuum circuit breaker or VCB
Service life of Vacuum Circuit Breaker is much longer than other types of circuit breakers. There is no
chance of fire hazard as oil circuit breaker. It is much environment friendly than SF6 Circuit breaker.
Beside of that contraction of VCB is much user friendly. Replacement of Vacuum Interrupter (VI) is
much convenient.
Operation of Vacuum Circuit Breaker
The main aim of any circuit breaker is to quench arc during current zero crossing, by establishing high
dielectric strength in between the contacts so that reestablishment of arc after current zero becomes
impossible. The dielectric strength of vacuum is eight times greater than that of air and four times
greater than that of SF6 gas. This high dielectric strength makes it possible to quench a vacuum arc
within very small contact gap. For short contact gap, low contact mass and no compression of medium
the drive energy required in vacuum circuit breaker is minimum. When two face to face contact areas
are just being separated to each other, they do not be separated instantly, contact area on the contact
face is being reduced and ultimately comes to a point and then they are finally de-touched. Although
this happens in a fraction of micro second but it is the fact. At this instant of de-touching of contacts in
a vacuum, the current through the contacts concentrated on that last contact point on the contact
surface and makes a hot spot. As it is vacuum, the metal on the contact surface is easily vaporized due
to that hot spot and create a conducting media for arc path. Then the arc will be initiated and

54
continued until the next current zero.

At current zero this vacuum arc is extinguished and the conducting metal vapour is re-condensed on
the contact surface. At this point, the contacts are already separated hence there is no question of re-
vaporization of contact surface, for next cycle of current. That means, the arc cannot be reestablished
again. In this way vacuum circuit breaker prevents the reestablishment of arc by producing high
dielectric strength in the contact gap after current zero.

There are two types of arc shapes. For interrupting current up to 10kA, the arc remains diffused and
the form of vapour discharge and cover the entire contact surface. Above 10kA the diffused arc is
constricted considerably by its own magnetic field and it contracts. The phenomenon gives rise over
heating of contact at its center. In order to prevent this, the design of the contacts should be such that
the arc does not remain stationary but keeps travelling by its own magnetic field. Specially designed
contact shape of vacuum circuit breaker make the constricted stationary arc travel along the surface of
the contacts, thereby causing minimum and uniform contact erosion.

55
56
 Types and Operation of SF6 Circuit Breaker

A circuit breaker in which the current carrying contacts operate in Sulphur Hexafluoride or SF6 gas is
known as an SF6 Circuit Breaker.
SF6 has excellent insulating property. SF6 has high electro-negativity. That means it has high affinity of
absorbing free electron. Whenever a free electron collides with the SF6 gas molecule, it is absorbed by
that gas molecule and forms a negative ion.The attachment of electron with SF6 gas molecules may
occur in tow different ways,1) SF6 + e = SF6 –
2) SF6 + e = SF5 – + F These negative ions obviously much heavier than a free electron and therefore over

57
all mobility of the charged particle in the SF6 gas is much less as compared other common gases. We
know that mobility of charged particle is majorly responsible for Hence, for heavier and less mobile
charged particles in SF6 gas, it acquires very high dielectric strength. Not only the gas has a good
dielectric strength but also it has the unique property of fast recombination after the source energizing
the spark is removed. The gas has also very good heat transfer property. Due to its low gaseous
viscosity (because of less molecular mobility) SF6 gas can efficiently transfer heat by convection. So due
to its high dielectric strength and high cooling effect SF6 gas is approximately 100 times more effective
arc quenching media than air. Due to these unique properties of this gas SF6 Circuit Breaker is used in
complete range of medium voltage and high voltageelectrical power system. These circuit breakers are
available for the voltage ranges from 33KV to 800KV and even more.

58
Disadvantages of SF6 CB
Conducting current through a gas.The SF6 gas is identified as a greenhouse gas, safety regulation
are being introduced in many countries in order to prevent its release into atmosphere.
Working of SF6 Circuit Breaker

The working of SF6 CB of first generation was quite simple it is some extent similar to air blast
circuit breaker. Here SF6 gas was compressed and stored in a high pressure reservoir.
During operation of SF6 circuit breaker this highly compressed gas is released through the arc and
collected to relatively low pressure reservoir and then it pumped back to the high pressure reservoir
for reutilize.

59
The working of SF6 circuit breaker is little bit different in modern time. Innovation of puffer type
design makes operation of SF6 CB much easier. In buffer type design, the arc energy is utilized to
develop pressure in the arcing chamber for arc quenching.

Air Circuit Breaker Air Blast Circuit Breaker

This type of circuit breakers, is those kind of circuit breaker which operates in air at atmospheric
pressure. After development of oil breaker, the medium voltage air circuit breaker (ACB) is replaced
completely by oil circuit breakerin different countries. But in countries like France and Italy, ACBs are
still preferable choice up to voltage 15 KV. It is also good choice to avoid the risk of oil fire, in case of oil
circuit breaker. In America ACBs were exclusively used for the system up to 15 KV until the
development of new vacuum and SF6 circuit breakers.
Working principle of Air Circuit Breaker

60
The working principle of this breaker is rather different from those in any other types of circuit
breakers. The main aim of all kind of circuit breaker is to prevent the reestablishment of arcing after
current zero by creating a situation where in the contact gap will withstand the system recovery
voltage. The air circuit breaker does the same but in different manner. For interrupting arc it creates an
arc voltage in excess of the supply voltage. Arc voltage is defined as the minimum voltage required
maintaining the arc. This circuit breaker increases the arc voltage by mainly three different ways,

It may increase the arc voltage by cooling the arc plasma. As the temperature of arc plasma is
decreased, the mobility of the particle in arc plasma is reduced; hence more voltage gradient is
required to maintain the arc.

It may increase the arc voltage by lengthening the arc path. As the length of arc path is increased, the
resistance of the path is increased, and hence to maintain the same arc current more voltage is
required to be applied across the arc path. That means arc voltage is increased.

Splitting up the arc into a number of series arcs also increases the arc voltage.

Types of ACB
There are mainly two types of ACB are available. 1) Plain air
circuit breaker 2) Air blast Circuit
Breaker.

Operation of ACB The first objective is usually achieved by forcing the arc into contact with as large
an area as possible of insulating material. Every air circuit breaker is fitted with a chamber surrounding
the contact. This chamber is called ‘arc chute’. The arc is driven into it. If inside of the arc chute is
suitably shaped, and if the arc can be made conform to the shape, the arc chute wall will help to
achieve cooling. This type of arc chute should be made from some kind of refractory material. High
temperature plastics reinforced with glass fiber and ceramics are preferable materials for making arc
chute.

The second objective that is lengthening the arc path, is achieved concurrently with fist objective. If the
inner walls of the arc chute is shaped in such a way that the arc is not only forced into close proximity
with it but also driven into a serpentine channel projected on the arc chute wall. The lengthening of the
arc path increases the arc resistance.

The third technique is achieved by using metal arc slitter inside the arc chute. The main arc chute is
divided into numbers of small compartments by using metallic separation plates. These metallic

61
separation plates are actually the arc splitters and each of the small compartments behaves as
individual mini arc chute. In this system the initial arc is split into a number of series arcs, each of which
will have its won mini arc chute. So each of the split arcs has its won cooling and lengthening effect due
to its won mini arc chute and hence individual split arc voltage becomes high. These collectively, make
the over all arc voltage, much higher than the system voltage.

This was working principle of air circuit breaker now we will discuss in details the operation of ACB in
practice.

The air circuit breaker, operated within the voltage level 1KV, does not require any arc control device.
Mainly for heavy fault current on low voltages (low voltage level above 1 KV) ABCs with appropriate arc
control device, are good choice. These breakers normally have two pairs of contacts. The main pair of
contacts carries the current at normal load and these contacts are made of copper. The additional pair
is the arcing contact and is made of carbon. When circuit breaker is being opened, the main contacts
open first and during opening of main contacts the arcing contacts are still in touch with each other. As
the current gets, a parallel low resistive path through the arcing contact during opening of main
contacts, there will not be any arcing in the main contact. The arcing is only initiated when finally the
arcing contacts are separated. The each of the arc contacts is fitted with an arc runner which helps, the
arc discharge to move upward due to both thermal and electromagnetic effects as shown in the figure.
As the arc is driven upward it enters in the arc chute, consisting of splitters. The arc in chute will
become colder, lengthen and split hence arc voltage becomes much larger than system voltage at the
time of operation of air circuit breaker, and therefore the arc is quenched finally during the current
zero.

Although this type of circuit breakers has become obsolete for medium voltage application, but they
are still preferable choice for high current rating in low voltage application.

62
Air Blast Circuit Breaker
These types of air circuit breaker were used for the system voltage of 245KV, 420KV and even more,
especially where faster breaker operation was required. Air Blast Circuit Breaker has some specific
advantages over oil circuit breaker which are listed as follows,

1) There is no chance of fire hazard caused by oil.

2) The breaking speed of circuit breaker is much higher during operation of air blast circuit breaker.

3) Arc quenching is much faster during operation of air blast circuit breaker.

4) The duration of arc is same for all values of small as well as high currents interruptions.

5) As the duration of arc is smaller, so lesser amount of heat realized from arc to current carrying
contacts hence the service life of the contacts becomes longer.
6) The stability of the system can be well maintained as it depends on the speed of operation of circuit
breaker.

7) Requires much less maintenance compared to oil circuit breaker.

There are also some disadvantages of air blast circuit breakers
1) In order to have frequent operations, it is necessary to have sufficiently high capacity air
compressor.
2) Frequent maintenance of compressor, associated air pipes and automatic control
equipments is also required.
3) Due to high speed current interruption there is always a chance of high rate of rise of re-
striking voltage and current chopping.
4) There also a chance of air pressure leakage from air pipes junctions. As we said
earlier that there are mainly two types of ACB, plain air circuit breaker and air blast circuit
breaker. But the later can be sub divided further into

three different categories.

a) Axial Blast ACB.

b) Axial Blast ACB with side moving contact.

c) Cross Blast ACB.

63
 Axial Blast Air Circuit Breaker

In Axial Blast ACB the moving contact is in contact with fixed contact with the help of a spring
pressure as shown in the figure. There is a nozzle orifice in the fixed contact which is blocked by tip of
the moving contact at normal closed condition of the breaker. When fault occurs, the high pressure air
is introduced into the arcing chamber. The air pressure will counter the spring pressure and deforms
the spring hence the moving contact is withdrawn from the fixed contact and nozzle hole becomes
open. At the same time the high pressure air starts flowing along the arc through the fixed contact
nozzle orifice. This axial flow of air along the arc through the nozzle orifice will make the arc lengthen
and colder hence arc voltage become much higher than system voltage that means system voltage is
insufficient to sustain the arc consequently the arc is quenched.

64
 Axial Blast ACB with side moving contact

In this type of axial blast air circuit breaker the moving contact is fitted over a piston supported over a
spring. In order to open the circuit breaker the air is admitted into the arcing chamber when pressure
reaches to a predetermined value, it presses down the moving contact; an arc is drawn between the
fixed and moving contacts. The air blast immediately transfers the arc to the arcing electrode and is
consequently quenched by the axial flow of air.

Cross Blast Air Circuit Breaker

65
The working principle of Cross Blast Air Circuit Breaker is quite simple. In this system of air blast circuit
breaker the blast pipe is fixed in perpendicular to the movement of moving contact in the arcing
chamber and on the opposite side of the arcing chamber one exhaust chamber is also fitted at the
same alignment of blast pipe, so that the air comes from blast pipe can straightly enter into exhaust
chamber through the contact gap of the breaker. The exhaust chamber is spit with arc splitters. When
moving contact is withdrawn from fixed contact, an arc is established in between the contact, and at
the same time high pressure air coming from blast pipe will pass through the contact gap and will
forcefully take the arc into exhaust chamber where the arc is split with the help of arc splitters and
ultimately arc is quenched.

OIL CIRCUIT BREAKERS (OCBS)

The oil in OCBs serves two purposes. It insulates between the phases and between the phases and the
ground, and it provides the medium for the extinguishing of the arc. When electric arc is drawn under
oil, the arc vaporizes the oil and creates a large bubble that surrounds the arc. The gas inside the
bubble is around 80% hydrogen, which impairs ionization. The decomposition of oil into gas requires
energy that comes from the heat generated by the arc. The oil surrounding the bubble conducts the
heat away from the arc and thus also contributes to deionization of the arc.

66
Main disadvantage of the oil circuit breakers is the flammability of the oil, and the maintenance
necessary to keep the oil in good condition (i.e. changing and purifying the oil.
Minimum Oil Breakers
In the bulk oil breakers, the oil serves as both arcs extinguishing medium and main insulation. The
minimum oil breakers were developed to reduce the oil volume only to amount needed for
extinguishing of the arc – about 10% of the bulk- oil amount. The arc control for the minimum oil
breakers is based on the same principle as the arc control devices of the bulk oil breakers. To improve
breaker performance, oil is injected into the arc.

The interrupter containers of the minimum oil breakers are made of insulating material and are
insulated from the ground. This is usually referred to as live tank construction. For high voltages
(above 132 kV), the interrupters are arranged in series. It is essential to ensure that each interrupter
carries its share of the duty. Care must be taken that all breaks occur simultaneously, and that the re-
striking voltage is divided equally across the breaks during the interrupting process. The natural
voltage division depends on stray capacitances between the contacts and to the ground, and therefore
is in very uneven. This is corrected by connecting capacitances or resistors in parallel with the
interrupting heads.

Low Oil Circuit Breaker Components

67
68
 CHAPTER 07
SAFETY PROCEDURES RELATED TO HIGH VOLTAGE SYSTEMS

69
 ISOLOK KEY SAFE SYSTEM

General Precautions

Security and admittance to substations

1 All access doors to each substation, switch room and enclosure containing high voltage electrical
equipment must be kept securely locked when unattended.

2 Locks should be identical so that a single key will enable access to be gained to any substation over
which management has control or a degree of control on a site.

3 Each Authorized Person (HV) should be issued with a key and, where considered appropriate under
local house rules, a certificated Competent Person (HV) may also be issued with a key.

4 No person other than an Authorized Person (HV) or Competent Person (HV) may enter a room
containing high voltage equipment unless they are accompanied by an Authorized Person (HV) or have
receipt of a permit-to-work, sanction-for-test or limitation-of-access issued by an Authorized Person
(HV).

70
5 The exception to paragraph 6.4 is when the substation is provided with “automatically controlled fire
protection”, when the person must be trained for entry into such room.

Operational keys

The following points apply:

a. each Authorized Person (HV) should be issued with a personal key to enable them to gain access to
all substations and also a key to the key cabinet;

b. a spare key, labeled “Authorized Person – duplicate”, should be kept in a glass-fronted box in a
constantly manned location on the site. This box should be designed so that the glass front has to be
broken to gain access to the key;

c. a notice should be affixed near to the glass fronted box stating: “only the persons listed have authority
to break the glass and withdraw the key”. This should be followed by a current list of Authorized
Persons (HV) appointed for the systems and installations to which the key relates. The Authorizing
Engineer (HV) should ensure that this list is kept up-to-date;

d. should the spare keys be required, the person concerned should enter their name on a log sheet to be
kept in this key-box and give the reason for requiring the key;

e. all other keys to operational locks associated with the high voltage system should be kept in the key
cabinet when not in use, unless a key safe is being used. The keys for each substation should be kept on
a separate key-ring with a clearly labeled plate;

f. the key cabinet should be kept locked except when keys are being removed from or returned to it. It is
important that the key cabinet is kept locked to prevent un-authorized removal of keys.

Key-plate system

7 There should be one key for each lock provided for the locking of high voltage switchgear. The key
for a lock is not to open any other locks provided on a system or installation.

8 The keys for the high voltage switchgear in each substation should be held on an appropriately-sized
key-ring with a key-plate that should bear the identification of the substation, building or item of
equipment to which the keys belong, or the purpose for which each key is intended.

Key cabinets

71
 9 Except for any key-rings in use, the working keys should be kept in a closed and securely locked
working key cabinet installed with the mimic diagram and the lockable document cabinet, in a room to
which the Authorized Persons have free access at all times.

10 The working key cabinet key labeled “Authorized Person” should be held either:

a. by the Duty Authorized Person (HV) while operating the system or during installation, or while permits
or sanctions-for-test are being issued and cancelled; or
b. in the Authorized Person’s (HV) key-box.

Lockable document cabinet

11 All documents specified in this guidance should be kept in a lockable document cabinet situated in
the same room as the working key cabinet. The lockable document cabinet should be kept locked when
not in use, and the key kept in the working key cabinet.

Authorized Person (HV)’s key-box

12 A key-box with a separate lock should be installed adjacent to the working key cabinet. The
Authorized Person (HV)’s key should be kept locked in this box when not being used by the Duty
Authorized Person (HV). No other keys should be kept in this box. All Authorized Persons (HV)
appointed for the system or installations should be given a key for the lock. No other person should
receive a key. The lock should be changed whenever it is suspected that the key system has been
compromised. If an Authorized Person (HV)’s certificate expires and is not renewed, or is withdrawn,
the Authorizing Engineer (HV) should ensure that the key to the key-box is returned.

Mimic diagram
13 Either a glass-covered or an electronic mimic diagram should be provided for any high voltage
distribution system that includes a ring circuit, an automatic start generating set or a fixed
uninterruptible power supply. A mimic diagram may also include, or be provided for, other electrical
systems or installations.

14 Where provided, the mimic diagram should be permanently installed in the same room as the
working key cabinet. The glass cover of the mimic diagram should be kept locked to prevent un-
authorized adjustment of the diagram. Adjustment of an electronic mimic is only to be possible using the
Authorized Person’s (HV) key or a password.
Note
A mimic diagram should show, as a minimum, the electricity distribution system and equipment that is
under the control of the Authorized Person (HV).

15 The mimic diagram should at all times reflect the current operational state of the system it represents,
and any adjustments made should be recorded in the site logbook.

72
Safety locks

16 Safety locks should be padlocks that have one key that is different from all other keys in use on the
electrical distribution system. Safety locks should be indelibly colored red, and each safety lock and its
key should have the same unique serial number for ease of identification.

17 Before a permit-to-work is issued, and before a Competent Person (HV) commences work, safety
locks must be applied at all points-of-isolation and where circuit main earths are applied.

18 Before a sanction-for-test is issued, safety locks must be applied at all points-of-isolation, and
safety/working locks at all points where additional earths are applied.

Safety key-boxes

19 A safety key-box is to have two locks, each of which is to have only one key, one being labeled
“Safety key-box – Competent Person”, and the other “Safety key-box – Authorized Person”. It should be
so arranged that both locks must be released before access can be gained to the contents of the box.

20 The number of safety key-boxes provided for each site for which Authorized Persons (LV) have been
appointed should be decided by the Authorizing Engineer (LV):

a. each safety key-box should bear the name of the site and a serial number ensuring positive
identification within the site;

b. when in use, each safety key-box is to contain the keys to safety locks associated with only one
permit-to-work or one sanction-for-test;

after the safety locks have been applied, and before a permit-to-work or sanction-for-test is issued, the
keys to all the safety locks should be placed in a safety key-box, and both locks of the box should be

73
secured. When the permit or sanction is issued, the Duty Authorized Person (HV) is to retain the
Authorized Person (HV)’s key and give the Competent Person (HV)’s key to the Competent Person
(HV);

USE OF KEY SAFE

The following are Definitions taken from SAFETY RULES

An approved device for he secure retention of all keys used to lock means of
KEY SAFE isolation, earthing or other safety devices in accordance with the Safety Rules.
An APPROVED device for the secure retention of all keys used to lock off
KEY SAFE means of isolation, earthing or other safety devices for the issue of an Electrical
Permit to Work.

Use of Key Safes

The issue of a Permit to Work is a declaration that the equipment detailed therein is safe to Work on by
virtue of isolation and earthing. The receipt is acceptance of those safety precautions.

Most Safety Rules agree that all means of isolation, earthing and other safety devices should be
adequately secured prior to the issue of an Electrical Permit to Work (or as applicable, to a Sanction for
Test).

The purpose of this is to ensure that the safety pr9cautions taken and declared on the Permit to Work or
Sanction for Test cannot be altered whilst the Working Party are operating.

The unique keys for padlocks used for the above purpose should preferably be themselves secured in a
KEY SAFE which can itself be locked with more than one lock.

To ensure that neither the issuer, recipient or any other party can alter those Safety Precautions until the
Permit to Work is cleared it is suggested that the Key Safe be locked with a unique lock as well as a lock
openable by the issuer, and the key to that lock given to the recipient with the signed and receipted
Permit to Work. To be returned only on clearance of that Permit to Work.

In some cases the ISO-LOK system is used to the same effect in that it requires the release of a unique
padlock before the suite key can be released, the key for that unique padlock being in the possession of
the recipient until the Permit to Work is cleared.

74
 Application

1. To issue a permit to work or sanction for test on a high voltage circuit, all isolation points will be
locked off using an auxiliary set of padlocks controlled b y one m aster ke y.

2. When using a permit to work all circuit main earths nominated on the permit to work will be
locked off using an auxiliary set of padlocks controlled by one master key and shall be from the same
isolok as used in 1 above.

3. The isolok with the master key controlling the auxiliary padlock set will be secured to a bar
fitted in the substation.

4. A unique lock will be fitted to the isolok, the key of which will be issued to the recipient of .the
permit to work or sanction for test at the time of issue for the duration of the work and returned
when the permit to work or sanction for test is to be cancelled.

5. A high voltage padlock will be fitted to the isolok, the key of which will be under the control of an
authorized person.

75
 6. When issuing a permit to work or sanction for test to an authorized person holding a key to, the
high voltage lock a second unique padlock should be used, the key of which will be held by the issuer
of the permit to work or sanction to test.
7. The serial number of the unique l6cks used shall be recorded on the permit to work or sanction
for test.
Equipment 1.Isolok with
Master key attached
2. Auxiliary padlocks to pass Master key 1 Unique padlock
with key

1 existing High Voltage padlock

Note: When a Sanction for Test or Permit to Work is issued to an authorized person
Holding the key to the High Voltage padlock, a second unique padlock is required

76
77
78
EXAMPLE ISSUE A PERMIT TO WORK A COMPETENT PERSON ON A TRANSFORMER SHOWING USE OF
ISOLOCK SYSTEM---= SEE NEXT PAGE

79
80
 CHAPTER 08
IMMEDIATE ACTION TO BE TAKEN UNDER FAULT
CONDITIONS

An Operational Procedure is the programming of a sequence of actions, must be completed prior to the
actual start of the work in accordance with a defined, agreed and authorized switching/ isolation plan as
listed in the safety documentation. Work on High Voltage Equipment should only be carried out under
a Permit to Work or Sanction to Test. Work near to but not on H.V. Equipment may be carried out
under a Limitation of Access. Operational Procedures should be written in the form of a list in
chronological order such that they appear as a set of instructions, not as written verbose memorandum
“note well" Whilst all High Voltage Safety Rules comply with the Electricity at Work Regulations
1989, they do differ in their content. It is therefore not possible to be rigid in implementation of any
single set of rules at this training centre. Our aim is to ensure that at least the minimum basic safety
requirements are carried out, and suggest possible alternative ways of achieving that safety standard. It
is considered good practice to ensure that a Circuit Main Earth cannot be removed once a Permit to
Work has been issued until it has been cleared. Whilst this may result in difficulties in completing all the

81
necessary work under a single permit it is the policy adopted in the majority of High Voltage Safety
Rules. Where safety locks (SLs) are applied, the application should be noted in the procedure and the
lock number recorded.

Air ballast circuit breaker OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES

SWITCHING PROGRAMMES & OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES

Where switching is to be carried out through a CONTROL ENGINEER, the operations are given as
instructions by that Control Engineer, even though they are instigated by the recipient, as the
Control Engineer is in Operational charge of the System. On small
Systems, it is unusual to find a separate Control Engineer and the Senior Electrical person is deemed to
be in overall control of the System. Switching may only form a small and infrequent pert of his/her
duties and it is therefore imperative that the procedure be written in simple but precise terms.

One important point that should not be overlooked, is the designation of equipment which MUST
conform to name plates etc on site and not as they are familiarly known. NOTE - The
following basic steps to be taken for the issue of a permit to work or sanction for test document assume
that the equipment can be proved dead at the point of work prior to the issue of the safety document.
Unfortunately this proving dead is not always practicable, i.e. to work on the windings of oil insulated
high voltage transformer or the operating contacts of the automatic tap changer would require the
lowering or removal of the insulating oil before any covers could be removed to prove the conductors
dead. This would require that the safety document be issued before the conductors are proved dead
at the point of work.

In this case the safety document issuer would have to convince the recipient of the safety document
that the equipment was dead by visual sight of the isolations and circuit main earths and positive
identification from labels.

If the recipient is satisfied with this demonstration he could sign and accept the safety document, then
proceed with the work of removing covers/insulating oil. The authorized person, i.e. the issuer, would be
present to prove dead when covers are removed exposing circuit conductors.

We must ask ourselves, do you require a permit to work to remove covers which expose circuit
conductors? If the answer is yes then you will issue safety documents before the equipment is
proved dead at the point of work. The authorized person will supervise the removal of the cover and
immediately prove the conductor dead before the work proceeds we would
recommend that anyone removing covers which give access to electrical

82
Conductors should be in receipt of a permit to work or sanction for test document. Always
prove all exposed circuit conductors dead before commencing any work. An example of
an operational procedure, to take Transformer no 4 out of service and apply circuit-main-earths prior
to the issue of a permit to work.

Location Action
At Hertz 11KV Sw/Brd Check that bus section is closed
At Hertz 3.3KV Sw/Brd Close bus section CB, determine that Transformer 1 will
take load of Transformer 2, load shed if necessary.
At Hertz 3.3KV Sw/Brd Open Transformer no. 2 3.3KV CB, isolate CB, secure
busbar and feeder shutters closed, poSt
At Hertz 11KV Sw/Brd Open Transformernotices.
danger/caution no. 2 11KV CB, isolate CB, secure
busbar shutters closed
Prove feeder circuit dead Transfer Transformer 2 CB
to circuit earth position, close CB and secure. Post
danger/caution notices.
At Hertz 3.3KV Sw/Brd Unlock feeder shutters, prove feeder circuit dead.
Transfer Transformer 2 CB to circuit earth position,
close CB and secure.

83
All circuit breakers are fitted with transferable integral earthing facilities. Example of an
operational procedure, to return Transformer back to service after the cancellation of a permit to

work.

Transformer Isolation:

84
For maintenance on transformer, primary and secondary both breakers to be isolated and
earthed, so as to discharge any stored energy in the transformer.

Note:

All circuit breakers are fitted with transferable integral earthing facilities

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES
Permit-to-Work & Sanction-for-Test

Basic steps to be taken for issue of a Permit-to-Work or Sanction-for-Test.

Where necessary arrange alternative supplies to circuits which cannot be switched

1) Switch 'OFF' the Equipment on which the Permit-to-Work or Sanction-for-Test is :o be issued.

2) Isolate from all sources of supply (including voltage Transformers. Where physical isolation of the
primary is not possible, remove secondary fuses and secure to prevent replacement).

3) Discharge to Earth (Wherever possible through a Circuit Breaker or, Earth Switch)

N.B. Some Safety Rules require that the Equipment be proved DEAD before this stage.

4) Apply CIRCUIT MAIN EARTHS and where practicable secure to prevent removal.

5) Place safety keys in keysafe

6) Prove Circuit DEAD if practicable at point of work to the person who is to Receive the Permit-to-
Work or Sanction-for-Test (see previous note).

7) Issue Permit-to-Work or Sanction-for-Test.

If not proved dead in item (6) prove dead when circuit conductors are exposed.

The senior Authorized (or Authorized in some cases) person is responsible for carrying out the above
steps in a SAFE manner without DANGER.

What are the differences between power transformer and instrument transformer?

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Instrument transformers are used primarily where you are sampling a quantity such as voltage and you
do not expect to have any load to speak of on the transformer. Some examples are:

Voltage measurement of a substation bus where the nominal voltage is 7200 volts to ground and the
current levels may reach 2000 amps. The power transformer supplying this type of load will have a
voltage drop internal to it as will bus sections, etc. To ensure you are measuring the actual voltage at any
particular point you would attach a potential transformer. This instrument type transformer would only
be installed to measure voltage, no intentional load would be placed on the transformer so that the losses
in the transformer are at a minimum. With a ratio of say 60 to 1 if you are reading 120 volts then you
know the point at which is attached to the bus is at 7200 volts. If however you added load to the
instrument transformer a voltage drop would occur in the transformer and you might read 115 volts on
it's secondary side and now you would say the buss voltage is at 6900 volts, which would be incorrect.

Instrument transformer is used for:

1) Potential measurement
2) Relay & Control
3) Phasing checks between sources
4) Synchronizing of sources (generators)
5) Metering

Power transformers are what they are termed. They are built to transformer power from one voltage to
another at high load levels. At a power plant these may be 300 MV more or less. At regional power
substations they may be 50 MV to 300MV. (MVA - million volt-amps). At distribution substations they
are usually smaller between 40 MV down to 2.5 MV. They are generally used for:
1) Stepping voltage up from say 13 kV to 500 kV at a power plant.
2) Placed in parallel operation to support more load (only on shore based installation)
3) Wound such that they are attached as Delta-Delta, Wye-Wye, Delta-Wye, Wye-Delta, Zig-Zag, etc. to
match phase relationships between sources
4) Large power transformers often has Load Tap Changes, meaning they may changing "Taps" by
changing the turns ratio and thus adjust the output voltage to a preset level while carrying full load.
5) They may be used as grounding banks
6) They may be used as balancing banks

In general they are subject to high load variation, voltage regulation, short circuits, lightning strikes, etc.
and must be able to withstand all that and continue to work properly.

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EVEN STEPS TO SAFE WORKING

87
Note: Use of warning/danger notices must be attached at all
relevant points of isolation and access points.
OPERATIONAL PLANNING

SAFE WORKING PROCEDURES

PRACTICE EXAMPLE OF HRC FUSE SELECTION & DISCRIMINATION

Motor 1 (M1)

37kW 4p (FLC 67.5A) with DOL starting (7 x FLC for 10secs)

M1 FLC = IMIFL= 67.5A

Therefore M1 Starting Current = 7 x 67.5A = 472.5A = IMIs

From HRC fuse time current characteristics, F1 will require a 125A fuse to withstand 472.5A for l0secs
(e.g. 125A fuse will withstand 500A for 12.5secs).

Motor 2 (M2)

110kW 4p (FLC 189A) with Electronic 'Soft Starting' (3.5 x FLC for 40secs)

M2 FLC = Im2F-c= 189A

Therefore M2 Starting Current = 3.5 x 189A = 661.5A = /m2s

From HRC fuse time/current characteristics, F2 will require a 250A fuse to withstand 661.5A for 40secs
(e.g. 250A fuse will withstand 700A for 100secs approx.).

F U SE

Worst case loading = IMIS+ IM2S (for l0secs) ----- 472.5A + 661.5A = 1134A

From HRC fuse time/current characteristics, a 31 SA fuse should be suitable (e.g. 315A fuse will
withstand 1300A approx. for l0secs). However, from the 1 2t characteristics, the total operating time
of F2 (rated at 250A) is greater than the pre-arcing time of a 3I5A fuse and also that of a 355A fuse.

Therefore, from the 12t characteristics, F3 will require a 400A fuse.

Note: From the HRC fuse time/current characteristics, a 400A fuse will also withstand - at least 2000A for
l0secs (e.g. Im1s+IM2FL = 661.5A) and 1500A approx. for 40secs (e.g. IM1FL. + IM2s = 729A).

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Discrimination Principle:

Most installations include a number of protective devices in series, and they must operate correctly relative to
each other if healthy circuits are not to be disconnect ed. Discrimination occurs when the protective device
nearest to the fault operates, leaving all other circuits working normally.

System layout to explain discrimination

Figure above shows an installation with a 100 A main fuse and a 30 A sub main fuse feeding a distribution board
containing 10 A fuses. If a fault occurs at point Z, the 100A fuse will operate and the whole installation will be
disconnected. If the fault is at X, the 10A fuse should operate and not the 30 A or 100 A fuses. A fault at Y should
operate the 30 A, and not the 100 A fuse. If this happens, the system has discriminated properly.

OPERATIONAL PLANNING
SAFE WORKING PROCEDURES

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Prepare a SAFE working Procedure to enable an Electrical Permit-to-Work to be issued to clean and
inspect the STARBOARD Orifices (Spouts) at the PORT Swithchboard. All Circuit Breaker are fitted with
Earthing Switches.

Location Operation done

PORT 11 K.V .SWBD Open isolate, lock bus bar and feeder
shutters.

Starboard feeder post danger/caution notices.

STARBOARD 11 K.V. SWBD Open isolate, lock bus bar and feeder shutters.

Port feeder isolate lock port feeder V.T.

Post danger caution notices.

Prove port feeder dead apply circuit.

Main earth, lock post caution notices.

PORT 11 K.V. SWBD Prove Starboard feeder dead apply.

Circuit main earth lock post caution notices.

Prove dead at point of work.

Issue high isolate permit to work.

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 Keys for isolation and earths in “key-safe”.

POR -11K.VSWITCHBOARD OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES EXAMPLE

Prepare a SAFE working procedure to enable a “High Voltage permit-to-work”, to be issued to clean
and inspect the “STBD FEEDER”. Circuit Orifices (spouts) at the PORT 11 kv SW.BD. All circuit breakers
are fitted with earthing switches connected to their respective circuit orifices. Note: V.T. at PORT
FEEDER.

OPERATION OF HIGH VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR

The following points apply:

a. high voltage switching should be carried out by the Duty Authorized Person (HV) or by persons acting
under his/her personal supervision, except when necessary to isolate in an emergency when a
Competent Person (HV) will have access to substations in which emergency tripping facilities are
available. That person, without delay and with some urgency, must advise the Duty Authorized Person
of the action taken. These circuit breakers will be fitted with locks preventing un-authorized reclosure.
The Authorized Person (HV) should be informed of all high voltage emergencies switching;
b. locks should be applied as necessary to prevent unauthorized operation of switchgear (except
emergency tripping as referred to above);
c. oil circuit breakers (OCBs) should in general be reclosed a maximum of two times after opening under
fault conditions. The equipment should be inspected at the first opportunity after opening under fault
conditions;
d. when switchgear shows any sign of defect or malfunction after operating, its condition should be
reported immediately to the Authorizing Engineer (HV), and it should be examined before further
operation;
e. no high voltage earthing switch should be operated or circuit main earth connection attached or
removed except by an Authorized Person (HV);
f. making live or dead by visual signal, or by prearranged understanding after an agreed interval of time, is
not an acceptable practice.

Action in an emergency
First, Authorized Persons (HV) should go to the mimic diagram cabinet. The first Authorized Person on
site should display the “work on high voltage system in progress” and the “Authorized Person on site”
notices in a prominent position.

Any other Authorized Person (HV) attending the site, on seeing either of these notices, should take
no action until he/she has contacted the Authorized Person (HV) who displayed the notice.

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 High voltage enclosures
No person other than the Duty Authorized Person (HV), using a high voltage potential indicator
designed for the purpose, should be engaged in any work activity on or near any live conductor (other
than one covered with insulating material so as to prevent danger) where danger may arise.

Except within a high voltage enclosure, access to live conductors should only be possible with the use
of a tool or key.

All spout shutters not required for immediate work or operation should, if not otherwise made
inaccessible, be locked shut.

A high voltage enclosure should be opened only by the Duty Authorized Person (HV), or Competent
Person (HV) acting on the instruction of, and personally supervised by, the Duty Authorized Person
(HV).

A high voltage enclosure may only be entered by:

a. The Duty Authorized Person (HV) accompanied by an Accompanying Safety Person (HV);

b. A Competent Person (HV) acting on the verbal instructions of, and personally supervised by, the Duty
Authorized Person (HV);

c. The Competent Person (HV) in receipt of a sanction-for-test, accompanied by an Accompanying Safety

Person (HV), when a high voltage enclosure is created as part of the test procedure;

c. An assisting Competent Person acting on the verbal instructions of, and personally supervised
by, the Competent Person (HV) in receipt of a sanction-for-test, when a high voltage enclosure
is created as part of the test procedure.

Operational restrictions

An operational restriction is a specific written instruction issued via the Authorizing Engineer
(HV) or the Department of Health in the form of a “hazard notice”, “safety action bulletin” or similar
official instruction modifying the normal operating procedures associated with a particular type of
equipment. Where the operational restriction is initiated by the Authorizing Engineer (HV), it should,
when relevant, be forwarded to the Department of Health for circulation nationally.

Any known operational restriction imposed or advised by a DNO must be notified without delay to the
Authorizing Engineer (HV) and to the Department of Health.

On receipt of an operational restriction, the Authorized Person (HV) should:

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 a. acknowledge the receipt to the Authorizing Engineer (HV), indicating whether the
equipment is included in the local system(s) or installations;

b. record the receipt in the logbook and the action taken;

c. place a copy signed by each Authorized Person (HV) in the operational procedure manual.

Where the equipment to which the operational restriction refers forms part of the local systems and
installations, the Authorized Person (HV) is to:

a. place a copy of the operational restriction, signed by each Authorised Person (HV), in
the operating and maintenance manual;

b. arrange for any inspection and remedial work required;

c. where the mimic diagram depicts the equipment referred to in the restriction, mark each item on the
mimic to indicate the existence of an operating restriction;

d. where considered necessary, fix warning signs on each item of equipment involved and report the
satisfactory completion of any remedial works to the Authorising Engineer (HV).

Circuit Main Earths

The following precautions should be observed when high voltage electrical equipment is to be
discharged and earthed:

a. The circuit breaker or specially provided earth switch should be used to make the earth connection.
Where a circuit breaker is used, the electrical and mechanical trip mechanism should be rendered
inoperative. After switching on, the circuit breaker or earth switch should be locked in the earth position
while it is the circuit main earth;

b. where (a) is not practicable, the high voltage electrical equipment should be tested to ensure that it is
dead and should then be discharged and earthed by an approved earthing lead applied by means of a pole
or other approved method in accordance with this document.

The precise location of each circuit main earth should be recorded on the permit-to-work or sanction-
for-test.

HV System works on personal safety first principle. So all kind of source of energy whether it is
supplied or stored to be eliminated before commencing any kind of maintenance.

Earthing leads and connections

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 Earthing leads and associated clamps should be examined immediately before being used.
They should be of an “approved type” and of adequate capacity to carry the prospective fault current of
the system at the point of application. (“Approved type” means “accessories manufactured and tested for
the required duty and available from the equipment manufacturer or his recommended supplier for
specific use with his equipment”.)
Earthing leads and associated clamps must never be improvised. They should be properly stored,
maintained and recorded.

Procedure for the use of earthing leads

The following procedure should be observed when using earthing leads:
a. verify that the circuit is dead by means of a voltage indicator of an approved type, the indicator itself
being tested immediately before and after use;
b. earthing leads should be connected to the earth system before being secured to phase conductors. They
should be secured to the phases only by means of a pole or other approved equipment. Care must be
taken to ensure that good contact is made;
c. all phases should be earthed, even if work is to be carried out on one phase only;
d. earthing leads should not be applied in any cell or compartment in which there is any exposed metal live
at high voltage;
e. when earthing leads are being removed, they should be disconnected from phase conductors first and
the earth system last;
f. the manufacturers’ earthing equipment only should be used for the purpose of earthing spout contacts of
switchgear. The insertion of hand or any tool in contact spouts for this purpose is an unacceptable
practice.

Earthing equipment
Proprietary earthing equipment should be used where available. When not available, a suitable device
designed for the purpose should be used.
Portable earthing equipment should be inspected by the user before and after use.
A Duty Authorized Person (HV) should inspect portable earthing equipment provided by the
management every 12 months, and the inspection recorded in the site logbook.

Fire protection equipment

Automatic control

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 Before work or inspections are carried out in any enclosures protected by automatic fire extinguishing
equipment:
a. the automatic control must be rendered inoperative by the Authorized Person (HV) and the equipment
left on hand-control. A caution sign should be attached and displayed whenever the automatic fire-
extinguishing system is inoperative;
b. precautions taken to render the automatic control inoperative must be noted on any safety document
issued for work in the protected enclosure;
c. the automatic control will be restored by the Authorized Person (HV) immediately after the persons
engaged on the work or inspections have withdrawn from the protected enclosure.

Portable extinguishers

Only carbon dioxide (CO2) or dry-powder extinguishers may be used near live electrical equipment and
a safety clearance of at least 300 mm should be maintained. After the discharge of portable extinguishers
in an enclosed space, personnel must withdraw from that space.
After any explosion or fire, or after the discharge of extinguishers in an enclosed space, the space must
be thoroughly ventilated before entry of personnel, unless suitable breathing apparatus is worn.

Coolant and arc-extinguishing media

The availability of economic and non-flammable substitutes for hydrocarbon insulating oil, as coolant
and arc-extinguishing media, has led to the production of equipment containing these alternative agents
and their installation within healthcare premises.

A number of these substitutes under certain conditions can be injurious to the health of employees.
Health and safety legislation requires employers to ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, the health,
safety and welfare of their employees. It is essential when using alternative cooling or arc-extinguishing
media to ensure that the potential effects under all conditions have been fully investigated and safe
working procedures produced to indicate the required action under both normal and emergency
conditions, taking into account the environmental conditions.

Members of the emergency services who may attend the site must be made aware of any risks and
advised accordingly.

Information on a selection of alternative cooling and extinguishing agents and their potential effects is
given in Health Technical Memorandum 06-01 – ’Electrical services: supply and distribution’.

The information contained in Health Technical Memorandum 06-01 should not be taken as an
exhaustive list, as inevitably developments in this area will produce other alternatives.

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 The requirements of the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations 2002 must
be considered when employing alternative cooling or arc-extinguishing agents etc within electrical
equipment. In addition, appropriate procedures and actions necessary to protect the health and safety of
individuals must be taken.

It should be noted that, under the COSHH Regulations, (The Control of Substances Hazardous to
Health Regulations 2002) while the extinguishing agent may not be a listed substance in the formal
sense, it may still be a “hazardous substance” in the sense of creating a hazard which is
comparable to that caused by a listed substance. The approved Code of Practice on the COSHH
Regulations should be referred to for guidance.

Equipment containing sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)

Work on any equipment containing sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) should be carried out in accordance with
the special instructions specified by the manufacturer (see also Health Technical Memorandum 06-01).

Under normal circumstances, SF6 is non-toxic; however, when exposed to an electric arc, it decomposes
to form toxic compounds which will normally be contained within the equipment. In the rare event of
any decomposition products being present in the atmosphere, warning indications such as a pungent
odor similar to rotten eggs or irritation of the upper respiratory tract and eyes will become apparent.
Where this occurs, personnel should immediately get fresh air even if no equipment failure is apparent.
The Authorized Person (HV) must be informed, who should then report the incident to the Authorizing
Engineer (HV) and manufacturer. Work on any equipment containing an alternative to hydrocarbon
insulating oil as coolant and arc extinguishing media should be carried out in accordance with any
special instructions specified by the manufacturer (see also Health Technical Memorandum 06-01).

Vessels containing oil or flammable liquids

The following points apply:
a. prolonged exposure to mineral oils present in transformers and OCBs may lead to skin rashes and in
extreme cases, cancer. Contact with these oils should therefore be avoided whenever possible, and
personal protective equipment should always be worn;
b. smoking and exposed flames are prohibited in the vicinity of open vessels containing, or which have
contained, oil or any other flammable substance, until the precautions specified in (b) have been taken;
c. work on such vessels involving the application of heat is forbidden until all practicable steps have
been taken to prevent fire or explosion, either by removal of the flammable substance and any fumes or
by rendering them non-explosive and non-flammable.

Protective equipment

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Appropriate protective equipment should be provided by management. It should be readily available at
all times to those who need it and have training in its use. It should be worn or used whenever necessary
to avoid danger and injury, and as required by this guidance.
Only protective equipment suitable for the purpose should be provided by the management and its
contractors. Protective equipment provided by the Competent Person (HV) employed by a contractor
may be used if the Duty Authorized Person (HV) agrees. Such use should be recorded on the permit or
sanction-for-test.
Protective equipment should be inspected by the user for visible defects before and after use. Any
suspect item is not to be used; suspect items should be reported to the Duty Authorized Person (HV),
who is to consider its withdrawal and its replacement.
Unless more frequent intervals are specified, a Duty Authorized Person (HV) is to inspect each item of
safety equipment provided by the management at least once a year for defects and wear, and is to take
remedial action where necessary. These inspections should be recorded in the logbook.

Test equipment
The Duty Authorized Person (HV) is to arrange for the necessary test equipment to be available when
required.
Test equipment should be inspected by the user for visible defects on each occasion before and after use.
Unless more frequent intervals are specified, the Authorized Person (HV) is to inspect each item of test
equipment provided by the management at least once a year for defects and is to take remedial action
where necessary. These inspections should be recorded in the logbook.
Test equipment should be maintained and, where appropriate, recalibrated in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions.
The location of protective equipment, test equipment and portable earthing equipment should be
prominently displayed adjacent to the working key cabinet.

Chapter 9
TREATMENT OF SYSTEM NEUTRAL POINT
In distribution system three phase load is unbalance and non linear so the neutral plays an very
important role in distribution system.

Generally, distribution networks are operated in an unbalanced configuration and also service to
consumers. This causes current flowing through neutral conductor and voltage dropping on neutral
wire. The unbalance load and excessive current in neutral wire is one of the issues in three phase four-

97
wire distribution systems that causes voltage drop through neutral wire and makes tribulations for
costumers.

The existence of neutral earth voltage makes unbalance in three phase voltages for three phase
customers and reduction of phase to neutral voltage for single phase customers.

Multi-grounded three-phase four-wire service is widely adopted in modern power distribution systems
due to having lower installation costs and higher sensitivity of fault protection than three-phase three-
wire service.

The neutrals play an important role in power quality and safety problems. The multi grounded neutral
system is the predominant electrical distribution system used in the United States.

It allow an uncontrolled amount of electric current to flow over the earth unrestrained, posing the
potential of harm to the public and to animals causing electric shocks and is presumed responsible for
undetected electrocutions.

The protective grounding used in low voltage, 600-volt and below applications will be described and
used to explain the hazards involved with the present day multi grounded neutral distribution System,
used in the United States. This will allow the reader to see the parallels between the safe low voltage
distribution system and the dangerous medium voltage multi grounded neutral distribution system.

The reasons for the development of the three phase, four-wire, multi-grounded systems involve a
combination of safety and economic considerations. The three-phase, four-wire multi-grounded design
has been successfully used for many years and is well documented in the standards including the
National Electrical Code (NEC). It is crucial decisions to adopt Multi Grounded Neutral System "save
money" by the adoption of the multi grounded neutral electrical distribution system in the cost of the
public's safety.

MULTI GROUNDED NEUTML SYSTEM (MEN)

Three-phase four wire multi grounded neutral

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 Figure on left shows the multi-grounded neutral systems commonly used by the electric utilities in
North America. The neutral grounding reactor is used by some utilities to reduce the available ground
fault current while at the same time still maintaining an effectively grounded system.

The multiple earthed neutral (MEN) system of earthing is one in which the low voltage neutral
conductor is used as the low resistance return path for fault currents and where its potential rise is
kept low by having it connected to earth at a number of locations along its length. The neutral
conductor is connected to earth at the distribution transformer, at each consumer's installation and at
specified poles or underground pillars. The resistance between the neutral conductor of the
distribution system and the earth must not exceed 10 ohms at any location.
NEC Article 250 Part X Grounding of Systems and Circuits 1 kV and Over (High Voltage)

1. Multiple Grounding: The neutral of a solidly grounded neutral system shall be permitted to be
grounded at more than one point.
2. Multi-grounded Neutral Conductor: Ground each transformer Ground at 400 m intervals-or
less, Ground shielded cables where exposed to personnel contact.
 With Single Grounded Neutral System require the use of full line-to-line voltage rated arresters.
This increases the cost of the surge arresters while at the same time reduces the protection
provided by the surge arrester. In addition, if the fourth wire neutral is not multi gr6unded, it
would be good practice to place surge arresters at appropriate locations on that conductor.
2. The zero sequence impedance is lower for a multi grounded system than the single point
grounded neutral system.
3. Freezing and arctic conditions have an adverse impact on the zero sequence impedance. A
multi-grounded system neutral will still lower the zero sequence impedance over a single point
ground. In fact, without the multi-grounded system, it is more probable that insufficient fault
current will flow to properly operate the ground fault protection.
4. Cost of Equipment for the multi-grounded system is lower.
5. Safety Concerns on Cable Shields.
 Medium voltage and high voltage cables typically have cable shields (NEC requirement above
5 kV) that need to be grounded. There are several reasons for this shield:
 To confine electric fields within the cable

99
 To obtain uniform radial distribution of the electric field
 To protect against induced voltages
 To reduce the hazard of shock

lf the shield is not grounded, the shock hazard can be increased. With the shield grounded at one
point, induced voltage on the shield can be significant and create a shock hazard. Therefore, it is
common practice to apply multiple grounds on the shield to keep the voltage limited to 25 volts.

This practice of multi grounding cable shields includes the grounding of concentric neutrals on power
cables thereby extending the need for multi grounding of neutrals on the power system.

DISADVANTAGES OF MULTIPLE NEUTRAL GROUNDING

1) Less Electrical Safety in Public and Private Property.

 With a multi grounded neutral distribution system it is necessary to have an electrical
connection to earth at least 4 times per mile to keep the voltage on the multi grounded neutral
from exceeding approximately 25 volts making it safe for the linemen should they come into
contact with th6 neutral and the earth.
 As per NESC Rule 096 C in the section with the multi grounded neutral conductor connected
to earth at least 4 times per mile and at each transformer and lightning arrester there are now
multiple paths over and through the earth that the hazardous electric current can flow over
continuously, uncontrolled.
 The path that this current flow takes through the earth cannot be determined. We cannot put
an isotope on each electron and trace its path as it flows uncontrolled through the earth. It is
irresponsible to permit stray uncontrolled electric current to flow into and over private property.

SINGLE GROUNDED NEUTRAL

Three-phase four wire single neutral grounded

Figure on left shows single grounded neutral which is different from multi grounded system. Figure
shows the neutral also connected to earth, but the neutral conductor is extended along with the phase

100
 conductors. The configuration shown in figure allows electrical loads, transformers to be placed
between any of the three phase conductors, phase-to-phase and/or phase-to-neutral.

This connection, phase to neutral will force electric current to flow over the neutral back to the
transformer. So far this electrical connection is acceptable, as long as the neutral is insulated or treated
as being potentially energized, but modifications will be made in the future that will negate safety for
the public and animals.

The ground connection would typically be located in the distribution substation. This may appear
insignificant, but the differences are significant

ADVANTAGES OF MULTIPLE GROUNDED NEUTRAL SYSTEMS

(1) Optimize the Size of Surge Arrestor:

 surge arresters are applied to a power system based on the line-to-ground voltage under
normal condition and abnormal conditions. Under ground-fault conditions, the line-to-ground
voltage can increase up to 1.73 per unit on the two, unfaulted.
 Application of surge arresters on a power system is dependent on the effectiveness of the
system grounding. The over voltage condition that can occur during a ground fault can be
minimized by keeping the zero sequence impedance low. Therefore, optimization in sizing the
surge arresters on the system is dependent on the system grounding.
 An effectively grounded power system allows the use of a lower rated surge arrester. The
lower rated surge arrester provides better surge protection at a lower cost. An effectively
grounded system can only be accomplished using a properly sized, multi-grounded system
neutral.
 The National Electrical code (NEC) requires the neutral in the service disconnect and over
current panel board to be connected to the earth also. Now the secondary neutral is connected
to earth a second time. A parallel connection of the neutral to earth now exists permitting
hazardous electric current to flow continuously uncontrolled over the earth.
(2) Earth Fault Protection Relay setting is complicated.

ADVANTAGES OF SINGLE GROUNDED NEUTRAL SYSTEM

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A. More Reliable and Safe System.
B. Protection Relay Setting is more easy in single Grounded Neutral:
 Protective relays need to sense abnormal conditions, especially those involving a ground fault.
The single point grounded system, with or without a neutral conductor, current flowing into the
ground should be considered abnormal (excluding normal charging current). For sensing of
ground faults are:

Ground fault relay at neutral

 A current transformer in the location where the neutral is grounded can be used to sense the
ground fault (zero sequence) current.
 A zero sequence CT enclosing the three phase and neutral conductors.
 Four CT residue circuit (Three CT residual with
 Protecting against ground faults on a multi-grounded neutral system is more difficult than the
single point grounded system since both neutral and ground fault currents must be considered.
 Neutral current and likewise ground fault current can flow in both the neutral and the ground.
So, We have must calculate both current as the amount of neutral current which may flow in
the circuit, and the ground fault setting must be above this neutral current. This is self
explanatory from Fig.

(3) Sensing of Ground Fault current:

 While the sensing of the ground fault current in the single point grounded system is less
complex than the multi grounded system, the amount of ground fault current on the single-
point grounded system may be greatly limited due to the fact that all ground fault current must
return through the earth. This is especially true where the earth resistivity is high, the soil is
frozen or the soil is extremely dry.

NEUTRAL-POINT GROUNDING FOR DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS

Utilities have several options when they need to ground or earth the neutral point of their distribution
network that largely depend on the characteristics and composition of the network. Each method,
resistor, reactor or arc suppression coil has its merits and its disadvantages.

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 The Guangdong Provincial Electric Power Co. (GPEPC, Guangzhou, China) has a predominantly 1O-kV
overhead distribution system in the older cities and an increasing number of 1O-kV underground cable
feeders in the newer cities. The neutral point of the overhead distribution system traditionally has
been grounded via controllable arc suppression coils (CASCs), while resistors are used on cable
network. However, both methods have operational disadvantages. To improve system-fault
performance, the GPEPC's Power & Research institute developed a new intellectualized CASC that is
able to respond quickly to system faults, thus improving the reliability of the distribution network. This
new CASC grounding method is expected to dominate the two existing methods without incurring their
disadvantages.

IMPROVEMENT OF CASC

The GPEPC's Power & Research institute set out to develop a CASC with the following key operational
characteristics and system benefits:

 A linear voltage/current (V-A) characteristic curve for the complete voltage range zero to 1.1
Vph (where V =phase-voltage) to provide compensation for all values of neutral voltage (Vn)
under especially for high impedance grounding and arc grounding faults.
 A fast response to suppress the grounding arc and to clear the series of grounds that occur at
short time intervals (one second or shorter) that often occur during thunderstorm conditions.
 To easily adapt to the changes of the developing distribution network with maintenance-free
design and high-reliability operations.

The majority of the CASCs in service are designed to enable excitation impedance adjustment, but the
V-A characteristic curve is not linear for the complete voltage range (zero to 110% Vph) because of the
magnetic hysteresis' They also have other disadvantages, including slow response times, narrow or
stepped adjustable current output, complex construction or mechanically operated structures and
contacts.

To meet the goals, the Research institute developed a new type of CASc, called the KD-XH
intellectualized and Quick Responding Arc Suppressing Apparatus for Distribution Network
Applications.

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 PRINCIPLES AND FEATURES OF KD-XH

The core part of the KD-XH system is the transformer; with a high short-circuit impedance, which is
controlled by thyristors on the secondary side. The primary high-voltage winding is the normal working
winding (NW) connected to the power system. The control winding (CW) is the secondary low-voltage
winding short-circuited by two contrary-paralleled thyristors (SCR). The key feature is the high short-
circuit impedance of the transformer, which is about 100% - a value much higher than that of a normal
transformer. Varying the firing angle of the thyristors controls the inductive current output from the
NW. This means that as the conducting angle varies from zero to 180 degrees, the output current from
the NW changes from zero amperes to the rated current without interruption. By adding a third
winding to the transformer as the compensating winding (cmW) connected with filters that correspond
to the third and fifth harmonics or even higher order; the harmonic current that results from operation
of the thyristors reduces to permissible values. The advanced design and operational principles of KD-
XH offer excellent performances and unique characteristics, including:

 A straight-line V-A characteristic curve in full range of zero to 110% Vph.

 fiast response times (less than 5 msec) and the current output can be adjusted from zero to
rated current continuously without any steps. In view of the KD-XH's quick-response
characteristic, under normal conditions' this equipment does not operate near the system
resonant point to restrict the possible dangerous over voltages because of series resonance.
Therefore, the additional resistor - a necessity for other types of arc suppression coils to
restrict the resonance - is not required.
 The construction of this type of compensation coil is as simple as a conventional transformer
without any on-load tap-change switches and no gaps in the magnetic path, which makes it
easy to manufacture.
 An optional device of the KD-XH system can precisely locate the grounded liner.
 The controller’s other functions include:

104
 intellectualized auto-setting and processing
 suitable to control and operate in parallel with CASCs
 Strong anti-interferences capability
 Able to trip the grounded line.

Unlike other CASC equipment, the location of the grounded line and the compensation for the
capacitive current of the KD-XH system can go simultaneously to maintain its quick response
characteristic, thus rapidly extinguishing the grounding arc.

KD-XH FIELD TRIALS

The KD-XH arc suppression coil has been subjected to comprehensive simulated and field trials
including the direct grounding, arc grounding and high impedance grounding faults on an industrial
application unit (10.5 kV @ 500 kVA). Tests at the Research institute’s high-voltage facilities and at a
network substation produced the same results, providing confirmation of the KD-XH's operational
effectiveness. Recorded data for a KD-XH/I0.5 kV unit in service on site for more than a year showed
106 operations, of which 17 grounding faults were permanent faults and the remaining 89 grounding
faults were self-cleared after compensation with residual current through the grounding point of less
than 5 A. On two occasions, the KD-XH compensation lasted for more than 60 min.

Neutral voltage Output Capacitive

Fault number Time Grounded line
Vn (V) current IL (A) current IC (A)

50 10:45:28 05 5160.6 57.2 54.3

51 10:45:37 05 5668.4 62.0 59.7

52 10:45:43 01 4682.4 49.2 49.3

53 10:45:46 01 5667.8 61.7 59.7

54 10:45:54 01 5674.2 61.9 59.7

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 Table 4. Comparison of the new CASC, traditional CASC and resistor methods of grounding.

Traditional CASC
Resistor grounding KD-XH CASC grounding
grounding

Treatment of ground Tripped for all No Tripping for all Tripped for permanent
faults ground faults faults only
ground faults

Required insulation Low High Low

level network

Reliability of power Low High Highest

Effect on the Serious Slight Very slight

environment

Application Cable line Overhead line All distribution networks

Table 1 shows the statistic data of neutral-voltage statistics. Table 2 details the time interval-based
statistics data where it depicts 12 occasions when successive grounding faults occurred within a time
interval of 3 to 10 seconds. Table 3 presents detailed data recorded on Sept. 5, 2000, during a period of
intense thunderstorm activity throughout which a series of successive grounding faults occurred at
very short time intervals. Furthermore, the data show that the compensations are reasonably accurate
as the difference between the CASC's output current and the capacitive current is small.

The performance on the application effectiveness of the KD-XH based on field tests and operations in
service can be summarized as follows:

 Accurate compensation and high efficiency for extinguishing grounding arcs.

 Adaptable for distribution network, escalating capacitive current with gradual developed
phases and free of maintenance.
 Enable to adopt a new type of neutral grounding so that instantaneous grounds can be self-
cleared by the CASC and in the event of a permanent fault the grounded lines can be identified

106
and isolated quickly. GPEPC decided that this method was very promising for the neutral-point
grounding of distribution networks and would endeavor to extend its application in the future.

Table 4 shows the superior performance of the new CASC compared with the two existing methods of
neutral grounding.

The research and development of the KD-XH CASC including field-testing, organizing commercial
manufacture and installation took GPEPC's power & Research institute two years to complete.

Unearthed Systems

Under normal operation an unearthed power system behaves the same as an earthed system. The
star-point remains at earth potential provided that the line, to earth capacitance is equal in all phases,
When an earth fault occurs, current will only flow as a result of the capacitance to earth of the healthy
phases.

The larger the network, the greater the capacitance, therefore, the greater the fault current. For
example, a typical unearthed 11 kV system would have earth fault current levels of approximately 10-
50 amps as compared to a solidly earthed system at 10 kA -20kA,

The unearthed option is cheap and simple and allows transient earth faults on overhead systems to be
self clearing. Arcing earth faults and the difficulty of identifying the faulty feeder are the main
disadvantages.

Beyond certain current levels, capacitive current is usually compensated by installing an arc
suppression coil.

All the equipment for an unearthed system must have its insulation designed on the basis of the
neutral rising to and sustaining full network voltage. For a high voltage network, e.g., 220 kV, this is
costly.

Resonant Earthing (Petersen Coils, Arc Suppression Coils, Earth Fault Neutralizer
Earthing)

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A Petersen Coil is connected between the neutral point of the system and earth, and is rated so that
the capacitive current in the earth fault is compensated by an inductive current passed by the Petersen
Coil. A small residual current will remain, but this is so small that any arc between the faulted phase
and earth will not be maintained and the fault will extinguish. Minor earth faults such as a broken pin
insulator, could be held on the system without the supply being interrupted. Transient faults would not
result in supply interruptions.

Modern installations are designed to automatically tune themselves as the network length varies due
to operational switching, etc.

Although the standard 'Peterson coil' does not compensate the entire earth fault current in a network
due to the presence of resistive losses in the lines and coil, it is now possible to apply residual. Current
compensation, by injecting an additional 180' out of phase current into the neutral via the peterson
coil. The fault current is thereby reduced to practically zero. Such systems are known as 'Resonant
earthing with residual compensation', and can be considered as a special case of reactive earthing.

Resonant earthing can reduce EPR to a safe level. This is because the Petersen coil can often effectively
act as a high impedance NER, which will substantially reduce any earth fault currents, and hence also
any corresponding EPR hazards (e.g. touch voltages, step voltages and transferred voltages, including
any EPR hazards impressed onto nearby telecommunication networks).

Resistive/Reactive Earthing

This is a simple means of reducing earth fault currents. In many cases only one NER per substation has
been used. Modern NERs are compact and require almost no maintenance. Initially, liquid resistors
were used to provide neutral impedance. These suffered from bulky size and the need for regular
checking of the electrolyte resistance and in some areas heating is required to prevent the liquid
freezing. The cost of a resistor/reactor increases with rating hence it is important to optimize this in
relation to earth fault protection settings.

3.5.1 Reduction of Earth Fault

Current

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The reduction of earth fault currents as a result of installing NER's is not only beneficial because of the
reduced interference with telecommunication plant, but is also beneficial to power companies because
both mechanical and thermal stress on equipment are reduced. Section 12 outlines the general AC
network benefits of installing NER's.

3.6 Use of Earthing Transformers

For cases where there is no neutral point available (e.g. for a delta winding), an earthing transformer
may be used to provide a return path for single phase fault currents. ln such cases the impedance of
the earthing transformer may be sufficient to act as an effective earthing impedance. Additional
impedance can be added in series if required. A special 'zig-zag' transformer is sometimes used for
earthing delta windings to provide a low zero-sequence impedance and high positive and negative
sequence impedance to fault currents. Section 8 provides further information on the application of
earthing transformers to networks 'supplied via delta connected transformers.

4 Current Considerations

4.1 Source Fault Levels

One of the principal effects of introducing an NER into a power system is the resulting stabilization in
earth fault current levels. This is because typical values of NER impedance used are relatively large,
compared with the system source impedance. If for example, an existing 11kV substation has a 120
MVA (1ohm) source, and a 20 ohm NER installed, the earth fault level would be of the order of 315
amps (this assumes zero fault resistance, line impedance and substation earth mat resistance for the
sake of simplicity).

If, however, the source fault level was then doubled to 240 MVA the earth fault level would increase by
less than 1 amp. Even assuming an infinite infeed (zero source impedance), the earth fault level would
only increase to 317.5 amps. It should be appreciated from the foregoing example that as far as earth
faults are concerned, the gradual increase of source fault levels from existing, right up to design levels,
will have little effect. This of course would not be the case with interphase faults.

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4.2 Earth Fault Current Path

Including the effect of substation earth mat resistance, line impedance, fault impedance (if any) and
earth resistance at the fault position will decrease the theoretical maximum earth fault level given in
the previous paragraph.

This is an approximation, as it assumes a zero source impedance {an infinite infeed) and short lines.
Accuracy is usually within +10% of the exact value, for HV faults close-in to a substation where a
relatively large value NER is located. HV substation earth mat resistances are normally low, (e.g. less
than 1 ohm). This often requires an extensive earthing system.

Low values of distribution system earthing resistance are sometimes difficult to obtain in rural
applications, where extensive interconnected LV neutrals are not practicable.

The resistance to earth of LV MEN neutrals must be sufficiently low to ensure any fittings connected to
neutrals do not introduce a danger to persons and property, and also sufficiently low to ensure the
correct operation of the protective devices which will disconnect supply. Since typically the method of
earthing the LV power system consists of a number of driven rods, the earth resistance will be
determined by local soil resistivity and may have a significant seasonal variation.

Fault resistance may vary considerably depending upon the nature of the fault, e.g. solid, arcing,
contact with trees or hedges. The latter two categories are unlikely to present problems as regards
EPR, but are often difficult to detect from a protection sensitivity point of view. The only impedance to
true earth for a solid (onto earthed metal work) fault is the earth resistance at the point of fault. In the
case of an arcing fault, the arc itself introduces an additional impedance into the fault loop.

In a typical 3 wire HV overhead power system, all of the fault current return path from the fault point
to the source is through the general mass of earth, returning to the source neutral via the source
substation earth resistance. It may be seen by inspection of the formula for earth fault current, that
the basic limitation (stabilisation) of the fault current is provided by the NER.

In many cases, the values of Re1 and Rf could be less than 1 ohm and may be neglected, hence the
other predominant parameter is the earth resistance at the point of fault Re2. Reduction in this earth

110
resistance will reduce EPR at the point of fault, but at the same time, increase the earth fault current
and hence also the EPR on the source substation earth mat.

4.3 Effect of an NER on EPR

Referring to Fig 4.1 and associated equation 4.4, it can be seen that the NER and the earth resistance at
the point of fault form a voltage divider network.

The EPR at the point of fault can therefore be reduced by increasing the NER value; however this
should not be increased indiscriminately since it may have an adverse effect on the ability of earth
fault protection to perform satisfactorily.

In order to appreciate the effect an NER has on EPR in a typical 33/11kV power distribution system,
equation 4.1 has been evaluated numerically for a typical overhead radial system.

The results are given in Fig 4.2.

4.4 Effect of an NER on Magnetically Induced Voltages

The introduction of additional impedance into the earth fault path will reduce fault current magnitude
and hence the amount of magnetically induced voltage.

This has been found to have a more significant benefit in sub-transmission systems (22kV, 33kV, 50kV
and 65kV) where parallel exposures with Telecom cables are often of greater length, and the earth
resistance at the point of fault Rs2 (the downstream substation earth mat resistance) is relatively low.
In these situations an NER can often substantially reduce the maximum earth fault currents, and hence
also substantially reduce any magnetically induced voltages on telecommunication conductors. In 11kV
urban distribution systems magnetic induction problems are generally of lower magnitude than EPR
problems.

Voltage Considerations

5.1 introduction

111
One of the primary factors in making a decision as to how to (and whether to) earth the neutral point
of a power system is the limitation of transient over voltages generated within a network. Some of the
more common sources of over-voltage on a power system are the following:

Lightning.

Switching

surges.

Electrostatic.

Contact with a high voltage system.

Line-to-earth faults.

Resonant conditions.

Re-striking earth faults.

5.1.2 Switching Surges

Normal switching operations in the system can cause over-voltages. These are generally not more than
three times normal voltage and are of short duration.

The over-voltages developed result from transient oscillation between the circuit capacitance and
inductance.

More serious over-voltages can be produced by devices which interrupt by forcing the current to zero.
Devices such as vacuum interrupters and current-limiting fuses must be carefully applied because of
this prospective over-voltage problem.

Neutral earthing is not likely to reduce the total magnitude of overvoltage produced by lightning or
switching surges. It can, however, distribute the voltage between phases and reduce the possibility of
excessive stress on the phase-to- earth insulation of a particular phase.

112
 5.1.3 Electrostatic

Overhead open-wire lines may be subject to electrostatic over-voltages resulting from atmospheric
conditions. A system earth connection, even of relatively high resistance, can effectively prevent
electrostatic voltage build-up.

5.1.4 Contact with Higher Voltage

System

contact with a higher voltage system may be caused by one of the following:

 A broken higher voltage conductor falling on a lower voltage conductor where both- lines cross
or are carried on same poles.
 Breakdown between the high- and low-voltage windings of transformers; these can cause
other failures of insulation possibly at several points.

An effectively earthed low-voltage system, though experiencing high values of fault current during the
above conditions, would hold the system neutral close to earth potential. Thus the over-voltages to
earth on the lower voltage side would be greatly reduced.

5.1.5 Line-to-Earth Faults

A common case of sustained over-voltage on an unearthed system arises when one phase of a three-
phase system becomes earthed. In such a case the Insulation of the other phases is subjected to a
voltage to earth 73% above normal.

A solidly earthed-neutral system could not reach this level of overvoltage. While 73% over-voltage
seldom approaches the insulation levels of equipment and circuits, the cumulative effect of repeated
higher than normal voltage stresses may somewhat reduce insulation life.

5.1.6 Resonant Conditions

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An unearthed system may be subjected to resonant over-voltages. With the high phase-to-earth
capacitance of larger systems, there may be a condition of approximate circuit resonance during a line-
to-earth fault.

The voltage to earth of the unfaulted phases will then be considerably in excess of normal line-to-line
voltage. An earthed-neutral system would prevent resonant over-voltage by holding the phases near to
their normal voltages to earth.

5.1.7 Re-striking Earth Faults

Field experience and theoretical studies have shown that arcing or re-striking earth faults on unearthed
systems can, under certain conditions, produce surge voltages as high as six times normal.

Neutral earthing is effective in reducing transient voltage build up from such intermittent earth faults
by reducing neutral displacement from earth potential and hence reducing the destructiveness of any
high-frequency voltage oscillations following each arc initiation or re-strike. The Effect of Earthing
Methods on System Voltages.

5.2.2 Effectively Earthed System

A system is effectively earthed when the impedance. between system neutral and the earth is low
enough to restrict the phase to earth voltages on the healthy phases during a phase-earth fault to not
greater than 80% of normal line voltage.

System is considered to be effectively earthed when for all portions of the network of concern, the
following reactance and resistance conditions apply:

0<XO/X1<3 and

O < RO/X1 <1

Where XO, RO are the respective zero sequence reactance sequence and zero resistance of the
network, and X1 is the positive sequence reactance at the same point.

114
Transformer neutrals may be solidly earthed, but due to excess zero sequence impedance caused by
low transformer capacity or transformer installations with neutral earth points too sparsely located,
the system may still become non- effectively earthed.

The characteristics of solidly earthed and effectively earthed systems are outlined in section 3. They
minimize transient over-voltages and voltage rise on the healthy phases during phase-earth faults. see
Figure 5.1.

5.2.3 Reactance-Earthed System

A system is regarded. as being reactance earthed where the ration of zero- sequence reactance XO to
positive sequence reactance x1 is greater than 3, but is less than the value necessary for resonant
earthing.

This is generally considered to apply to systems where the XO/X1 ratio is between 3 and 10. This
includes systems with solidly earthed neutrals and systems where reactors are connected between
neutral and earth.

The literature on system earthing advises that for reactance earthed systems, the XO/X1 ratio should be
kept below about 10. This ensures transient over-voltages are not excessive. This is equivalent to
keeping the ratio of single phase fault current above about 25 % .

With reactance earthed systems any phase to earth fault creates a greater shift in neutral point voltage
and higher increase in healthy phase, voltage than with an effectively earthed system. This requires
equipment purchased for such a system to have a higher insulation level than that needed for an
effectively earthed system.

5.2.4 Resonant-Earthed System

Resonant earthing (Peterson Coil) is i special case of reactance earthing in which the capacitive current
is tuned or neutralized by a neutral reactor. Care must be taken to keep the Peterson coil tuned to the

115
system capacitance to minimize the development of transient over voltages, because the combination
of neutralizer reactance and line capacitance constitutes a parallel resonant circuit.

5.2.5 Resistance Earthed System

In general, resistance earthed systems have lower earth fault currents than effectively earthed or
reactance earthed systems. This is necessary to limit the power loss in the neutral earthing resistor.
The low fault currents can be beneficial to earthing grids and earth connection designs, and as well
lessen any interference effects with neighboring communication systems.

To avoid any serious transient over-voltage problems, the value of neutral resistance should lie within
the boundaries:

2X0 < RO [?]XCO

Where XCO is the zero sequence capacitive charging reactance of the network (XCO can be calculated).
The need to ensure satisfactory relay operation for earth faults may dictate use of a lower value of
neural resistance than indicated by the ab6ve boundary limits.

5.2.6 Unearthed
System

The main advantage of an unearthed neutral system is its ability to sustain a single earth fault without
interruption. The insulation of all equipment must be designed on the basis of full and continued
neutral displacement. For HV systems this results In relatively high costs. Relaying is particularly poor
and as well the system will be subject to high transient voltages such as caused by arcing earth faults.

116
5.3 Transient Effects

The over-voltage situations described above have been determined by symmetrical waveform analysis.
In practice the individual phase values of over- voltage can vary from perfectly symmetrical to
completely offset. The highest offset occurs when the current change at fault initiation is a maximum.
The offset then decreases to zero at a rate determined by the X/R ratio of the power circuit at the
fault. A highly inductive circuit will not only have maximum offset when the fault occurs close to
voltage zero, but it will also have the most prolonged duration of offset.

In general, however, the resulting fault current is not fully asymmetric and rarely is the DC offset factor
greater than 1.4. The fault current (initial magnitude and subsequent wave shape) has a direct
relationship to the level of EPR which will be experienced. For these purposes it is quite common
practice to use a factor of 1.2 to 1.5 times the maximum symmetrical value to accommodate transient
conditions. The use of this factor has been confirmed by over-voltage levels experienced in the field.

Whilst the conditions of maximum fault current offset will lead to maximum EPR values, this condition
(i.e. fault near voltage zero) is an unlikely time for insulation failure, compared to one taking place at
peak voltage. Therefore, for power network insulation co-ordination, the use of factors of 1.2 – 1.5 are
conservative. The use of a factor of 1.5 times the symmetrical value calculated based on sub-transient
machine reactance should be adequate for estimating the maximum instantaneous over-voltages
which may be experienced during transient conditions.

The inclusion of neutral earthing impedances will limit the total fault current and therefore EPR.
However, the instantaneous neutral voltage displacement will be increased. Appendix A includes an
indication of the effect different values of neutral resistance have for specific network conditions.

5.3.1 Determination of Temporary over-voltages due to Earth Faults

117
 The earth-fault factor is at a given location of a three-phase system, and for a given system
configuration the ratio of the highest r.m.s phase-to-earth power frequency voltage on a healthy phase
during a fault to earth affecting one or more phases at any point on the system to the r.m.s phase-to-
earth power frequency voltage which would be obtained at the given location in the absence of any
such fault (see definition 3.15 of IEC 71_1).

The earth-fault is calculated using the complex impedances Z1 and Z0 of the positive and zero sequence
systems, taking into account the fault resistance R. The following applies:

Z1 = R1 + jX1 : resistance and reactance of positive and negative sequence system,

Z0 = R0 + jXO : resistance and reactance of zero sequence system

(The earth-fault factors are calculated for the location of the fault).

6. Protection Considerations

6.1 Introduction

Following installation of impedance earthing on a power system, two aspects of protection require
consideration:

 Possible changes to network protection as a result of the addition of the NER.

 Protection for the NER itself and associated transformer(s). Although they form part of the
existing network, it is convenient to regard the transformer(s) and NER as a composite group,
since the NER protection will trip the transformer circuit breakers.

These two considerations are discussed below in the context of earth faults only. The addition of
impedance earthing on a system does not affect phase faults, or protection performance for phase
faults.

6.2 Changes to Network protection

118
The consequence of adding impedance earthing onto a power system is to reduce the magnitude of
earth fault current, for any earth fault.

Since it is not generally known how many faults go undetected prior to fitting an NER, it is difficult to
accurately determine. To what extent protection performance will be degraded after an NER is
installed. A constructive approach is to ensure that following the installation of an NER, all earth fault
protection is set to achieve maximum practicable sensitivity. It should not be assumed that this is the
case at present. With modern relays .and CTs, sensitivities below 5% of full load are practical although
this may be limited by system characteristics.

Factors which affect earth fault protection sensitivity are discussed below:

CT Ratio
This should be as low as practicable, consistent with load carrying requirements.

CT Errors
Where the earth fault relay is energized from phase connected CTs, minor CT errors or
unbalanced primary current (load or through-fault conditions) may result in spill current at the relay. In
general this is not a problem when a neutral CT is used although standing neutral currents are not
unknown.

Relay Type and Setting

lf electromechanical relays are being used the minimum available setting may not provide the greatest
sensitivity, i.e. the primary operating current of an earth fault protection scheme is often higher on the
minimum relay plug setting than on an intermediate plug setting due to the effects of CT burden.

A modern (electronic) over-current/earth fault relay usually has a constant low value of ohmic burden
throughout its setting range. This ensures that the associated CT will not have its magnetizing current
increased significantly during an earth fault.*

System Capacitance Currents

119
The setting of earth fault relays, particularly those in the sensitive earth fault (SEF) category, should
include a consideration of system leakage and capacitance currents, under both normal load and fault
conditions.

Under normal load conditions, primary unbalanced leakage or capacitance currents produce residual
current, which will be a basic limiting factor in setting SEF Protection.

Under fault conditions, imbalance of the system voltage will cause an unbalance in the capacitive
current drawn in each phase of a feeder. It is possible for a healthy feeder to trip via SEF protection,
due to unbalanced capacitive currents. In order to prevent such spurious tripping it is necessary to
choose an SEF relay setting which will not respond to normal unbalanced capacitive currents.

Generally an SEF primary operating current of 3 times the steady state phase to earth capacitive
current should be satisfactory. This setting may conflict with the requirement for optimum earth fault
protection sensitivity. If extensive cable networks are involved, a compromise may be required
between NER ohmic value, earth fault protection settings and discrimination with capacitive currents.

If the proposed SEF setting sensitivity is a problem on only one feeder, it may be possible to overcome
this by adding sufficient time delay to that feeder’s protection, whilst using an SEF setting below the
capacitive current threshold recommended above.

Alternatively it may be acceptable to tolerate occasional spurious tripping particularly if auto-reclose is

fitted on the feeder.

Resonant Earthing

Detection of the existence of an earth fault in a resonant earthed system can be carried out by
measuring the neutral displacement. For an accurately tuned system this can detect the presence of
very high impedance faults.

However, this will not tell you what feeder [or phase] the fault is on. Because by design there is very
little earth fault current in a correctly tuned resonant earthed system, only the system capacitance
currents remain and current operated methods of detecting and isolating earth faults will not work.

120
 The traditional method of isolating earth faults in resonant earthed systems uses a watt metric
element in conjunction with measurement of the neutral displacement.

More sophisticated methods use measurement and analysis of the phase relationships of the initial
voltage and current transients and/or measurement and comparison of the feeder admittances.

In situations where a Petersen coil with residual compensation is effectively used as a very high
impedance neutral- earth impedance, if a single phase-to-earth fault occurs:

 The faulted phase effectively becomes the new earth reference for distribution system.
 The voltage-to-earth on the two unfaulted phases phase-to- increases to the phase-to-phase
voltage. this should not be a problem if all the fittings are insulated to greater than the phase-
to-phase voltage, rather than just the phase-to-earth voltage.
 The phase-to-phase voltages, and hence also the corresponding distribution transformer LV
voltages, remain unaffected.

Protection of the NER and associated Transformer

NER

An NER only needs to be protected from thermal overload. This may result from earth current flow
arising from either repeated auto-reclose operations or the long term presence of small magnitude
neutral currents which may occur due to high-resistance faults or system unbalances.

Protection against small continuous neutral current is relatively straightforward. A sensitive current
operated relay with suitable time delay (to grade with feeder earth fault relays) will usually be
adequate.

Repeated auto-reclose operations require the use of either a thermal replica type of relay or a slow
resetting relay for satisfactory protection.

Relays of the "standby earth fault" (SBEF) type used in the UK fall into the latter category, having an
inverse long time operating characteristic and long reset time.

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The final choice of relay will depend on the thermal characteristics of the NER concerned. In this
respect it may be prudent to seek advice from the NER manufacturer.

The neutral CT associated with the NER and transformer will generally supply both a "system" earth
fault relay and an NER protective relay (alternatively it may be possible to perform these two
protection functions with one relay, e.g. a SBEF relay). The neutral CT must however be located in such
a position that it is always in-service, irrespective of the position of the resistor "service- bypass"
switch.

Temporary earths inadvertently left in position may short out the resistor and/or CT. This situation
could remain undetected for months, hence as far as is practicable the installation should be designed
to discourage the application of temporary earths at such positions.

A warning notice should be provided in a prominent position to combat this possibility.

Transformer Protection

Consideration should be given to the effect of an NER installation on existing transformer protection.
The main effect will be to reduce the ability of biased differential transformer protection (if fitted) to
detect earth faults on the transformer LV windings. A significant part (the lower part) of the LV winding
will become unprotected (for earth faults) by the biased differential protection.

The actual percentage of winding unprotected will vary, depending mainly on the value of earthing
impedance. With typical values of NER impedance encountered (e.g. 5-20 ohms) it ma-y be assumed
that the biased differential protection cannot be relied upon to operate in the event of an LV winding
earth fault.

A secondary but important effect of installing an NER on the LV side of a transformer is that this will
probably result in protection on the HV side being unable to respond to LV earth faults (e.g. HV over
current). This back up protection function may therefore be lost.

The conventional approach to protecting a resistance earthed transformer winding is to use restricted
earth fault (REF) protection. This can be combined with differential protection to operate off the same

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 phase CTs, provided the existing CTs have suitable characteristics. A neutral CT and auxiliary
interposing CTs will also be required.

An alternative to this combined scheme is to use completely separate fi cores to drive the REF and
differential protection respectively. However, it is unlikely that this additional cost can be justified,
particularly on transformer sizes used on distribution systems.

REF relays are generally of the "high impedance, type, using either internal or external stabilizing
resistors. The relays are therefore calibrated in volts and a suitable setting voltage must be chosen
which will provide optimum scheme sensitivity for in-zone faults and stability for out-of-zone faults.

To ensure fast operation for in-zone faults the voltage setting chosen should not be greater than half
the CT knee point voltage. Overall sensitivity (primary operating current) of an REF scheme is mainly
dependent upon the magnetizing current drawn by all CTs (in of the scheme parallel) at the operating
voltage of the relay. In general the better the quality of CTs used, the higher the permissible REF
scheme sensitivity will be and vice versa. With the typical values of NER resistance mentioned above it
should be possible to protect at least 85% of the transformer winding with an REF scheme.

Another possibility is the use of transformer tank or “Howard” protection. This operates on the same
principle as earth frame leakage (EFL) protection, which has been fairly extensively used on switch
boards. Due to limited application experience with Howard protection, it is difficult to draw
conclusions on its usefulness, however it can be assumed to suffer from the same disadvantages as EFL
protection.

 It can easily become inoperative due to the addition of a “new” earth path, such as an
uninsulated cable sheath.
 It is difficult to retrospectively fit unless all cable glands are already lightly insulated from the
tank, or glands made of none-conducting materials are used.
 Earthquake safety restrictions in NZ may present difficulties to the general scheme
requirement for the transformer tank to be insulated from ground.
 Scheme sensitivity is limited by possible mal-operation on out of zone (non- tank) faults, due to
some earth fault current flowing from earth directly to the tank and then through the tank earth

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fault cr. Because of this phenomenon, low current settings on the tank earth fault relay are not
recommended and it is not therefore possible to cover the entire transformer winding for earth
faults.

Notwithstanding the above comments, transformer tank protection should have the advantage of
being relatively inexpensive and may therefore be a worthwhile consideration.

Protection for winding earth faults will also be given by a Buchholz relay and it is strongly
recommended that such a device be fitted. Time delayed (back up) protection for transformer LV
winding faults will also be provided by the system earth fault relay/NER protective device.

The NER will stabilize transformer winding earth fault currents, such that the current flowing up the
neutral Will vary linearly from zero at the neutral end up to a maximum at the HV end of the winding.
The percentage of winding not protected is therefore equal to the relay primary (effective) setting,
expressed is a percentage of the maximum fault current.

Transformers

Most transformers have been designed and tested in accordance with BS or harmonised standards e.g.
I.E.C. and CENELEC. Windings for 33 kV and below are almost always fully insulated.

As they are individual items, it should be possible to identify the relevant standards from the name
plate. Test certificates may also be available. The applicable factory test levels are as follows:

Summary for Switchgear

Again no problem should arise in utilizing switchgear of reasonably modern design, on an impedance
earthed system.

Cables

It can be difficult to reliably identify the relevant design and test specification for a power cable
network as such circuits often contain cables of varying age, const4tction and original data may not be
available. Often each circuit has a variety of cable sections laid at different times, sometimes separated

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by many years, and exact records may well be unavailable. Thus it may not be possible to ascertain the
relevant standards to which they were manufactured.

The situation is further complicated by the presence of joints between each cable section. These are of
a much more variable quality than the cables, due to varying materials, designs, craftsmanship and
conditions during their construction, and/or later repair.

A further complicating factor has been the change from AC to DC voltages for cable testing.

In summary it appears that the majority of existing effectively earthed cable systems can be converted
to impedance earthed systems with reasonable values of neutral impedance.

It can be assumed that the occasional presence for around a second of a transient over-voltage during
fault clearance, will not materially affect the integrity of the cable insulation, nor shorten the life of the
installation.

However, very detailed consideration of all the variations in standard specifications, etc. is contained in
ref 7 which should be consulted for individual cases.

Impedance Value

The selection of the impedance value will depend on the reason for the NER's installation. If the reason
is to permit the use of non-sheathed (i-e. screened) extruded dielectric cables, the predominant factor
will be the maximum fault current magnitude and duration that the screen is able to withstand.

If the purpose is to restrict EPR to reduce risk to persons, then the predominant factor will be the
permissible “hazard” voltage.

In either case once the predominant factor is resolved, by considering the component values for the
rest of the fault circuit, a required value of additional NER impedance to be provided can be calculated.
Refer to equation 4.1.

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In addition to considering the present existing values of system parameters, etc. an assessment of the
likely. Changes during the expected lifetime of the NER should be made. This applies particularly to the
source fault level.

Having selected an impedance value the next step is to carry out a detailed review of protection
practices and settings (refer Section 6), to ensure the revised system is adequately protected and that
the requirements of the Electricity Regulations are met.

Impedance Type
Resistors

The basic requirement for an earthing resistor is that it should be able to dissipate the worst case
quantity of energy during the time the fault current flows. Thus, in addition to the nominal resistance
value, a total energy input, or alternatively a time rating for which the unit may pass current, must also
be specified.

Liquid Resistors

An early type of neutral earthing resistor (no longer favoured) was the liquid type. This consisted of a
metal tank and electrodes suspended in an electrolyte formed by dissolving salts in water. The actual
value of resistance is adjusted by varying the area of the electrode immersed in the electrolyte, as well
as by varying the electrolyte salt strengths and mixtures.

Whilst adequate current/time characteristics can be readily obtained with this type of construction,
there are a number of major drawbacks, which result in regular maintenance being required.

The electrolyte strength must be tested and adjusted as corrosion is likely to occur with such a
solution, and in colder areas it may freeze. Hence an immersion heater and thermostat together with a
low voltage power supply must be provided. This continued maintenance cost results in the lifetime
(capitalised) cost of the installation being many times the basic purchase price. .

One aspect of this type of resistor that should be noted is that the temperature/resistance
characteristic is negative, i.e. as current flows through the resistor and it heats up, the value of its

126
resistance decreases. This characteristic can be useful as under high fault impedance conditions an
earth fault current flow may be below the protection relay setting, even on its most sensitive position.
The current will therefore continue to flow and the NER will heat up, its resistance then drops allowing
a larger current to flow which the relay can then detect.

Solid Resistors

The most common form of solid resistor has typically been constructed of metal resistance elements
supported in a frame with natural air cooling. Resistance elements are typically made from cast iron,
steel, or stainless steel. Such resistors can be mounted outside and have low maintenance
requirements.

A recent development is the ceramic/carbon solid resistor. These resistors are manufactured by
blending carbon, high quality alumina and selected clays which after shaping are fired at high
temperature in kilns with a controlled atmosphere. Resistors of the required value are produced by
assembling a number of suitable. Basic units in a clamping frame. Energy withstand can be improved by
the use of inter-unit cooling fins.

Whilst the basic units require mounting on suitable insulators and housing (e.g. in a weatherproof
enclosure for outdoor use), they are effectively maintenance free, although routine testing would be
advisable.

Reactors

In view of the problems outlined above with the original liquid resistors, a number of power companies
have adopted reactors to provide the required impedance. However, there are additional problems
caused by the resultant phase angle of the fault current. Two types of reactors have been employed;
air insulated and oil insulated, both normally being air cored.

Air Insulated Reactors

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These units typically consist of wire coils on a concrete former and due to their physical size are mainly
appropriate for outdoor switch yards. They are basically maintenance free, although, as for all outdoor
equipment, corrosion prevention measures are necessary.

Oil Insulated Reactors

In this case air cored coils are immersed in a steel tank containing normal insulating (i.e. transformer)
oil. The maintenance of these units is similar to that of a normal distribution transformer.

Design for Reliability

It is essential that the neutral point of the supply remains earthed at all times, either directly or
through an NER. This means that the mechanical. Integrity of any equipment forming part of an NER is
of utmost importance.

Disconnection or open circuit failure of an NER can have serious consequences for power system
equipment. Power transformers are expensive items, and also are costly to repair if winding insulation
is damaged because of neutral point over-voltage.

Electricity industry companies have so far preferred to use NER's comprising a parallel- series
connection of resistor elements, arranged in a bridge type format, to provide a high level of inherent
reliability in the operation of the NER (see example in Figure 8.2 (a)). An unforeseen open circuit in any
part of ,the NER can only result in a change of resistance or reactance value the transformer neutral
will remain earthed.

Earlier Electricity Regulations [1997.84(6)(b)] required impedance earthed systems to be so arranged

that even if part of the connection is switched, the star point remains connected to earth either
directly or via an impedance at all times. The Electricity (safety) Regulations 20L0 require every
earthing system to be designed, installed; operated, and maintained to ensure earthing performance
objectives are met, which would include reliable connection of the star point to earth either directly or
via an impedance, for all foreseeable conditions.

Comparative Costs

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 For any given installation it is necessary to estimate the total cost of each alternative type of resistor or
reactor, with allowance for the on-going maintenance charges. The lowest cost solution is likely to be a
solid resistor, ceramic or metallic grid, with an arrangement with reactors (air then oil) next. Liquid
resistors will generally be the most expensive alternative. In considering some designs (primarily air
cored outdoor reactors) some allowance should be made for the cost of the space required.

In the early 1990's comparisons were made between the costs of installing stainless steel NER's,
Ceramic type NER's and Water resistor NER's, for use in New Zealand on the 11kV network. These
showed liquid resistors to be the most expensive and ceramic resistors the least expensive.

However there are very few manufacturers world-wide for ceramic resistors, whereas stainless steel
resistors are much more readily available in New Zealand. As consequence, most NER's installed in
New Zealand over the last 8 years have been stainless steel.

Electrical Connections for NERs

There are two main approaches generally adopted when applying impedance earthing techniques:

One NER Per transformer unit.

 One NER per substation serving one or more transformer unit(s). Refer to Figure 8.1 (a), (b),
(c), (d).

For one NER per transformer unit the maximum 11 kV earth fault current will depend on the number
of transformers operated in parallel (since the associated NER's are also effectively connected in
parallel)

Where one NER serves all the transformers at the substation, the maximum 11 kV earth fault current is
usually independent of the number of transformers and is determined largely by the NER value. In a
33l11 kV substations with one NER connected to a number of transformers it can be shown that for
values of NER greater than approximately 3-4 ohms the available earth fault current converges to a
constant value for an earth fault close in to the substation independent of the number of transformers

129
in parallel service (Ref. 7). The following table outlines the merits/demerits of each type of NER
connection.

One NER per transformer unit One NER per substation serving one or

more transformer unit(s)

Easier maintenance in that each Requires consideration of switching and isolation

transformer/resistor can be withdrawn switching and isolation arrangements for allowing
from service as a unit if required. safe working on units still in service

More NERs per substation, hence higher Only one NER per substation, hence lowest cost.
costs. Also more suitable where restricted space is a
problem.

Lower earth fault current levels. Earth Fault

Higher earth fault current levels. Earth
Current not dependent on the number of
fault current varies depending on the
transformers in service. Essentially fixed level of
number of transformers in parallel.
earth fault

The choice between the two cases is mainly determined by the choice of NER.

Early applications of neutral resistance involved liquid resistors routine which requires regular
maintenance. Where these units are associated with non-dual rated transformers, one resistor per
transformer has generally been used.

Routine Maintenance

Routine "in service" testing is required at all NER installations to confirm the continuing serviceability
of the equipment.

The type and frequency will depend on the type of device in service and the nature of the application.

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 A typical maintenance schedule for a liquid NER is given in Appendix C. The usual routine testing period
for these devices is 12 months and is sometimes scheduled along with transformer tap changer
maintenance where convenient.

Non-liquid devices (e.g. metallic grid resistors, carbon/ceramic resistors and reactors) can generally be
expected to have a longer period between routine inspection and testing.

General AC Network Benefits of Installing NER's

Although this guide is primarily concerned with the use of NER's to limit fault current between phase
and earth, for the purpose of controlling the level of induction or EPR hazard. to telecommunication
users, staff and plant, there are other benefits which. Accrue to the AC power network which should be
taken into account whenever a cost/benefit analysis is made.

The immediate benefits for the AC network from installing NER's include:

 Reduced damage at the fault location (refer also 3.2) because the energy dissipated at the
fault is proportional to l2t (e.g. a fault current reduction to 50%-of original value reduces energy
at fault location to 25% of original value). Repairs will generally be easier to action and take
less time to complete.
 Fewer 3 phase faults can be expected. Many 3 phase faults develop or evolve from single
phase, faults of high energy levels. Three phase faults are often expensive and time
consuming to repair.
 Circuit breaker maintenance costs are reduced as a result of the reduction in the number of 3
phase faults, and of the reduction in the magnitude of single phase faults.
 Fewer voltage depressions occur, and those that do have a smaller magnitude of depression.
This result in a reduced impact on customers, i.e. quality of supply is improved.

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 Chapter – 10

MARINE / OFFSHORES APPLICATION OF ELECTRICAL PROTECTION

THE SEL-751A S EASY TO INSTALL, WITH FULL COVERAGE OF THE POSSIBLE ARC FAULT LOCATIONS AND
A COMBINATION OF BARE-FIBER AND POINT SENSORS. ENGINEERS CAN INSTALL THE RELAY INTO A
NEW SWITCHGEAR,

POWER SYSTEM PROTECNON

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 The overall purpose of a protection system is to ensure continuity of electrical supply to a consumer as
needed. To achieve this following aspects of power system protection are to be essential to be
considered.

Main Functions of protection system

 To safeguard the entire system and maintain continuity of supply.

 To minimize damage and repair costs.
 To ensure safety of personnel

Basic Components

Protection of any distribution system is a function of many elements, the main components of
protection being as follows:

Fuses - self-destructing to save the 'downstream’ equipment being protected.

Voltage transformers and current transformers: To monitor and provide accurate feedback about the
condition of a system.

Relays - To convert the signals from the monitoring devices and give instructions to ‘open’ a circuit
under faulty conditions or to give alarms when the equipment being protected could be approaching
possible destruction.

Circuit breakers - utilized to 'make' circuits carrying enormous currents and to ‘break’ circuits carrying
fault currents for a few supply cycles based on feedback signals from the relays.

DC batteries -These provide an uninterrupted power source to the relays and circuit but which is
independent of the main power source being protected.

2 FAULTS

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Power systems are subject to many kinds of faults. The principal types are phase with or without earth,
phase-to-phase, single-phase-to-earth a phases-to-earth. In addition, generators transformers and
motors are su short-circuits between turns of the same winding.

A fault is defined as any abnormal condition, which causes reduction basic insulation strength between
current-carrying conductors, or between current-carrying conductor and earth. In practice, this
reduction is not as a fault unless it results in an excess current or in a reduction of imped value loWer
than the load impedance.

By determining the currents and voltages at the fault point, it is possible define the fault. It is also
essential to know the effect of the fault in brand approach of the fault studies on the basis of Its effect
on networks in a power system makes fault detection easier.

3. FAULT DETECTION

In order to facilitate rapid removal of a disturbance from a power system, the system is divided into
protection zones. Relays monitor the system quantities (current, voltage) appearing in these zones; lf a
fault occurs inside a zone, the relays operate to isolate the zone from the remainder of the power
system.

The operating characteristic of a relay depends upon the energising quantities fed to it such as current
or voltage or various combinations of these two quantities, and on the manner in which the relay is
designed to respond to this information. various methods are used for deriving these energising or
relaying quantities.

4. DERIVATION OF RELAYING QUANTITIES

A majority of the system faults originate as faults between one phase and earth, developing later In to
faults involving one or both of the other phases. If a fault can be dealt with quickly, al, damage and
disturbance to the system can be limited in many cases. In order to apply protection relays, it is usually
necessary to know the limiting values of current and voltage, and their relative phase displacement for
various faults. There are cases where the system parameters are such that the current produced by
fault conditions differs little in magnitude from the load current. In such cases, current magnitude

134
discrimination becomes difficult 6r even impossible to apple Discrimination between a fault and
normal or overload condition can be possible if suitably circuitry is used through which a three-phase
system can be resolved into their positive, negative and zero sequence components.

Zero-phase Sequence Systems

Faults involving earth give rise to zero-sequence currents, whereas in a healthy three-phase system
with balance load currents, zero-sequence currents are negligible. This can be used as a basis for
discrimination, which allows the protective system to ignore load current, thereby permitting the use
of earth fault settings lower than the load current values.

Three common ways of applying zero-sequence discrimination are:

1. Putting a suitable current sensing device, e.g. CT between the power systems star (neutral) point
and earth. However, this arrangement can only be used at points near an earthed neutral. The stator
winding protection of generator usually employs this method of earth-fault detection.

2. Zero sequence currents can be detected by using core balance CT(CBCD) where zero-sequence
currents will flow only in the event of unbalance in the phase currents. In this arrangement, it is
important to ensure that no other conductor such as a cable sheath is passed through CBCT. This may
cause incorrect operation, as the sheath will also be carrying some currents. However, this can be
neutralised by deliberately bringing the sheath earthing conductor back through the CBCT opening.
The positioning of core balance current transformers is shown in Fig-B.

3. Zero-sequence currents can also be detected by using residual connection of three-phase current
transformers. This is also known as-a current balance system in which the secondary of current
transformers is connected in residual connection, with relay in the fourth wire. Various forms of
residual connections along with their setting limitations are shown in fig-C.

135
The four major and most commonly used protection schemes in the medium voltage switchgear area,
namely motor protection, transformer protection, feeder protection and capacitor protection schemes
are described below.

POWER PROTECTION

In the case of motor protection, the function of protection is the early detection of fault condition so as
to limit to an absolute minimum the damage caused to the affected equipment. In the case of motor
protection, since motors are designed on a continuous maximum rating (CMR) basis, the discrimination
of fault even though important, the need for rapid operation is more important than discrimination.

Types of Faults

In general, it is necessary to protect a motor against abnormal running and fault conditions arising
from:

(a) Prolonged overload as a result of excessive mechanical load;

Single phasing caused by rupturing of a fuse or by open-circuiting of one phase; Short-circuits between
phases or between phase and earth in the motor winding or its connections;

The protective apparatus that would be fitted to High Voltage Switchgear connected to Feeders,
Transformers, Motors and Generators in Industrial, Commercial c Marine Installations.

The protective system should determine the area of the fault, with the aim of disconnecting only the
affected equipment and leaving all healthy apparatus in operational service.

The final requirements of a protective system are that it ensures compliance with National Statutory
Regulations of the respective governments. Most industrialized countries have produced laws to
ensure that electrical systems are adequately protected to avoid danger and injury to plant and
personnel.

DISCRIMINATION

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When considering the supply to all but the simplest of electrical apparatus (such as a battery operated
hand lamp) it is obvious that the electrical supply b obtained from a remote point and passes through
several distribution switchboards before it reaches the consuming plant at the load switchboard. In
practice other electrical loads may also be supplied from these distribution switchboards.

In order to satisfy the earlier criteria that a protective system should minimize the damage due to a
fault and disconnect only the faulty plant, then the various stages in a protective chain must
discriminate with one another. The protective device at the point of fault must detect and isolate the
fault before any of the protective devices nearer to the point of supply can operate.

This discrimination can be achieved by one of three methods:

(a) Comparison

(b) Time

(c) Magnitude

(a) Comparison - Systems which discriminate by comparison protect only the equipment with which
they are associated and consequently are known as “Zone” or “unit” protection.

The basic principle of such protection is that under normal conditions the current entering and leaving
the zone should be equal. If any difference exists then there is a fault within the unit. Unit protection is
inherently stable under condition of large through fault currents and consequently can have low
current settings and fast operating times.

(b) Time - Discrimination by time is the basis for many simple

Protective devices and includes time limit fuses and inverse definite time lag (l D M T L) current relays.

The major disadvantage of such schemes is that there is a delay in the disconnection of the fault which
increases. The amount of damage to the faulty plant and also increases the risk of damage to healthy
apparatus due to carrying fault currents.

(c) Magnitude - protective devices which discriminate by magnitude can

137
Only be used where there is a large change in fault current, as is the case between the primary and
secondary windings of a transformer.

PROTECIVE DEVTCES - GENERAL There are a great number of protective devise for both alternating
current (AC) or direct current (DC) systems but their fundamental purpose is the same, namely to
measure a quantity (e.g. Current, Voltage, Time, Frequency etc.) and at a predetermined value to take
action. That action could be the direct disconnection of supply by says the blowing of a fuse, or the
generation of an alarm signal to initiate an operational response or the energisation of the trip coil of a
circuit breaker to d connects the fault. When applied correctly protective devices N● provide very good
protection with high reliability and integrity. Unfortunately a lack of comprehension of the protective
devices or sometimes an obsession with maintaining electrical supplies at all costs can lead to a
dangerous situation.

It is not uncommon for a domestic 13A fu 3e to be used to protect a TV/Audio unit hich should be
protected by a 2A fuse. Also it is not unknown for a piece of paper to be placed between relay contacts
to prevent tire relay from tripping the circuit breaker.

FUSES

The simplicity of construction, which permits consistency in manufacture and accuracy of

characteristics, is a most important factor in achieving discrimination. It should be borne in mind that
the primary function of a fuse is to interrupt short-circuits and that discrimination is usually regarded
as secondary. Nevertheless with modern HRC fuses both can be fairly readily achieved it is generally
accepted that if a fuse is subjected to a current, for a time less than that shown on the time/current
curve for, that current there will be no deterioration and therefore care should be taken in the
selection of a fuse. To ensure that there are no excursions of current which could cause deterioration,
attention should be paid to the starting of motors and the rate of starting.

There are two distinct periods in the operation of a fuse 1.Prearcing time. This is the period during
which the fuse element is melting 2Arcing time. This is the period during which arcing exists. Total time
is the sum of (1) and (2)

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The pre-arcing time depends upon the current whilst the arcing time depends upon voltage.

Time/current characteristics curves show the operation of the fuse and are useful when setting IDMT
over current relays to discriminate with them, Discrimination between fuses is usually required at high
fault levels at times much shorter than is shown on the time/current characteristic (less than 0.01
seconds). In this area the operating time is inversely proportional to current squared. For effective
discrimination between fuses the total time of the minor fuse must be less than the pre-arcing time of
the major fuse. As the time is inversely proportional to current squared it follows
that:

.. l2t = constant and it is constant that

is usually given in the published data. In fact two constants are given:

.. .. (1) Pre-arcing l2t

.. .. (2) Total l2t

And therefore, as in any circumstance the current is the same in both fuses, discrimination will be
achieved if the l2t total of the minor fuse is less than the prearcing l2t of the major fuse. In general if
the major fuse has twice the rating of the minor fuse discrimination will be achieved

FAULT TYPES AND THEIR EFFECTS

Different types of faults occur on electrical systems, however infrequently, and at condom locations.
Faults can be broadly classified into the following main categories.

1 Active Fault

An active fault is when actual current flows directly from one phase conductor to another

(i.e. a phase-to phase fault) or when flowing directly from one phase conductor to earth

(i.e. a phase-to earth fault), this t) pe of fault being further classified as either a solid fault or an
incipient fault.

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 2 The solid fault occurs as a result of an immediate complete breakdown of insulation e.g. due to
external damage and in such circumstances will produce a very high fault current resulting in an
electrical explosion. This type of fault must be cleared as rapidly as possible otherwise it will result in
any of the following consequences:

a. Increased damage at fault location, remembering (from 1.3) that fault energy is proportional to
where t/is time in seconds.
b. Danger to operating personnel (e.g. flashes due to high fault energy being sustained for a long
period).
c. Increased probability of earth faults spreading to healthy phases.
d. Higher mechanical and thermal stressing in all items of plant carrying the fault current,
particularly transformers, the windings of which are subjected to enormous electromechanical
forces which are proportional to //.
e. Sustained voltage dips resulting in motor and generator instability leading to extensive
shutdown of the system involved.

3 The incipient fault, however, is a fault that starts as a small thing and then develops into a
catastrophic failure (e.g. a high-resistance joint/contact or pollution of insulators causing surface
tracking. in the latter case, once tracking occurs, any surrounding air will ionize which will consequently
create a solid fault).

4 Passive Faults

Passive faults are not so much real faults, but are realty conditions that can stress the system beyond
its design rapacity, so that eventually active faults will develop. Typical examples are:

a) Overloading causing over heating of insulation (leading to deterioration, reduced life and
ultimate failure).
b) Overvoltage which stresses insulation beyond with stand capacities.
c) Under-frequency causing plant to behave incorrectly.
d) Power swings, with paralleled generators going out-of-step or out-of synchronism with each
other. Therefore, it is essential that these conditions are monitored to protect the system
against them.

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For a phase-to-phase fault, the fault current will be high because it is only limited by the inherent
series impedance of the power system up to the point of the fault. The inherent series impedance in a
power system is designed to be as low as possible to minimise power transfer losses in the network.

in relation to any of the above earth fault conditions, the magnitude of the fault currents can be
determined by the manner in which the system neutral is earthed (e.g. by the use of additional
resistance or-impedance in the system neutral, earth fault current scan be engineered and therefore
controlled). However, solid neutral earthing results in high earth fault currents limited only by the
inherent earth fault impedance of the system.

6 Transient & Permanent Faults

Transient faults occur mainly on outdoor equipment where air is the main insulating medium, and, are
faults which do not permanently damage insulation, thus allowing the affected circuit to be safely re-
energized after a short period, a typical example being an insulator flashover (on an outdoor system)
after a lightning strike. This would be successfully cleared by the opening of an associated circuit-
breaker, which could then be automatically closed (e.g. auto re-closer).

Permanent faults are the result of permanent damage to insulation. In this case the equipment has to
be repaired/replaced and consequently re-instatement must not be implemented before such
repairs/replacement.

7. Symmetrical & Asymmetrical Faults

A Symmetrical fault is a balanced fault, with the sinusoidal waveform being equal (i.e. symmetrical)
about its axis, and represents a steady-state condition.

An asymmetrical fault displays a transient DC offset which decays to the steady-state condition of the
symmetrical fault after a period of time

The amount of offset depends upon factor (X/R) of the power system, the first ‘peak’ being as high as
2.55 times the steady-state level for a 0.05 (lag) p.f. and only 1.4 times the symmetrical fault level a
0.95(lag)

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8 FAULT CALCULATIONS

Before selecting appropriate protection devices, it is necessary, to determine the likely fault currents
that may result in a system under various fault conditions. Although extremely accurate fault current
calculations can be carried out using an analysis method involving symmetrical components (which
utilizes positive, negative and zero sequence vectors), for general practical purpose it is possible for the
ordinary electrical engineer ‘in the field’ to achieve a good approximation of three-phase short-circuit
currents using the following (relatively) simple methods.

Although a phase-to-phase fault is more likely than a full three-phase fault, the letter fault is used for
calculation purposes since it is the most onerous condition and therefore it the associated fault current
can be calculated, it can then be ensured that all equipment in the system will be capable of
withstanding (carrying) this current and, in the case of switchgear, interrupting it.

3.1 Calculation Fundamentals

Calculation of a three-phase fault is straightforward since it is a balanced fault i.e. the current in each
of the three phases has the same magnitude and they have a phase displacement of 1200. Therefore,
all that is required is to calculate the fault current in one phase using the phase neutral voltage and the
impedance/phase.

Example 1:

Although fault current is used in determining protective relay settings, it is mote usual to fault
calculations in MVA since this avoids complications when there is a change in voltages on the system,
as with transformers.

Therefore, with reference to above Example 2,

Fault Calculations Example

Opposite shows a system diagram incorporating a generator, an inter-connector, a feeder and a

reactor. The following calculation example demonstrates the methods by which the per unit

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impedances are derived for each of this system components and how, subsequently, the fault level can
be determined for each distribution level on the system.

INVERSE DEFINITE : MINIMUM TIME LAG RELAY

Perhaps the most commonly used relay is the Inverse Definite Minimum Time Lag Relay (IDMTL) or its
derivatives- There are a growing number of manufacturers who produce this relay, in various form
both electromechanical or more commonly of the static or microprocessor based types.

Relays may take the form of a non-directional (sometime called bi-directional) over current relay, a
non-directional earth fault relay, a non-directional over current relay with high set over current (HSOC)
element a directional over current relay or directional earth fault relay.

Although the HSOC is not an IDMTL relay it is often integrated within a relay.

These relays may be 1A or 5A and the IDM”.,

Considering the relay characteristic it can be seen that for a given Current Setting as the current
increases, the time to operate decreases i.e., an "inverse" relationship. In fact for currents in excess of
20x Current Setting the curve appears to approach a minimum operating time i.e. "Definite Minimum
Time" hence the term IDMTL.

British Standards require that the relay does not operate when the current is less than 1.1 xs

Current Setting ie: 110%.

The Current Setting is a means of altering the current range of the relay. Typically for a IA
electromechanical over current relay the current setting or plug setting Multiplier, would cover the
range 0.5A (50%) to 2A (200%) in a number of fixed steps. Static or electronic types tend to hate
increased range with more steps.

The Time Multiplier setting (TMS) is a means of varying the time for operation with a given overload on
a particular Current Setting. This is variable. lf a current of 10X Current Setting is passed through the

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relay then with a TMS of 1.0 the relay operation time will be 3.0 seconds. If the TM is adjusted to 0.4,
say, then the relay operation time becomes 1.2 seconds, on a Standard Inverse Curve.

The Current setting and TMS allow relays to be graded with each other; this is covered in the following
section.

The addition of a voltage operated directional sensing element causes the over current relay to
operate in one direction only.

For a very large fault current it may be necessary to operate the relay much quicker than the IDMTL
curve will allow, in such cases a high set over current (HSOC) element is added to the TDMTL Relay. The
HSOC is classified as an instantaneous or definite time relay taking about 20/30m seconds to operate,
regardless of the value of the operating current.

IDML REIAY GRADING

In large power networks it is necessary for the specialist protection or Power Systems Engineer to
determine the high level fault currents which will flow, (under the various operational conditions),
whenever a fault occurs on the network. He may calculate these currents manually, use an analyzer or
use a computer with a suitable software programme.

FEEDER PROTECNON

The most com.non forms of feeder protection b. Ze Tran slay and Solkor. These are used in addition to
IDMTL over current protection. Both schemes require pilot wires and are known as Unit or Zone
protection, which operates on the principle that the input and output currents are equal. Where it is
desired to operate two feeders in parallel and no pilot wires are available, directional over current
relays may be used to give some form of feeder protection. This is shown in Figure 4.

In this application, Relays R1 and R2 at the power source Substation B may be non-directional IDMTL
overcurrent relays. At load Substation A the relays R3 and R4 should be directional over current relays.
These latter relays will only operate if the current is flowing from Substation A to Substation B.

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Relays R3 and R4 are set so that when a current V2 IF flows their operating time would be 't' seconds.
Relays R1 and R2 are set so that their operating time would be 't + 0.4' seconds.

If a fault occurs on Feeder 1 and fault current IF flows then R3 will operate in 't' seconds but R4 cannot
sense currents flowing towards A and therefore will not operate.

When R3 operates its circuit breaker at time 't' it prevents any further fault current flowing in Feeder 2
and so R2 will not operate, thus Feeder 2 remains energized.

However, Feeder 1 continues to supply fault current via RI for a further 0.4 second i.e., until’t + 0.4' at
this stage R1 operates and opens its circuit breaker this disconnecting Feeder 1.

The load substation A continues to be supplied from Substation B via Feeder 2.

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 CHAPTER 11
HIGH VOLTAGE ELECTRICAL PROPULSION

What is a Variable Frequency Drive?

How does a VFD Work?

Do you have ac motors in your facility?

Do these motors need a variable output?
Do you use mechanical means to vary the output?
If you answered yes to these questions, you need to install variable frequency drives on these ac motors.
If you are not using VFD's you are wasting energy and throwing money out the window.

What
is a VFD?

You can divide the world of electronic motor drives into two categories: AC and DC. A motor drive
controls the speed, torque, direction and resulting horsepower of a motor. A DC drive typically controls
a shunt wound DC motor, which has separate armature and field circuits. AC drives control AC
induction motors, and-like their DC counterparts-control speed, torque, and horsepower.

Application as An Example

Let's take a brief look at a drive application. In Figure A, you can see a simple application with a fixed
speed fan using a motor starter. You could replace the 3-phase motor starter with Variable Frequency

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Drive (VFD) to operate the fan at variable speed. Since you can operate the fan at any speed below its
maximum, you can vary airflow by controlling the motor speed instead of the air outlet damper.

Figure A Fixed Speed Fan Application

A drive can control two main elements of a 3-phase induction motor: speed and torque. To understand
how a drive controls these two elements, we will take a short review of AC induction motors. Figure B
shows the construction of an induction motor. The two basic parts of the motor, the rotor and stator,
work through magnetic interaction. A motor contains pole pairs. These are iron pieces in the stator,
wound in a specific pattern to provide a north to south magnetic field.

Fig. B Basic Induction Motor Construction

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With one pole pair isolated in a motor, the rotor (shaft) rotates at a specific speed: the base speed. The
number of poles and the frequency applied determine this speed. This formula includes an effect called
"slip." Slip is the difference between the rotor speed and the rotating magnetic field in the stator. When a
magnetic field passes through the conductors of the rotor, the rotor takes on magnetic fields of its own.
These rotor magnetic fields will try to catch up to the rotating fields of the stator. However, it never does
-- this difference is slip. Think of slip as the distance between the greyhounds and the hare they are
chasing around the track. As long as they don't catch up to the hare, they will continue to revolve around
the track. Slip is what allows a motor to turn.

Fig. C Operating Principles of Induction Motor

Motor Slip:
120 X F
Shaft Speed = - Slip
P
Slip for NEMA B Motor = 3 to 5% of Base Speed which is 1800 RPM at
Full Load
F = Frequency applied to the motor
P = Number of motor poles
Example:
120 X 60 Hz
Shaft Speed = - Slip
4
Induction Motor Slip Calculation

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We can conveniently adjust the speed of a motor by changing the frequency applied to the motor. You
could adjust motor speed by adjusting the number of poles, but this is a physical change to the motor. It
would require rewinding, and result in a step change to the speed. So, for convenience, cost-efficiency,
and precision, we change the frequency. Fig. 5 shows the torque-developing characteristic of every
motor: the Volts per Hertz ratio (V/Hz). We change this ratio to change motor torque. An induction
motor connected to a 460V, 60 Hz source has a ratio of 7.67. As long as this ratio stays in proportion,
the motor will develop rated torque. A drive provides many different frequency outputs. At any given
frequency output of the drive, you get a new torque curve.

Figure D Volts/Hertz Ratio

What is a Variable Frequency Drive?

How does a VFD Work?

How Drive Changes Motor Speed

Just how does a drive provide the frequency and voltage output necessary to change the speed of a
motor? That's what we'll look at next. Fig. E shows a basic PWM drive. All PWM drives contain these
main parts, with subtle differences in hardware and software components.

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 Fig. E Basic PWM Drive Components

Although some drives accept single-phase input power, we'll focus on the 3-phase drive. But to simplify
illustrations, the waveforms in the following drive figures show only one phase of input and output.

The input section of the drive is the converter. It contains six diodes, arranged in an electrical bridge.
These diodes convert AC power to DC power. The next section-the DC bus section-sees a fixed DC
voltage.

The DC Bus section filters and smoothes out the waveform. The diodes actually reconstruct the negative
halves of the waveform onto the positive half. In a 460V unit, you'd measure an average DC bus voltage
of about 650V to 680V. You can calculate this as line voltage times 1.414. The inductor (L) and the
capacitor (C) work together to filter out any AC component of the DC waveform. The smoother the DC
waveform, the cleaner the output waveform from the drive.

The DC bus feeds the final section of the drive: the inverter. As the name implies, this section inverts the
DC voltage back to AC. But, it does so in a variable voltage and frequency output. How does it do this?
That depends on what kind of power devices your drive uses. If you have many SCR (Silicon Controlled
Rectifier)-based drives in your facility, see the Sidebar. Bipolar Transistor technology began
superseding SCRs in drives in the mid-1970s. In the early 1990s, those gave way to using Insulated Gate
Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) technology, which will form the basis for our discussion.

Switching Bus With IGBTs

Today's inverters use Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) to switch the DC bus on and off at
specific intervals. In doing so, the inverter actually creates a variable AC voltage and frequency output.
As shown in Fig. 7, the output of the drive doesn't provide an exact replica of the AC input sine
waveform. Instead, it provides voltage pulses that are at a constant magnitude.

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 Figure 7, Drive Output Waveform

The drive's control board signals the power device's control circuits to turn "on" the waveform positive
half or negative half of the power device. This alternating of positive and negative switches recreates the
3 phase output. The longer the power device remains on, the higher the output voltage. The less time the
power device is on, the lower the output voltage (shown in Fig.8). Conversely, the longer the power
device is off, the lower the output frequency.

Figure 8, Drive Output Waveform Components

The speed at which power devices switch on and off is the carrier frequency, also known as the
switch frequency. The higher the switch frequency, the more resolution each PWM pulse contains.
Typical switch frequencies are 3,000 to 4,000 times per second (3KHz to 4KHz). (With an older, SCR-

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based drive, switch frequencies are 250 to 500 times per second). As you can imagine, the higher the
switch frequency, the smoother the output waveform and the higher the resolution. However, higher
switch frequencies decrease the efficiency of the drive because of increased heat in the power devices.

Shrinking cost and size

Drives vary in the complexity of their designs, but the designs continue to improve. Drives come in
smaller packages with each generation. The trend is similar to that of the personal computer. More
features, better performance, and lower cost with successive generations. Unlike computers, however,
drives have dramatically improved in their reliability and ease of use. And also unlike computers, the
typical drive of today doesn't spew gratuitous harmonics into your distribution system-nor does it affect
your power factor. Drives are increasingly becoming "plug and play." As electronic power components
improve in reliability and decrease in size, the cost and size of VFDs will continue to decrease. While all
that is going on, their performance and ease of use will only get better.

Sidebar: What if you have SCRs?

With the large installed base of SCRs, you might want to know how these operate. An SCR (originally
referred to as a thyristor) contains a control element called a gate. The gate acts as the "turn-on" switch
that allows the device to fully conduct voltage. The device conducts voltage until the polarity of the
device reverses-and then it automatically "turns off." Special circuitry, usually requiring another circuit
board and associated wiring, controls this switching.

The SCR's output depends on how soon in the control cycle that gate turns on. The IGBT output also
depends the length of time the gate is on. However, it can turn off anytime in the control cycle,
providing a more precise output waveform. IGBTs also require a control circuit connected to the gate,
but this circuitry is less complex and doesn't require a reversal of polarity. Thus, you would approach
troubleshooting differently if you have an SCR-based drive.

How to Maintain a Variable Frequency Drive?

Many utilities are now offering rebates for the installation of VFD's or retro-fitting existing equipment
with variable frequency drives. Contact your local utility or search VFD rebate or go to
the DSIRE website, a comprehensive source of information on state, local, utility and federal incentives
and policies that promote renewable energy and energy efficiency.

How To Maintain a VFD

Do you know how to maintain Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs)? Doing so is easier than you might
think. By integrating some simple, logical steps into your preventative maintenance program, you can
ensure your drives provide many years of trouble-free service. Before looking at those steps, let's
quickly review what a VFD is and how it works.

A Quick Overview

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 A VFD controls the speed, torque and direction of an AC Induction motor. It takes fixed voltage and
frequency AC input and converts it to a variable voltage and frequency AC output. See Training
Note "What is a VFD?" for a more detailed description of VFD concepts and operating principles. In
very small VFDs, a single power pack unit may contain the converter and inverter.

Fairly involved control circuitry coordinates the switching of power devices, typically through a control
board that dictates the firing of power components in the proper sequence. A microprocessor or Digital
Signal Processor (DSP) meets all the internal logic and decision requirements.

From this description, you can see a VFD is basically a computer and power supply. And the same
safety and equipment precautions you'd apply to a computer and to a power supply apply here. VFD
maintenance requirements fall into three basic categories:

 keep it clean;
 keep it dry; and
 keep the connections tight.

Keep it Clean

Most VFDs fall into the NEMA 1 category (side vents for cooling airflow) or NEMA 12 category
(sealed, dust-tight enclosure). Drives that fall in the NEMA 1 category are susceptible to dust
contamination. Dust on VFD hardware can cause a lack of airflow, resulting in diminished performance
from heat sinks and circulating fans (Photo 1).

Photo 1, Fan Injecting Dust into Drive Enclosure

Dust on an electronic device can cause malfunction or even failure. Dust absorbs moisture, which also
contributes to failure. Periodically spraying air through the heat sink fan is a good PM measure.
Discharging compressed air into a VFD is a viable option in some environments, but typical plant air

153
contains oil and water. To use compressed air for cooling, you must use air that is oil-free and dry or
you are likely to do more harm than good. That requires a specialized, dedicated, and expensive air
supply. And you still run the risk of generating electrostatic charges (ESD).

A non-static generating spray or a reverse-operated ESD vacuum will reduce static build-up. Common
plastics are prime generators of static electricity. The material in ESD vacuum cases and fans is a
special, non-static generating plastic. These vacuums, and cans of non-static generating compressed air,
are available through companies that specialize in static control equipment.

Keep it Dry

In Photo 2 you can see what happened to a control board periodically subjected to a moist environment.
Initially, this VFD was wall-mounted in a clean, dry area of a mechanical room and moisture was not a
problem. However, as is often the case, a well-meaning modification led to problems.

In this
example, an area of the building required a dehumidifier close to the mechanical room. Since wall space
was available above the VFD, this is where the dehumidifier went. Unfortunately, the VFD was a
NEMA 1 enclosure style (side vents and no seal around the cover). The obvious result was water
dripping from the dehumidifier into the drive. In six months, the VFD accumulated enough water to
produce circuit board corrosion.

Photo 2, Corrosion on Board Traces Caused by Moisture

What about condensation? Some VFD manufacturers included a type of "condensation protection" on
earlier product versions. When the mercury dipped below 32 degrees Fahrenheit, the software logic
would not allow the drive to start. VFDs seldom offer this protection today. If you operate the VFD all
day every day, the normal radiant heat from the heat sink should prevent condensation. Unless the unit is
in continuous operation, use a NEMA 12 enclosure and thermostatically controlled space heater if you
locate it where condensation is likely.

Keep Connections Tight

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While this sounds basic, checking connections is a step many people miss or do incorrectly - and the
requirement applies even in clean rooms. Heat cycles and mechanical vibration can lead to sub-standard
connections, as can standard PM practices. Re-torquing screws is not a good idea, and further tightening
an already tight connection can ruin the connection.

Bad connections eventually lead to arcing. Arcing at the VFD input could result in nuisance over voltage
faults, clearing of input fuses, or damage to protective components. Arcing at the VFD output could
result in over-current faults, or even damage to the power components. Photos 3 and 4 show what can
happen.

Loose control wiring connections can cause erratic operation. For example, a loose START/STOP signal
wire can cause uncontrollable VFD stops. A loose speed reference wire can cause the drive speed to
fluctuate, resulting in scrap, machine damage, or personnel injury.

Arcing Caused by Loose Input Contacts

Arcing Caused by Loose Output Contacts

Re-torquing - A Screwy Practice

Although "re-torquing" as a way of checking tightness is common in many PM procedures, it
violates basic mechanical principles and does more harm than good. A screw has maximum

155
 clamping power at a torque value specific to its size, shape, and composition. Exceeding that
torque value permanently reduces the clamping power of that screw by reducing its elasticity
and deforming it. Loosening and then re-torquing still reduces elasticity, which still means a
loss of clamping power. Doing this to a lock washer results in a permanent 50% loss. What
should you do? Use an infrared thermometer to note hot connections. Check their torque. If
they have merely worked loose, you can try retightening them. Note which screws were
loose, and be sure to give them an IR check at the next PM cycle. If they are loose again,
replace them. Finally, don't forget the "tug test." This checks crimps, as well as screw
connections. Don't do this with the drive online with the process, though, or you may cause
some very expensive process disturbances.

Additional Steps

As part of a mechanical inspection procedure, don't overlook internal VFD components. Check
circulating fans for signs of bearing failure or foreign objects - usually indicated by unusual noise or
shafts that appear wobbly.

Inspect DC bus capacitors for bulging and leakage. Either could be a sign of component stress or
electrical misuse. Photos 5 and 6 show fan and capacitor stress problems.

Foreign Object in Fan

1. Take voltage measurements while the VFD is in operation. Fluctuations in DC bus voltage
measurements can indicate degradation of DC bus capacitors. One function of the capacitor bank is to
act as a filter section (smoothing out any AC ripple voltage on the Bus). Abnormal AC voltage on the
DC bus indicates the capacitors are headed for trouble.

156
 Most VFD manufacturers have a special terminal block for this type of measurement and also for
connection of the dynamic braking resistors. Measurements more than 4VAC may indicate a capacitor
filtering problem or a possible problem with the diode bridge converter section (ahead of the bus). If you
have such voltage levels, consult the VFD manufacturer before taking further action.

With the VFD in START and at zero speed, you should read output voltage of 40VAC phase-to-phase or
less. If you read more than this, you may have transistor leakage. At zero speed, the power components
should not be operating. If your readings are 60VAC or more, you can expect power component failure.

2. What about spare VFDs? Store them in a clean, dry environment, with no condensation allowed. Place
this unit in your PM system so you know to power it up every 6 months to keep the DC bus capacitors at
their peak performance capability. Otherwise, their charging ability will significantly diminish. A
capacitor is much like a battery-it needs to go into service soon after purchase or suffer a loss of usable
life.

Capacitor Failure

3. Regularly monitor heat sink temperatures. Most VFD manufacturers make this task easy by including a
direct temperature readout on the Keypad or display. Verify where this readout is, and make checking it
part of a weekly or monthly review of VFD operation. You wouldn't place your laptop computer
outside, on the roof of a building or in direct sunlight, where temperatures could reach 115 degrees
Fahrenheit or as low as -10 degrees Fahrenheit. A VFD, which is basically a computer with a power
supply, needs the same consideration. Some VFD manufacturers advertise 200,000 hours-almost 23
years-of Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF). Such impressive performance is easy to obtain, if you
follow these simple procedures.

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 SCRs
 Most soft starters are made from solid-state switches known as silicon-controlled rectifiers, or SCRs.
They have a simple job: regulate voltage so the motor first is given a low-voltage surge, which ramps up
as the motor starts to turn, saving on wear and tear and often helping electronic components to last
longer. The switches turn on in rapid succession to let more and more voltage through.
Phase Designs
 Soft starters vary for different phases. A single-phase unit controls starting torque but does not really
affect the current much, which makes it difficult to help motors with frequent cycling. Two-phase
starters offer more protection but typically are used with a thermal switch to help protect the motor.
Three-phase starters control all three phases of the common motor and offer much more complete
protection.
Loop Options

 Soft starters can be open-loop or closed-loop. Open-loop units have no feedback, so they control voltage
only according to a preset voltage setting. If the motor does not match that setting, the soft starter might
not operate correctly. Closed-loop versions offer a feedback loop that allows the starter to determine
how it needs to protect the motor.

Speed Control

o Variable frequency drives for electric motors are able to accurately control the speed and power applied
to the motor. The need for precision processing in manufacturing led to the creation and development of
variable frequency drives for industry. Sophisticated automation lines for making automobiles utilize
hundreds of these types of motor drives in one facility. Variable frequency motor drives have the
capability of being electrically tied together so they can operate in concert with one another to move
mechanical devices at a precision rate.
All Voltage Equal
o The pairing of a frequency drive with a motor begins with the voltage of the motor. Although some
frequency drives can convert voltage to a lower or higher rating, the most efficient is when the motor
and frequency drive is of the same voltage. The most common voltage for industry is a three-phase
power at 480 volts alternating current (VAC). This type of voltage is able to efficiently send power to an
appropriate motor and deliver the horsepower or torque that is required. Torque is a value that
designates the amount of "push" or "force" a motor can deliver. Variable frequency drives allow the
usage of this torque to deliver power to the electric motor and yet control the speed of that motor.

Hertz Frequency
o All electrical power that is sent from the utilities runs at a certain frequency. This frequency is called a
Hertz. Most generally, the frequency that is delivered over the large power lines is generated at the
power companies in the form of 60 cycles per second, or 60 Hertz (Hz). A Hertz is best described as a
full cycle or Sine wave of electrical power. This is where the alternating current goes from zero to a
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 maximum positive voltage, back to zero again and then to a maximum negative voltage and then back to
zero. Think of this like a clock face, where 12 o'clock is the beginning zero point of the Sine wave or a
single Hertz. At 3 o'clock would be the maximum positive voltage. The 6 o'clock mark would be zero
again. At 9 o'clock would be the maximum negative voltage and then back to 12 o'clock is again at zero.
Now imagine this clock spinning at a speed where the large dial would make this cycle 60 times of
every second. That is the physical characteristic of the electrical power that comes from the wall outlet.
All electrical power is generated in this fashion.
Controlling the Frequency
o Variable frequency drives take advantage of this generation characteristic of electrical power by being
able to slow down or speed up the amount of times that clock face would spin in 1 second. Through a
series of capacitors, diodes and an imbedded computer chip, the frequency drive is able to moderate
speed while still delivering the full torque of power to the motor. The drive is able to not only vary the
amount of frequency, but can also regulate the voltage that is being sent to the motor. It does this by
delivering a full current to the motor. The current has a direct correlation to the amount of power that is
delivered to the motor. The variable frequency drive may have special software that allows the controller
to be tied to main computer. This computer can control a multitude of drives for a factory environment.
IGBTs and MOSFETs are both types of transistors. A transistor is an electronic device with three
contacts used as electronically-controlled switches or voltage amplifiers. IGBT stands for Insulated Gate
Bipolar Transistor. MOSFET stands for Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor.

Basic AC Drives
AC drives, inverters, and adjustable frequency drives are all terms that are used to refer to equipment
designed to control the speed of an AC motor. The term SIMOVERT is used by Siemens to identify a
Siemens Motor inverter (AC drive). AC drives receive AC power and convert it to an adjustable
frequency, adjustable voltage output for controlling motor operation. A typical inverter receives 480
VAC, three-phase, 60 Hz input power and in turn provides the proper voltage and frequency for a given
speed to the motor. The three common inverter types are the variable voltage inverter (WI), current
source inverter (CSI), and pulse width modulation (PWM). Another type of AC drive is a
cycloconverter. These are commonly used for very large motors and will not be described in this course.
All AC drives convert AC to DC, and then through various switching techniques invert the DC into a
variable voltage, variable frequency output.

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Fixed-Speed Alternators with Variable-Speed Synchronous Motors

The potential for using static electronic equipment to convert an electrical supply can be seen from the
description of an a.c. drive for a d.c. propulsion motor in this chapter. Static frequency converters are
used in a number of ship's installations as the controlling intermediary between fixed-speed alternatoand

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variable-speed synchronous propulsion motors

Schematic Diagram of a Synchronous Motor-based Propulsion System

The output from the alternators is delivered at constant voltage and frequency. For maneuvering or slow
speeds, the output is passed on to propulsion motors at a lower frequency and with its voltage adjusted.
The speed of a synchronous motor is governed by the frequency of the current supplied. Many
synchronous drives are based on conversion of the output (from fixed-speed alternators), first to direct
current and then back to a.c. at a lower frequency (the opposite of the converter scheme for variable-
speed shaft generators). The vessel, when operating at full speed, will receive power at normal
frequency and voltage straight from the switchboard.

Cyclo-converter Method of Speed Control

The cyclo-converter method of controlling speed relies on the ability of the converter to accept current
from the switchboard at constant frequency and voltage. The controller also passes this current to the
a.c. motor at a reduced frequency, with its voltage adjusted. The cyclo-converter is different; it operates
without an intermediate d.c. stage in the conversion. The fixed-frequency supply from the a.c. generators
simultaneously goes to the three pairs of thyristor bridges of the cyclo-converter The upper and lower
bridges of each pair are arranged to operate alternately so that a number of triggering pulses develop in
the top set of thyristors - followed by an equal number from the bottom set, to deliver an output with a
lower frequency. The two bridges for each phase are required to supply both the positive and negative
half-cycles.

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Schematic Diagram of a Cyclo-converter-based Propulsion System

The frequency pattern is shown very simply to illustrate the principle. There is greater variation in reality, because
the triggering of the thyristors is continually changed relative to the three-phase supply so that the output can be
customized to provide the exact frequency and amplitude of the voltage required. Frequency is variable from 0 to
60 Hz.

The windings of the propulsion motor shown in the sketch are separate from each other in order to maintain
electrical isolation between phases. If they are to be connected as a common winding, transformers are required at
the input from the switchboard to each pair of bridges.

Frequency Change Using a Cyclo-converter

Advantage of Electrical Propulsion

Diesel-electric propulsion is especially economical for a number of reasons:

1.Optimal utilization of fuel for diesel engines to generate electrical power, even in partial load ranges.

2.High efficiency across the entire speed range

3.Reduced maintenance costs through longer service intervals based on the optimized operating times of

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diesel engines with constant speed.
4. Minimal standstill times for maintenance and service.
5. Flexible and need-oriented use of diesel generator sets in combined power plants for drives and
onboard power systems.

6. Environmental Friendly-Diesel-electric propulsion systems protect the environment because the

pollutant emission of diesel engines is reduced by operating the engine at the optimal speed and load
ranges.
7. Convenient to Operate:-
Diesel electric propulsion systems are very convenient for the user, because of the following:-
a)Excellent dynamic response from zero to maximum propeller speed.
b) Short reversing times.
c) Availability of maximum torque across the entire speed range at the propeller.
d) Quiet operation.
e) Minimum mechanical vibration.
8. Flexibility
a) Their modular construction makes diesel-electric drives especially flexible in ship designs through:
b)Flexible arrangement of components in the ship.
c) Simplified mechanical requirement for the propeller shaft.

d) Reduced space requirements in the shaft system.

e) Design and engineering of tis, propeller is independent of the drive.
f) Flexibility in the choice of diesel engine speed.

USE OF HARMOINC FILTERS: - These are used at the source of the harmonics as induction motors
heat-up if the supply voltage is distorted. Negative sequence harmonics, which rotate in the direction
opposite to the direction of rotation of the motor reduce the motor torque and cause heating resulting in a
bum-out.

SIMAR Drive Cyclo - The Drive with the Cyclo-converter

A cyclo-converter feeds a three-phase synchronous or asynchronous motor. Such drives are used
wherever outstanding synchronous running qualities, low torque pulsation, and high dynamic response
at low speeds are required.

The cyclo-converter consists of three-part converters, each of which feeds one phase of the motor, in the
part-converters "cutout" suitable curve segments from the line voltage and re-arrange them so as to
produce a voltage of near sinusoidal form.

163
 The Propeller Drive with a Cyclo-converter

This method gives an output frequency of up to 40% of the power system frequency. In order to obtain
higher line-to-line output voltages, the part-converters are controlled to give approximately trapezoidal
output voltages.

The converter is then better utilized and its line-side power factor is improved. The line-to-line output
voltage remains sinusoidal and is increased by a factor of 1.15.
The motor current flows through at least two part-converters. In the case of faults, the current controls of
both part-converters counteract possible short circuits.
Together with the TRANSVEKTOR® closed-loop control, SIMAR Drive Cyclo provides dynamic
response and a torque waveform superior to the d.c. motor.

The slight torque waveform results in an extremely low-noise drive. And as far as output performance is
concerned, practically any size required can be implemented.
In the lower output range, the converters are provided with air-cooling and in the medium and upper
output range, with direct water-cooling.

SIMAR Drive Synchro - The Drive with the Electronic Commutator

SIMAR Drive Synchro is most closely related to the familiar d.c. drive. It comprises a rectifier, current
source link, inverter and synchronous motor. The inverter acts as an electronic commutator and replaces
the mechanical commutator of the d.c. machine. Aided by the TRANSVEKTOR®
control, SIMAR Drive Synchro possesses the characteristics of a d.c. drive, which distinguishes it
essentially from the synchronous motor in operation. SIMAR Drive Synchro can neither pull
out of step nor does it tend toward inconvenient oscillation.
The rectifier is simple in design and requires only normal power thyristors. As shown in series

164
connection of the thyristors enables virtually unlimited output power.

Propeller Drive for an Electronic Commutator (SIMAR Drive Synchro)

The system can be easily converted to a 4-quadrant operation, for driving and breaking in both
directions.

The line-side rectifier is line-commutated. Signals for commutating the current are also derived from
the shipboard network. So is the case for the commutator motor side that is controlled by and clocked
to the synchronous motor in an overexcited operation. This eliminates the need for commutator
support. The current controller acts on the line side rectifier, which via the d.c. link reactor, forms a
current appropriate to the mechanical load of the motor.

The motor-side inverter cyclically distributes this d.c. power in blocks to the motor winding. Together
with the magnetic flux of the rotor, the vector of the current flowing in the stator generates the
required torque.

As a rule SIMAR Drive Synchro is is designed for 12-pulse operation. This considerably reduces the
phase effects on the power system as well as well as of the drive.
In the case of large output ratings a 24-pulse design is also possible, as for instance.

165
SIMAR Drive PWM - The Drive with IGBTs (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors) Progress in
the field of power semiconductors has made it possible to use switch-able components in converters
for asynchronous and synchronous motors that function without a commutator.

Since asynchronous and synchronous motors do not supply any reactive power, the motor-side
converter must itself enforce switching of the current from one bridge arm to the next. IGBTs make
this possible in a simple manner:

A low-voltage design of the SIMAR Drive PWM is available for voltages up to 690 V and a medium
voltage design for voltage up to 6000V. In a standard design both have a 12-pulse diode-rectifier input
bridge. Optional for both systems is the Active Front End (AFE) which reduces the phase effect on the
system to such a degree that it is even possible to meet naval requirements (STANAG 1008) without
taking special measures.

Both the low-voltage and the medium voltage converters use IGBTs as power semiconductors. In low-
voltage technology IGBT power semiconductors are standard, worldwide. Siemens / Eupec have
continued to develop this technology to increase blocking capabilities and to obtain higher current
carrying capacities.

Unlike IGBTs, conventional GTO thyristors and IGCTs cannot be fully controlled via the gate. With
IGBTs, each time the device is turned-on/turned-off, the current and voltage transient can be fully
controlled.

166
 Schematic Diagram of a SIMAR Drive PWM

Power System Harmonics

Causes and Effects of Variable Frequency Drives

Relative to the IEEE 519-1992 Standard

INTRODUCTION

This document describes power system harmonics as they relate to AC variable frequency drives controlling
centrifugal pumping applications. Some of the topics covered are:

❏ Definition of harmonics

❏ How AC variable frequency drives create harmonics

❏ Effects of variable frequency drives on the AC line

❏ Three-phase harmonics associated with phase-to-phase loads

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 ❏ Controlling harmonics

❏ Information on the IEEE 519-1992 standard, “IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic
Control in Electrical Power Systems”

The issues and considerations associated with three-phase power harmonics are often misunderstood. With the
advent of power electronics and proliferation of non-linear loads in industrial power applications, power
harmonics and their effects on power quality are a topic of concern. Currently in the United States, only 15 to
20% of the utility distribution loading consists of non-linear loads. It is projected over the next ten years that non-
linear loads will comprise approximately 70 to 85% of the loading on our nation's utility distribution systems.

The effects of single phase power harmonics and neutral conductors are often a source of concern. Harmonics play
an important role in single phase applications if the neutral conductors are undersized, however single phase
harmonics are associated with phase-to-neutral loads and are not discussed in this document.

HARMONICS

A harmonic is a component of a periodic wave having a frequency that is an integral multiple of the fundamental
power line frequency of 60 Hz. Harmonics are the multiple of the fundamental frequency, as shown in Figure 1.
Total harmonic distortion is the contribution of all the harmonic frequency currents to the fundamental.

Harmonic Frequency
The characteristic harmonics
60 Hz are based on the number of rectifiers (pulse number) used in a circuit and can be
1st
determined by the following equation:
2nd 120 Hz
h = (n x p) 1
3rd 180 Hz

4th
where: 240 Hz integer (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 …)
n = an
5th 300 Hz
p = number of pulses or rrectifiers
6th 360 Hz

7th using420
For example, a 6 Hz
pulse rectifier, the characteristic harmonics will be:
480 &Hz7th harmonics
6)  1  5th
h = (1 x8th
9th 540 Hz
h = (2 x 6)  1  11th & 13th harmonics h = (3 x 6)  1  17th & 19th harmonics h = (4 x 6)  1  23rd &
25th harmonics
10th 600 Hz

11th 660 Hz
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13th 780 Hz

: :

49th 2940 Hz
How Harmonics Are Produced

Harmonics are the by-products of modern electronics. They occur frequently when there are large numbers of
personal computers (single phase loads), uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs), variable frequency drives (AC and
DC) or any electronic device using solid state power switching supplies to convert incoming AC to DC. Non-
linear loads create harmonics by drawing current in abrupt short pulses, rather than in a smooth sinusoidal manner
(see Figure 2).

The terms “linear” and “non-linear” define the relationship of current to the voltage waveform. A linear relationship
exists between the voltage and current, which is typical of an across-the-line load. A non-linear load has a
discontinuous current relationship that does not correspond to the applied voltage waveform.

How Variable Frequency Drives Cause Harmonics

All variable frequency drives cause harmonics because of the nature of the frontend rectifier design. Figure 3
illustrates the typical 6-pulse rectifier. This is the standard power circuit elementary configuration for most pulse
width modulated variable frequency drives with diode bridge rectifiers sold in the marketplace today.

169
Some manufacturers offer an alternative design, particularly in large horsepower configurations, that
incorporates the advantages of a 12-pulse configuration. The12-pulse configuration still creates harmonics to
some degree by eliminating the 5th and 7th harmonics and extending the primary characteristic harmonics up to
the 11th and 13th. For more details on 12-pulse configuration.

Capacitors charge by drawing current instantaneously and charging to a rated voltage potential. Figure 3 shows
the relationship of voltage and current with respect to time for a typical capacitor from the moment power is
applied.

After one half cycle, the DC bus capacitors are charged to the peak of the AC voltage sine wave. The connected
motor draws current from the DC bus (high DC voltage) to supply power to the load requirements.

Three-phase harmonics occur when incoming AC voltage is rectified by the three- phase full wave diode bridge,
which charges the capacitor banks in the DC bus. The conversion from AC to DC is used to charge the capacitors to
a rated potential.

As the motor draws the voltage from the DC bus supply, the potential on the capacitors is less than the incoming
line voltage. Before reaching a lower regulated limit, the DC bus capacitors recharge again in the next half cycle of
the voltage sine wave to the peak. This process is repeated twice in each peak of the sine wave from the process
of continuously charging and discharging of the DC bus capacitors. The capacitors draw a pulse of current (non-
linear load) only during the first and second half peak of the voltage sine wave.

The degree and magnitude of the harmonics created by the variable frequency drive is a function of the drive design
and the interrelationship of the non-linear load with the connected distribution system impedance. The power
source line impedance ahead of the controller will determine the magnitude and amplitude of harmonic currents
and voltages reflected back into the distribution system. Figure 5 illustrates this relationship.

170
 The distorted current reflected through the distribution impedance causes a voltage drop or harmonic voltage
distortion. This relationship is proportional to the distribution system available fault current and to the industrial
distribution system impedance design.

High fault current (stiff system)

• Distribution system impedance and distortion is low

• Harmonic current draw is high

Low fault current (soft system)

• Distribution system impedance and distortion is high

• Harmonic current draw is low

Effects and Negative Consequences

The effects of three-phase harmonics on circuits are similar to the effects of stress and high blood pressure on the
human body. High levels of stress or harmonic distortion can lead to problems for the utility's distribution system,
plant distribution system and any other equipment serviced by that distribution system. Effects can range from
spurious operation of equipment to a shutdown of important plant equipment, such as machines or assembly lines.

Harmonics can lead to power system inefficiency. Some of the negative ways that harmonics may affect plant
equipment are listed below:

❏ Conductor overheating: a function of the square r ms current per unit volume of the conductor. Harmonic
currents on undersized conductors or cables can cause a “skin effect”, which increases with frequency and is
similar to a centrifugal force.

171
❏ Capacitors: can be affected by heat rise increases due to power loss and reduced life on the capacitors. If a
capacitor is tuned to one of the characteristic harmonics such as the 5th or 7th, overvoltage and resonance can
cause dielectric failure or rupture the capacitor.

❏ Fuses and Circuit Breakers: harmonics can cause false or spurious operations and trips, damaging or blowing
components for no apparent reason.

❏ Transformers: have increased iron and copper losses or eddy currents due to stray flux losses. This causes
excessive overheating in the transformer windings. Typically, the use of appropriate “K factor” rated units is
recommended for non-linear loads.

❏ Generators: have similar problems to transformers. Sizing and coordination is critical to the operation of the
voltage regulator and controls. Excessive harmonic voltage distortion will cause multiple zero crossings of the
current waveform. Multiple zero crossings affect the timing of the voltage regulator, causing interference and
operation instability.

❏ Utility Meters: may record measurements incorrectly, resulting in higher billings to consumers.

❏ Drives/Power Supplies: can be affected by mis-operation due to multiple zero crossings. Harmonics can cause
failure of the commutation circuits, found in DC drives and AC drives with silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs).

❏ Computers/Telephones: may experience interference or failures.

Some important concepts and terms associated with a harmonic analysis involve PCC, TDD and THD. The Point
of Common Coupling (PCC) is the location of the harmonic voltage and current distortion to be calculated or
measured. PCC can be measured or calculated on the primary or secondary of a utility transformer or at the
service entrance of the facility. In some cases, PCC can be measured or calculated between the non-linear loads
and other loads of an industrial plant. Total Demand Distortion (TDD) is the percentage of total harmonic current
distortion calculated or measured at PCC. Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is the total harmonic voltage
distortion calculated or measured at PCC.

In the future, a task force will be created to develop an application guide for IEEE 519 to help users and utilities
in cooperate and understand how to solve potential problems related to power system harmonics.

Evaluating System Harmonics

In order to prevent or correct harmonic problems that could occur within an industrial facility, an evaluation of
system harmonics should be performed if the facility conditions meet one or more of the criteria below.

❏ The application of capacitor banks in systems where 20% or more of the load includes other harmonic generating
equipment.

❏ The facility has a history of harmonic related problems, including excessive capacitor fuse operation.

❏ During the design stage of a facility composed of capacitor banks and harmonic generating equipment.

❏ In facilities where restrictive power company requirements limit the harmonic injection back into their system to
very small magnitudes.

172
❏ Plant expansions that add significant harmonic generating equipment operating in conjunction with capacitor
banks.

❏ When coordinating and planning to add an emergency standby generator as an alternate power source in an
industrial facility.

Often, the vendor or supplier of non-linear load equipment, such as variable frequency drives, can evaluate the
effects that the equipment may have on the distribution system. This usually involves details related to the
distribution system design and impedances, similar to performing a short circuit study evaluation.

Reducing Harmonics

There are many ways to reduce harmonics, ranging from variable frequency drive designs to the addition of
auxiliary equipment. The primary methods used today to reduce harmonics are:

❏ Power System Design: Harmonics can be reduced by limiting the non-linear load to 30% of the maximum
transformer’s capacity. However, with power factor correction capacitors installed, resonating conditions can
occur that could potentially limit the percentage of non-linear loads to 15% of the transformer’s capacity. Use the
following equation to determine if a resonant condition on the distribution could occur:

If hr equals or is closed to a characteristic harmonic, such as the 5th or 7th, there is a possibility that a resonant
condition could occur.

❏ 12-pulse converter front end: In this configuration, the front end of the bridge rectifier circuit uses twelve
diodes instead of six. The advantages are the elimination of the 5th and 7th harmonics to a higher order where the
11th and 13th become the predominate harmonics. This will minimize the magnitude of harmonics, but will not
eliminate them. The disadvantages are cost and construction, which also requires either a Delta-Delta and Delta-
Wye transformer, “Zig-Zag” transformer or an autotransformer to accomplish the 30 phase shifting necessary for
proper operation. This configuration also affects the overall drive system efficiency rating because of the voltage
drop associated with the transformer configuration requirement. Figure 5 illustrates the typical elementary
diagram for a 12-pulse converter front end.

173
❏ Delta-Delta and Delta-Wye Transformers: This configuration uses two separate utility feed transformers with
equal non-linear loads. This shifts the phase relationship to various six-pulse converters through cancellation
techniques, similar to the twelve-pulse configuration.

❏ Isolation Transformers: An isolation transformer provides a good solution in many cases. The advantage is the
potential to “voltage match” by stepping up or stepping down the system voltage, and by providing a neutral
ground reference for nuisance ground faults. This is the best solution when utilizing AC or DC drives that use
SCRs as bridge rectifiers.

❏ Line Reactors: More commonly used for size and cost, the line reactor is the best solution for harmonic
reduction when compared to an isolation transformer. AC drives that use diode bridge rectifier front ends are best
suit- ed for line reactors. Line reactors (commonly referred to as inductors) are available in standard impedance
ranges from 1.5%, 3%, 5% and 7.5%.

❏ Harmonic Trap Filters: Used in applications with a high non-linear ratio to system to eliminate harmonic
currents. Filters are tuned to a specific har- monic such as the 5th, 7th, 11th, etc. In addition, harmonic trap
filters pro- vide true distortion power factor correction. Filters can be designed for several non-linear loads or for
an individual load, as shown in Figure 6.

174
 SUMMARY

With the proliferation of non-linear

loads, the issues of power harmonics
are more apparent than ever.
Controlling and monitoring
industrial system designs and
their effects on utility distribution
systems are a potential problem
for the industrial consumer, who is
responsible for complying with
the IEEE 519-1992 recommended practices and procedures. Industrial facilities should include a system
evaluation, including a harmonic distortion analysis, while planning facility construction or expansion. Vendors of
non-linear loads, such as variable frequency drives, can provide services and recommend equipment that will
reduce harmonics in order to comply with the revised IEEE 519-1992 guidelines.

CHAPTER 12
CABLES & CABLE FAULTS, TESTING & DIAGNOSIS ( CABLE
TRUNKING / DUCTS & PROTECTIONS

175
Electric Cables

176
Ship wiring cables have to withstand a wide variety of environmental conditions, e.g. extremes of
ambient temperature, humidity and salinity. Improved materials have led to ship wiring cables of a fairly
standard design that are safe, durable and efficient under all conditions.

The normal distribution voltage on ships is 440 V and cables for use at this voltage are designated
600/1000 V, i.e. 600 V to earth or 1000 V between conductors. Higher voltage
systems require cables with appropriate ratings, e.g. for a 3.3 kV 3-phase earthed neutral system the
required cable rating is 19001300 V. For 3-phase insulated systems the cable rating would be 3300/3300
V.

Cables are constructed of several basic parts:

Conductors are of annealed stranded Copper which may be circular or shaped. Cables with shaped
conductors and cores are usually smaller and lighter than cables with circular cores. Cable insulation has
a thickness appropriate to the system voltage rating. Insulation materials are generally organic plastic
compounds. Butly rubber, which is tough and resilient, has good heat, ozone and moisture resistance.
These excellent properties enable butyl rubber to replace natural rubber as an insulant. Even so, butyl
rubber has now been largely superseded by ethylene propylene rubber (EPR) insulation. EPR has similar
electrical and physical properties to butyl rubber but with better resistance to Moisture and ozone. It
should not, however, be exposed to oils and greases.

177
Cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) as shown in Fig. is also used as an insulant but has inferior
mechanical and thermal properties when compared with EPR. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is not used for
ships cables, even Is Army common ashore. PVC tends to soften and flow at high temperatures (melts at
150°C), and hardens and cracks at low temperatures (8°C). Even at normal temperatures PVC tends to
flow and become distorted Under mechanical stress — for example necking occurs at cable glands
causing the gland to lose its watertight properties. Multicore shipwiring cables have the cores identified
by either colour printed numerals on untaped cores or numbered tapes on taped cores.

The sheath of a cable protects the insulation from damage and injury it is not classed as an insulant.
Sheath materials are required to be heat, oil and chemical resistant and flame retardant (HOFR). The
sheath must also be tough and flexible.

Polychloroprene (PCP or neoprene) is a common sheath material but has been largely superseded by
chloro-sulphonated polyethylene (CSP or hypalon). CSP-HOFR sheathing compound is well suited to
shipboard conditions. It offers good resistance to cuts and abrasions, resists weather and ozone, acid
fumes and alkalis, and is flexible.

Extra mechanical protection is provided by armoring with basket-woven win braid of either galvanized
steel or tinned phosphor bronze. The non-magnetic properties of phosphor bronze are preferred for
single-core cables. A protective outer sheath of CSP compound covers the wire braid. The wire braiding
also acts as a screen to reduce interference (caused by magnetic fields) in adjacent communication and
instrumentation circuits.

Effects of fire on cables - all organic materials will eventually burn in a severe fire. Cable sheath
materials commonly in use are organic plastic compounds that are classed as flame retardant, i.e. will
not sustain a fire. Most cable materials now achieve this property by developing chlorine gas and acid
fumes to smother the flame. PVC is notorious for its release of deadly acid fumes, but PCP and CSP do
the same. EPR and XLPE do not. Some new materials do not produce acid fumes when burning — an
important feature for fire-fighting personnel. However, burning cable materials still tend to produce
dense black smoke.

MIMS cables:

Mineral Insulated, Metal Sheathed cables are very useful in high temperature, fire-risk areas. These
cables have a magnesium oxide powder as insulation with a metal sheath — usually copper (MICC
Mineral Insulated, Copper Covered) which is further covered with PVC for weatherproofing where
necessary. A special termination is used with MIMS cables to provide a moisture-proof seal for the
hygroscopic insulation powder. For an MICC cable this is achieved by a compound filled brass pot
screwed directly on to the copper sheath as shown in Fig.

178
The current rating of a cable is the current the cable can carry continuously without the conductor
exceeding 80°C with an ambient air temperature of 45°C (i.e. a 35°C rise). This rating must be reduced
(de-rated) if the ambient exceeds 45°C or when cables are bunched together or enclosed a pipe or Width
reduces the effective cooling.

MICC cable current ratings are based upon a copper sheath temperature of 150°C maximum. For all
types of cable the size of conductors required for a particular installation is estimated from current rating
tables issued by suppliers. These tables show current ratings for a range of cable types, conductor area
and volt-drop/amp/meter.

The volt drop in cables from the main switchboard to the appliance must not exceed 6% (in practice it is
about 2%). The cables installed must comply with both the current rating and the volt-drop limitation.
Cable volt drop only becomes a problem in very long cables.

Cables are insulated, mechanically protected and watertight. They may be armored and suitable for
installation in a hazardous explosive area A cable gland maintains these properties where the cable is
terminated at an appliance, e.g. at a motor terminal box.

The cable gland is screwed into the appliance terminal box. Nuts on the gland compress sealing rings to
maintain watertight seals on the inner and outer sheaths and to clamp the armor braiding. The gland
must be matched to the size and type of cable. A typical Ex-protected gland construction (which Is more
complicated than an equivalent industrial type) is shown in fig.

In most cases earthing of the cable armoring is done by the cable gland. Where cables pass through
watertight bulkheads and fire-stop barriers they are especially glanded to maintain the integrity of such
bulkheads. .. Conductor termination sockets can be soldered to the conductors but are more frequently
crimped onto each wire by a compression tool.

179
Cables should be periodically inspected and tested.. Cable insulation resistance should be measured and
the value recorded specially Cables in exposed and damp situations

A ship's wiring cables form an integral part of the electrical system on board a ship. Selection of cables
for particular applications is an important task for a designer as they are sometimes the weakest link in
the system.

a wide variety of environmental conditions e.g., extremes of temperature, humidity and salinity of
atmosphere. Improved materials have led to obtaining cables of a fairly standard design that are safe,
durable and efficient under all conditions in both hazardous and non hazardous areas.

The normal voltage on ships is 440V and cables for use at this voltage are designated 600 / 1000V —
600V to earth or 1000V between conductors. Higher voltages require cables rated at 1900 / 3300V for 3-
phase, earthed neutral systems and cables rated at 3300 / 3300V for 3-phase insulated neutral systems.

Electric cables comprise of two basic materials namely insulating and conducting materials, the former
of which is the outer covering of the metallic conducting part. Understanding their physical, chemical,
electrical and mechanical properties are important. In the case of the conducting material, conductivity,
mechanical strength, ductility, and corrosion resistant properties are most important; this is the reason
why copper and aluminium cores are very popular — to name a few.

Where insulating materials are concerned, dielectric strength, thermal strength and moisture resistant
properties are some of the most important factors. This chapter deals with cables in general and
conductors in particular.

Conductors
Many factors determine the type of electrical conductor used to connect components. Conductors may
either be "solid" or "stranded" in nature. "Stranding" makes cables more flexible, allows higher current
carrying capacities, easy to handle, and easy to solder. Some of these factors are the physical size of the
conductor, the type of material used for the conductor, and the electrical characteristics of the insulation.
Other factors that can determine the choice of a conductor are the

180
weight, the cost, and the environment where the conductor is to be used. Although silver is the best
conductor, it is costly and hence is only used in special circuits; it is used where a substance with low
resistivity is needed (its resistivity known to be as low as 1.64 x 10-8 ohm-metres at 20°C).

Copper is the next option for the following reasons:

It possesses low resistivity - for annealed (softened) copper it is 1.72 x 10-8 ohm-metres at 20°C.
It is more ductile (can be drawn out into fine strands).
It has relatively high tensile strength (the greatest stress a substance can bear along its length without
tearing apart) and it can also be easily soldered. The
copper conductor is tinned or alloy-coated to ensure compatibility with its insulation. Conductors are
normally made of annealed stranded copper, which may be circular or specially shaped. Cables with
shaped-conductors and cores are usually smaller and lighter than cables with circular cores.

Temperature Coefficient

Pure metals, such as silver, copper, and aluminium, have positive temperature coefficients i.e., their
respective resistances increase along with a rise in temperature. The resistance of some alloys, such as
constantan and manganin, changes very little as the temperature changes. Measuring instruments use
these alloys because the resistance of the circuits must remain constant in order to achieve accurate
measurements. The positive temperature co-efficient of a material maybe defined as the rise in
resistance per ohm original resistance per °C rise in temperature. It is denoted by the symbol a, which is
equal to 1/234.5 = 0.00427 for copper at 0°C. Though it is expected to remain constant, it does vary at
different temperatures i.e., it is 0.00393 at 20°C, 0.00378 at 30°C and 0.00352 at 50°C and so on. This
and more is taken into account when designing the electrical distribution system of the vessel. A wire is
not just any wire; there is a reason and a purpose for the entire electrical system. The only changes in the
electrical system should be for expedient repairs and approved modifications; do not modify electrical
systems without proper authority.

Current Rating and Voltage Drop

181
The current rating of a cable is the current that the cable can carry continuously without the conductor
exceeding 80°C with an ambient air temperature of 45°C (i.e. a 35°C rise). This rating must be reduced
(de-rated) if the ambient temperature exceeds 45°C, or when cables are bunched together or enclosed
in a pipe or trunking which reduces the effective cooling. MICC — Mineral Insulated, Copper Covered
cable current ratings are based upon a copper sheath temperature of 150°C (maximum).

For all types of cables the size of conductors required for a particular installation is estimated from
standard rating tables. The voltage drop in cables from the main switchboard to the appliance must
not exceed 6% (in practice it is about 2"/").The cables installed must comply with both the current
rating and the voltage drop limitation. Voltage-drop only becomes a problem in very long cables.
Continuous current ratings for groups of circuits (up to 6 cables bunched) for twin and multi-core
Ethylene-Propylene (EP) rubber insulated cables, run open or enclosed are shown in Table.

Cross Section versus Current Ratings and Voltage Drops (Based on Air Temperature)

Cable Sizes The Following methods are adopted for determining cable sizes:
1. Use of a standard wire gauge. 2.

182
According to the diameter of the cable 3.
According to cross sectional area of cable (i.e. its core) Table 14.2 is an example of a selection guide for
a 3-ph motor whose rating is 400 / 440V.

US and
British Comparative Sizes for Cables and Lines: There are
different standards of "wire gauges". AWG i.e., the American Wire Gage is also known as the "Brown
and Sharpe Gage"; it was devised in 1857 by J.R. Brown. As will be seen from Tables a larger number
denotes a smaller wire and follows a mathematical law upon which the gauge is founded.
SWG i.e., the Standard Wire Gauge is also known as New British Standard Gauge, English Legal Gauge
or Imperial Wire Gauge (adopted in 1883). The other common unit is the millimeter wire gauge
denoted in mm2. The e wire
gauge below measures wires ranging in size from number 36 to 0 AWG

American Wire Gauge (AWG) numbers

183
US and British Comparative Sizes Cross Reference Guide for AWG to mm 2

Cable Testing Cables should be periodically tested and checked, ideally when checking their
connected appliances. Cable insulation resistance should be measured and the value logged; a megger
or earth leakage monitors may be used for the same. In the case of an intrinsically safe circuit, we must
use a suitable multimeter in the continuity mode; the output

184
parameters must not exceed those of the diode safety barrier.

Cable Testing Cables in exposed and damp situations, e.g., for deck lighting, may develop a low
insulation resistance. Usually this is a result of mechanical damage, or a faulty gland permitting the
ingress of water or just moisture.

Injecting a heating current from a welding set can dry out cables. The procedure requires care not to
overheat the cables, which could cause further damage. The cable should be disconnected at both ends
from the equipment, and connected as shown in Figure 14.3. The injection cables must have good
connections at each end. The current flow and cable temperature should be carefully monitored. When
satisfactory insulation values have been restored, a final check should be made with the cable at the
normal (ambient) temperature. Remember that the injected heating current must never exceed the rated
value of the cable. It is advisable to use an ammeter and to start at the lowest setting on the welding set.
The voltage should be in the region of 30V to 55V depending upon the current setting. The cable
temperature can be measured with a stem thermometer (mercury in glass) secured to the cable and
should not exceed a temperature rise of 30°C (86°F) from the ambient value. Readings of temperature
and insulation resistance should be recorded every hour and a graph plotted.

Electrical Cable Codes

The following cable codes are those adopted by three countries. Such documents can be found on ships
too. The table below on Japanese Industrial Standards and relevant examples contain extracts from
shipboard manuals.

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 Japanese Industrial Standards (applicable to shipping)

Symbols for the number of cores and main uses:

186
Example 1— H-FR-FA-DPCY-2.5: 0.6/1kV, Fire resistant, double core, ethylene propylene rubber
insulated, polyvinylchloride sheathed, steel wire braided, polyvinylchloride protective covering,
2.5mm2 conductor cable Example 2
— L-FR-FA-MPCYS-4: 250V, Fire resistant, multi core, ethylene propylene rubber insulated,
polyvinylchloride sheathed, steel wire braided, common shielded, 4 core cable. 1.0mm2 conductor
cables However, abbreviations like
DY-2 are used for H-DPCY-2.5 and LMYS-4 for L-MPYCYS-4; such abbreviations are adopted for other
codes too.

Summary of SOLAS Regulations

1) All electric cables and wiring external to equipment shall be at least of a flame-retardant type and
shall be so installed as not to impair their original flame-retarding properties; the use of special types
of cables such as radio frequency cables, which do not comply to the above specifications may be
permitted.

2) Cables and wiring serving essential or emergency power, lighting, internal communications or signals
shall so far as practicable be routed clear of galleys, laundries, machinery spaces of category A and
their casings and other high fire risk areas.

3) Cables connecting fire pumps to the emergency switchboard shall be of a fire-resistant type where
they pass through high fire risk areas. Where practicable all such cables should be run in such a manner
as to preclude their being rendered unserviceable by heating of the bulkheads that may be caused by a
fire in an adjacent space. Thus cables should not be laid behind thermal insulation of bulkheads, etc.

4) Cables and wiring shall be installed and supported in such a manner as to avoid chafing or other
damage.

5) Terminations and joints in all conductors shall be so made as to retain the original electrical,
mechanical, flame-retarding and, where necessary, fire-resisting properties of the cable.

6) All cables on tankers must be either lead-alloy sheathed and armored, mineral-insulated and
copper-sheathed (the ends must be sheathed to prevent moisture being absorbed by the hygroscopic
insulation material) or non-mineral impervious-sheathed and wire-braided so long as they are laid in a
pipe (the curved surface area of the wire must be less than 30% of pipe bore so as to prevent
overheating).

7) Glands fitted to bulkheads must allow for expansion and be weather-tight, water-tight bulkheads
should only be penetrated by a suitable gland.

8) Cables should be laid away from hot surfaces.

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9) Cables installed in locations exposed to damp or wet situations, in machinery compartments,
refrigerated spaces or exposed to any harmful vapours including those from oil, are to have the
conductor insulating material enclosed in an impervious sheath of material appropriate to the
expected ambient temperatures. Cable sheathing, unless galvanized, should have a rust-preventative
coating.

10) Metal casings should be adequately rust-protected and earthed. PVC conduits must not be used in
fridge spaces or on deck unless specially approved as liable to breakdown in cold weather conditions.

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF CLASSIFICATION SOCIETIES

Requirements concerning ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

1 Cables are to be of a type approved by the Classification Society.

2 Cables manufactured in accordance with the relevant recommendations of IEC Publication 60092-350,
60092-351, 60092-352, 60092-353, 60092-354, 60092-359, 60092-373, 60092-374, 60092- 375 and
60092-376 will be accepted by the Classification Society provided that they are tested to its satisfaction.

3 Cables manufactured and tested to standards other than those specified in 2 will be accepted provided
they are in accordance with an acceptable and relevant international or national standard.

Unified requirements for systems with voltages above 1 kV up to 15 kV

Field of application:

The following requirements apply to a.c. three-phase systems with nominal voltage exceeding 1kV; the
nominal voltage is the voltage between phases. If not otherwise stated herein, construction and
installation applicable to low voltage equipment generally apply to high voltage equipment.

Nominal system voltage:

The nominal system voltage is not to exceed 15 kV.

Note: Where necessary for special application, higher voltages may be accepted by the Society.

High-voltage, low-voltage segregation Equipment with voltage above about 1 kV is not to be installed
in the same enclosure as low voltage equipment, unless segregation or other suitable measures are taken
to ensure that access to low voltage equipment is obtained without danger.

Cables are to be constructed in accordance with the IEC Publication 60092-353 and 60092- 354 or other
equivalent Standard.

Runs of cables In accommodation spaces: high voltage cables are to be run in enclosed cable transit
systems.

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 Segregation: High voltage cables are to be segregated from cables operating at different voltage ratings
each other; in particular, they are not to be run in the same cable bunch, nor in the same ducts or pipes,
or, in the same box. Where high voltage cables of different voltage ratings are installed on the same
cable tray, the air clearance between cables is not to be less than the minimum air clearance for the
higher voltage side. However, high voltage cables are not to be installed on the same cable tray for the
cables operating at the nominal system voltage of 1 kV and less.

Installation arrangements: High voltage cables, in general, are to be installed on cable trays when they
are provided with a continuous metallic sheath or armor which is effectively bonded to earth; otherwise
they are to be installed for their entire length in metallic castings effectively bonded to earth.

Terminations: Terminations in all conductors of high voltage cables are to be, as far as practicable,
effectively covered with suitable insulating material. In terminal boxes, if conductors are not insulated,
phases are to be separated from earth and from each other by substantial barriers of suitable insulating
materials. High voltage cables of the radial field type, i.e. having a conductive layer to control the
electric field within the insulation, are to have terminations which provide electric stress control.
Terminations are to be of a type compatible with the insulation and jacket material of the cable and are
to be provided with means to ground all metallic shielding components (i.e. tapes, wires etc).

Marking: High voltage cables are to be readily identifiable by suitable marking.

Test after installation: Before a new high voltage cable installation, or an addition to an existing
installation, is put into service a voltage withstand test is to be satisfactorily carried out on each
completed cable and its accessories. The test is to be carried out after an insulation resistance test. For
cables with rated voltage (U0/U) above 1.8/3 kV (Um=3.6 kV) an a.c. voltage withstand test may be
carried out upon advice from high voltage cable manufacturer.

One of the following test methods to be used:

a) test for 5 min with the phase-to-phase voltage of the system applied between the conductor and the
metallic screen/sheath.

b) test for 24 h with the normal operating voltage of the system. Alternatively, a d.c. test voltage equal
to 4 Uo may be applied for 15 minutes.

For cables with rated voltage (U0/U) up to 1.8/3 kV (Um=3.6 kV) a d.c. voltage equal to 4 Uo shall be
applied for 15 minutes. After completion of the test, the conductors are to be connected to earth for a
sufficient period in order to remove any trapped electric charge. An insulation resistance test is then
repeated.

Classes of Insulation Class A

Insulation

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These are materials or combinations of materials such as cotton, silk, and paper when suitably
impregnated* or coated or when immersed in a dielectric liquid such as oil. Other materials or
combinations of materials may be included in this class if experience or accepted tests can reveal their
capability to operate at 105°C (221°F).

An insulating material is considered to be 'suitably impregnated' when a suitable substance such as

varnish penetrates the interstices between fibers, films, etc., to a degree adequately to bond components
of the insulation structure and to provide a surface film which adequately excludes moisture, dirt and
other contaminants.

For some substances, compounds and resins without solvents may be used which substantially replace
all the air in the interstices. In other applications, varnishes or other materials containing solvents may
be used which provide reasonably continuous surface films and partial filling of the interstices with
some degree of bonding between components of the insulation structure.

The insulating material is said to be 'suitably coated' when it is covered with a suitable substance such as
varnish which adequately excludes moisture, dirt and other contaminants to a degree sufficient to
provide adequate performance in service.

Class E Insulation

These are materials or combinations of materials which, by experience or accepted tests, can reveal their
capability to operate at 120°C (248°F) (materials possessing a degree of thermal stability allowing them
to be operated at a temperature 15°C (27°F) higher than Class A material).
Class B Insulation

These are materials or combinations of materials such as mica, glass, fibre, etc, with suitable bonding
substances. Other materials or combination of materials, not necessarily inorganic; may be included in
this class, if experience or accepted tests can reveal their capability to operate at 130°C (266°F).

Class F Insulation

These are materials or combinations of materials such as mica, glass, fibre, etc, with suitable bonding
substances. Other materials or combination of materials, not necessarily inorganic, may be included in
this class if, experience or accepted tests can show them shown to be capable of operation at 155°C
(311I°F).

Class H Insulation

These are materials or combinations of materials such as silicone, elastomer, mica, glass, fibre, etc, with
suitable bonding substances such as appropriate silicone resins. Other materials or combination of
materials, not necessarily inorganic, may be included in this class if, experience or accepted tests can
reveal their capability to operate at 180°C (356°F).

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Insulation for Temperature above 180°C (356°F)

These are materials or combination of materials which, by experience or accepted tests, can reveal their
capability to operate at temperatures over 180°C (356°F) will also be considered. Supporting
background experience or a report of tests conducted with a recognised standard, ascertaining their
suitability for the intended application and temperature operation are to be submitted for review.

The ageing of insulation is a chemical process, which is rapidly accelerated by prolonged operation at
excessive temperatures. To avoid reducing the service life of an electric device (e.g., a motor), it must
not be run above its rated current for long periods. Short duration over loads may not have an
appreciable effect on the insulation. As a rough guide, for every 10°C rise above the maximum
recommended temperature, the service life of the insulation will be halved.

A majority of marine equipment has been insulated with Class A materials and to a lesser extent with
Class B, but Class E is also becoming popular. Here, full advantage is being taken of the synthetics in
enamels and similar materials now in use, which are suitable for higher working temperatures. These are
better than the oleoresin enamels which were available when the limits for Class A materials were
established.

Insulating Materials Generally used in a Low to Medium Pow2er AC Motor

1. The basic wire or conductor itself is coated with enamel, resin, or a film-fibre combination.

2. Polyester film with a thickness of 7.5 mils (1 inch = 1000 mils = 25.4mm) and with Class `B'
characteristics is used for the armature slots insulation and inter-layer insulation in the individual slots.

3. A film with a thickness of 6.3 mils and with Class 'F' characteristics is used for the armature slots'
insulation and inter-layer insulation in the individual slots in machines rated for Class 'F' temperature
rise.

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CH
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 TESTING OF HV EQUIPMENT

ARC FLASH CAL RATED KIT ROYAL BLUE INDURA ULTRA SOFT OVERALLS 10-CAL SHIELD

TINTED TO PROTECT EYES

FLAME RESISTANT, 5-THREAD SAFETY SWITCH THROUGHOUT.10 CA AGAINST ARC UV, BUT MUST BE WORN WITH A BALACLAVA

FR ARC RATED GLOVE OUTER 48.4 CAL

193
The risks of electric shock are much greater on board ship than they are normally ashore because
wetness, high humidity and high temperature (including sweating) reduce the contact resistance of the
body. In those conditions, severe and even fatal shocks may be caused at voltages as low as 60V. It
should also be borne in mind that cuts and abrasions significantly reduce skin resistance.
Before any work is done on electrical equipment, fuses should be removed or circuit breakers
opened to ensure that all related circuits are dead. If possible, switches and circuit breakers should be
locked open or, alternatively, a ‘not to be closed’ notice attached.
Where a fuse has been removed, it should be retained by the person working on the equipment until the
job is finished. A check should be made that any interlocks or other safety devices are operative.
Additional precautions are necessary to ensure safety when work is to be undertaken on high voltage
equipment (designed to operate at a nominal system voltage in excess of 1kV). The work should be
carried out by, or under the direct supervision of, a competent person with sufficient technical
knowledge and a permit-to-work system should be operated.
Some parts of certain types of equipment may remain live even when the equipment is switched off.
Power should always be cut off at the mains.
Flammable materials should never be left or stored near switchboards.

Work on or near live equipment should be avoided if possible but when it is essential for the safety
of the ship or for testing purposes, the following precautions should be taken:
• A second person, who should be competent in the treatment of electric shock, should be continually in
attendance.
• The working position adopted should be safe and secure to avoid accidental contact with the live parts.
Insulated gloves should be worn where practicable.
• Contact with the deck, particularly if it is wet, should be avoided.
Footwear may give inadequate insulation if it is damp or has metal studs or rivets. The use of a dry
insulating mat at all times is recommended.

194
• Contact with bare metal should be avoided. A hand-to-hand shock is especially dangerous. To
minimise the risk of a second contact should the working hand accidentally touch a live part, one hand
should be kept in a trouser pocket whenever practicable.
• Wrist watches, metal identity bracelets and rings should be removed.
They provide low resistance contacts with the skin. Metal fittings on clothing or footwear are also
dangerous.
Meter probes should have only minimum amounts of metal exposed and insulation of both probes
should be in good condition. Care should be taken that the probes do not short circuit adjacent
connections.
When measuring voltages that are greater than 250V, the probe should be attached and removed with the
circuit dead.

Main switchboards
The internal cleaning and maintenance of the Main Switchboard must only be carried out while it
is in a “dead” condition”; after a full Risk
Assessment has been carried out, and, a formal Permit-To-Work issued.
The Risk Assessment will identify the actions and checks required to make the Switchboard safe, and
these actions and checks will be identified in the Permit-To-Work. The major checks to be listed on the
Permit-To-Work will identify and verify that the necessary Inter-Connections to and from; and/or
within, the Main Switchboard are disconnected. These will include but are not limited to:
(a) the Shore Power Supply,
(b) the Emergency Generator,
(c) the Emergency Power Supply,

The internal cleaning and internal maintenance of the Main

Switchboard would, in general, be an integral part of a ships dry-dock
program or that of an extended maintenance program.

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Additional safety rules

Tools and personal protective equipment (PPE)

Employees working in electrical hazardous areas must be equipped with PPE that is
appropriate for the specific work to be performed. The electrical tools and PPE must be
specifically approved, rated and tested for the level of voltage to which an employee
may be exposed.
Insulating equipment made of materials other than rubber shall provide electrical and
mechanical protection at least equal to that of rubber equipment.
PPE must be maintained in a safe and reliable condition and be inspected before and
after use and immediately after any incident that might have caused any damage to the
PPE.
Tools and PPE should be replaced if the insulating capability is compromised.

Protective gloves must be used when employees are working with exposed electrical
parts above 50 volts.

Fuse handling equipment must be used to remove or install fuses when the terminals
are energized.

PPE must be worn by the employee to protect them from injuries while working near expose energized
parts.

Employees must wear eye protector to safe guard them from the danger of arc and flash arising from
an explosion. The potential sources of arc flashes are.

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 Equipment properly wear could save your life and protect you from dangerous situations personal
protective equipment comes in many forms, can be used almost in every part of your body and have
specific purposes. Let’s see the different types of PPE for the construction professional. OSHA requires
the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) to reduce employee exposure to hazards when
engineering and administrative controls are not feasible or effective in reducing these exposures to
acceptable levels.
.

PPE: Eye Protection

PPE proving eye protection offer prevention from the following hazards:

 Small flying particles from metal or wood being cut

PPE: Ear Protection

In certain workplace conditions, there is very little or nothing one can do to reduce noise at the source.
In such workplaces, workers wear hearing protectors to reduce the amount of noise reaching the ears.
PPE should be used when an employee’s noise exposure exceeds an 8 hour average sound level of 90
dBA. The effectiveness of hearing protection is reduced greatly if the hearing protectors do not fit
properly or if they are worn only part time during periods of noise exposure.
1. Ear Muffs- Made of sound-reducing material and soft ear cushion; they can be fitted around the ear and
hard outer cups, held together by a head band.

PPE: Foot Protection

PPE foot protection devices should be used to protect against: Safety shoes are the type of PPE that
provides protection against high heat being released such as recently paved areas, protect against
puncture wounds, reducing electrical conductivity and protecting from electrical hazards.

PPE: Hand Protection

OSHA’s hand protection (PPE) standard mandates that employers select and require to use appropriate
hand protection when employees’ hands are exposed to the following hazards:

 Skin absorption of harmful substances

 Cuts or lacerations
 Abrasions or punctures
 Thermal burns

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 Extreme temperature
Hand protection PPE products must meet specific needs while enhancing worker comfort, dexterity and
productivity. New hand protection products offer up to 300 percent more abrasion and cut resistance
than leather gloves.

ARCs

Employees must wear eye protector to safe guard them from the danger of arc and flash arising from
an explosion. The potential sources of arc flashes are.

PRECAUTIONS ABOUT ARCING AND FLASHES

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 CHAPTER -15
CONTROL CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS OF V.C.B

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 CHAPTER 16
INSULATION RESISTANCE TEST AND POLARIZATION INDEX
TEST ON HIGH VOLTAGE

Both Insulation Resistance Test (IR Value Test) and Polarization Index Test (PI Value

Test) are conducted on HV machine to determine service condition of the insulation. In HV machines
and winding are likely to be affected by moisture and contamination. IP test is conducted specially to
determine the dryness and cleanliness of winding insulation.

In insulation resistance test, a high DC voltage is applied across, conductor and ground more
specifically. The voltage is applied across the insulator. Due to this applied high DC voltage there will
be a current through the electrical insulator. Big dividing the applied voltage by this current we get the
actual resistive value of the insulator. Say the applied high voltage is
V and corresponding current through the insulator is I Hence as
per Ohm’s law the value of insulation resistance is V/I. This test is generally done by means of megger.
Megger gives required direct (dc) voltage across the insulator an it also shows the resistive value of
insulator directly in Mega ohm range. The megger are generally of 500 V, 2.5 KV and 5 KV. 500
V megger are used for insulation test up to 1.1 KV rated insulation. For high voltage transformer, other
HV equipment and machines, 2.5 or 5 KV megger are used.

As all insulators are dielectric in nature they have always a capacitive property. Due to that, during
application of voltage across the electrical insulator, initially there will be a charging current. But after
some time when the insulator is totally charged, the capacitive changing current becomes zero and then
only resistive conductive current presents in the insulator. That is why it is always recommended to do
insulation resistance test at least for 1 minute as it is proved that charging current totally becomes zero
after 1 minute. Only
measuring insulation resistance by megger for 1 minute does not always give reliable result. As the
resistive value of an electrical insulator also varies with temperature,
This difficulty is partially solved by introducing polarity index test or in short PI value test. The
philosophy behind PI test is discussed below.

Actually when a voltage is applied across an insulator there will be a leakage current from line to
ground.
Although this leakage current is very small is in mill-ampere or sometimes in micro ampere range, but it
has mainly four components. 1)
Capacitive component.
2) Resistive or conductive component. 3)

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Surface leakage component. 4)
Polarization component.
.Capacitive Component When a DC voltage is applied across in insulator, because of its dielectric
nature there will be an initial high charging current through the insulator from line to ground. Although
this current decays exponentially and becomes zero. This current exists for initial 10 seconds of the test.
But it takes nearly 60 seconds to decay totally.

Resistive or Conductive Component

This current is purely conductive in nature flows through the insulator as if the insulator is purely
resistive. This is direct flow of electrons. Every insulator should have this component of electric current.
Since in practice, every material in this universe persist some sensitive nature.

The resistive or conductive component of insulator leakage current remains constant throughout the test.

..
Surface Leakage Component due to dust, moisture and other contaminants on the surface of the
insulator, there is one small component of leakage current through the outer surface of the insulator.

Every insulator is hygroscopic in nature. Some contaminant molecules and mainly moisture in insulator
are very polar. When an electric field is applied across insulator the polar molecules align themselves
along the direction of electric field. The energy required for this alignment of polar molecules, comes
from voltage source in form of electric current. This current is called polarization current. It continues
until all the polar molecules allied themselves along the direction of electric field.

It takes around 10 minutes to align the polar molecules along electric field and that is why if we
take megger result for 10 minutes, there would be no effect of polarizing in megger result.

So when we take megger value of an insulator for 1 minute, the results reflects the IR value which is
free from effect of capacitive component of leakage current. Again when we take megger value of an
insulator for 10 minutes, the megger result shows the value, free from affects of both capacitive
component and polarization component of leakage current. Polarization index is the ratio
of megger value taken for 10 minutes to the megger value taken for 1 minute.

Significance of polarization index test:

Let I is the total initial current during polarization index test or PI test. I is
the capacitive current. IR is
resistive or conductive current. IS is
surface leakage current.

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IP is polarization current of the insulator.
Value of insulation resistance test or IR value test, i.e. value megger reading just after 1 minute of the
test, is …………

Megger value of 10 minute test, is …………

Therefore, result of polarization index test, is

From the above equation it is clear that, if the value of (IR + IS) >> IP, the PI of insulator
approaches to 1. And large IR or IS or both indicate unhealthiness of the insulation.

The value of IP becomes high if (IR + IS) is very small compared to IP. This equation indicates that high
polarization index of an insulator implies healthiness of insulator. For good insulator resistive
leakage current IL is very tiny. …
It is always desired to have polarization index of an electrical insulator more than 2. It is hazardous to
have polarization index less than 1.5.

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 AMET UNIVERSITY
(Under Sec. 3 of UGC Act 1956)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING –MARINE

ME407, MARINE ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY-I

UNIT-I
POWER GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION

Merits and demerits of AC and DC onboard ships

A.C. means alternating current – the current or voltage which alternates its direction and
magnitude every time in definite intervals of time. Nowadays 95% of the total energy is
produced, transmitted and distributed in A.C. supply.

The reasons are the following:

1. More voltages can be generated than D.C (up to 33,000 volts when D.C. 650 V only).
2. A.C voltages can be increased and decreased with the help of static machine called
‘TRANSFORMER’.
3. Cost of generating AC is less.
4. A.C. transmission and distribution is more economical, as line material (say Copper)
can be saved by transmitting power at higher voltage.
5. A.C. motors for the same horse power as of D.C. motors are cheaper, lighter in weight,
require lesser space and require lesser attention in operation and maintenance.
5. A.C. can be converted to D.C. easily by using a device called converter, but D.C. cannot
be converted to A.C. so easily and it will not be economical.

Demerits of AC:

1. A.C cannot be used directly for electroplating, electrotyping etc.,

2.Faulty insulations of A.C is more dangerous

Direct current D.C:

D.C means direct current which does not change its direction and magnitude and is steady at all
the times.Ex. Battery, D.C generator

Merits of D.C
1. D.C series motors are most suitable for traction purposes in tramway,railways,cranes
and lifts
2. Electroplating and electrochemical processes is required D.C
3. D.C Arc welding process is better than A.C
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4. Relay, Circuit breaker and operating time switches uses D.C more efficiently
5. Arc lamps for search lights and cinema projectors work on D.C
6. D.C motors are used in rolling mills, paper mills etc., where fine speed control in both
directions is required.

Why is A.C distribution preferred over D.C distribution onboard ship?

a) AC offers a higher power to weight ratio.

b) A.C transformers can step up or step down A.C voltages wherever required.
c) A ship’s electrical distribution scheme generally follows shore practice which is A.C.

Different Types of Starter

In a three phase induction motor, when rotor current is high, consequently the stator draws a
very high current from the supply. Initially, the current can be of the order of 5 to 8 times the
full load current. Due to heavy inrush current, it can damage the motor winding. A device which
limits high starting current is called a starter.
Direct-on-line starter
In case of small capacity motors having rating less than 5HP, the starting current is not very high
and such motors can withstand starting current without any starter. Thus there is no need to
reduce applied voltage to control the starting current. A starter which is used to connect stator
directly to the supply lines without any reduction in voltage. Hence the starter is known as direct
on line starter.
Though it does not reduce the applied voltage, it protects the motor from various severe
abnormal conditions like (i) over loading (ii) low voltage (iii) single phasing
The induction motor is ‘directly switched’ onto the three-phase a.c. power supply lines. This is a
very simple starting arrangement which is used for the majority of induction motor drives.

215
LOCAL CONTROL:
1. ‘starting’ is achieved with the help of a manual push button.
2. ‘stopping’ is achieved with the help of a manual push button or automatically when the
thermal overcurrent relay operates or a supply voltage surge occurs.
3. ‘re-setting’ is manually done after the operation of the thermal over-current relay.
PROTECTION:
1. Protection against small prolonged overloads, phase unbalance and phase failure is by a
3-phase thermal overcurrent relay.
2. Short-circuit protection must be provided by fuses or a circuit breaker on the supply side of
the starter.

OPERATION:
Push the ‘start’ button ‘I’
1. Contactor coil ‘ KM1’ is energized, main contacts of ‘KM1’ close and the motor starts
2. Aux. Contact of ‘KM1’ closes so that the start button ‘I’ can now be released (this contact is
also called the retaining contact)
3. The motor is now expected to run normally.
Now, if the supply voltage fail, ‘KM1’ de-energises and opens its contacts; the motor stops.
When the power supply is restored, the motor can only re-start when the start button is pressed.
To ‘stop’ the motor, push button ‘O’. When an overload, phase unbalance, or phase failure
occurs, the over-current relay will open its contacts, that are in series with the main contact of
‘KM1’, which results in stopping of the motor.

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 Advantages
1. Inexpensive
2. It is simple to operate and maintain

Disadvantages
1. When very large motors are started by using DOL, they cause a significant disturbance
of voltage(voltage dip) on the supply lines due to the large starting current surge.
2. Due to this voltage disturbance may result in the malfunction of other electrical equipment
connected to the supply ex: Lighting dip & flickering effects
Application:
• DOL starting is sometimes used to start small water pumps, compressors, fans and conveyor
belts.

STAR / DELTA STARTER

This starter is used to reduce the starting current in 6-terminal motors designed for delta
operation. It is the most common and cost-effective method of reduced voltage starting. The
switch connects the stator windings in star at initially. Hence per phase voltage gets reduced by
the factor 1/√3 . Due to this reduced voltage, the starting current is limited.
Star delta starts for small motors may be operated by a manual change over switch. For large
motors, the phase windings are automatically switched using contactors controlled by a timing
relay. A choice of time delay relay are thermal, pneumatic, mechanical or electronic control
devices.

The switchover between star and delta is usually automatic,using a time delay relay or delay
auxillary contacts on the contactors. In addition, a time delay must be inserted between
switching off the star contactor and switching on the delta contactor to ensure that the switching
arc in the star contactor has been quenched before the delta contactor is closed.If the switchover
is too fast, a short circuit occurs. Conversely if the switchover time delay is too long, the motor
speed will fall so that the delta closing current becomes excessively high.

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218
 POWER CIRCUIT OPERATION:
Q1 is closed manually; the closing of KM1 results in a ‘star’ connection; the closing of KM2
completes the motor supply; after a pre-set time delay, the closing of KM3 results in a ‘delta’
connection and the opening of KM1 opens the ‘star’ connection; the motor now runs at its
nominal speed and draws nominal current.
CONTROL CIRCUIT OPERATION:
Press the ‘start’ push button s2; the ‘star’ contactor KM1 energises:
 From the control supply → fuse F1 → manually closed breaker Q1 → F2 ( fusible isolator ) →
stop push button s1 → ‘start’ push button s2 → timer contact (N/C contact) → KM3 (N/C
contact) → the coil of contactor KM1 itself → fuse F3 and back to the control supply circuit (in
most cases it is the secondary of a step-down transformer).
KM1 (a) (N/O contact) closes to energise the ‘main’ contactor KM2:
 Control supply → fuse F1 → manually closed breaker Q1 → F2 (fusible isolator) → ‘stop’ push
button s1 → ‘start’ push button s2 → KM1 (a) (N/O contact) → the coil of contactor KM2 itself
→ fuse SSF3 and back to the control supply circuit.
 Contactors KM1 and KM2 are now retained by KM2 (a)(N/O contact) and hence the ‘start’ push
button s2 can be released.
After the pre-set time ( ~ 10 secs),
 The timer is activated to changeover its contacts in the circuits of contactors KM1 and KM3.
 This causes the ‘star’ contactor KM1 to de-energise( by opening its N/C contact in the circuit)
while the circuit of the ‘delta’ contactor KM3 is prepared ( by closing its N/O contact in the
circuit).
 ‘Delta’ contactor KM3 will energise when the ‘star’ contactor KM1 de-energises to cause its
N/C contact KM1 (b) to close thereby facilitating a smooth changeover from ‘star’ to ‘delta’.
The motor is now capable of running at its pre-determined optimum speed to drive he load.
The motor stops by operating ‘stop’ push s1. In this case, ‘delta’ contactors KM3 and KM2 are
de-energised simultaneously thus isolating the motor’s windings. The N/C contact KM3 (a) in
the circuit of contactor KM1 closes once again to prepare the circuit for the next start.

Advantages:
1. It is used for large motors driving loads like cargo pumps and bow thruster
2. It reduces starting line current to one-third but the starting torque is also reduced for
the same amount.
3. Maintenance free operation.

Disadvantages:
1.Cost effective method
2. It is limited to applications where high starting torque is not necessary like machine tools,
pumps,motor-generator sets.

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Application
It is used for 3Ф induction motor of rating b/w 4 & 20kW

Autotransformer starter

A three phase star connected autotransformer can be used to reduce the voltage applied to the
stator. Such a starter is called autotransformer starter. This is the best way to optimize the start-
up of an induction motor. It best resolves a conflict involved in reduced voltage starting. The
conflict is between reducing the surge current taken while starting and causing the run-up time
to be excessive. The transformer provides a number of secondary tapings, typically 50%, 65% or
80% tapping (and can be 40%, 60% and 75% too). The starting torques on these different
tapings can be estimated as they are proportional to the square of the voltage. The transformer
used in this starter is not the usual type with separate primary and secondary windings. It is an
‘autotransformer’ which uses only one winding for both input and output. This arrangement is
cheaper, smaller and lighter than an equivalent doublewound transformer and it is only in
operation during the short starting period.

220
 Circuit Operation:
1. When the start button is pressed, contactors KM1 and KM2 energise together. This
applies a reduced voltage to the motor windings u, v, and w via the autotransformer.
2. After a pre-set time delay, which allows the motor to run upto its rated speed, contactor
KM1 opens. This ends the autotransformer action and the motor is connected to the main
supply through part of the autotransformer windings, which merely act as series choked
coils.
3. Now, KM3 closes and the whole voltage is applied to the motor. KM2 opens and
disconnects the transformer from the supply.
The motor is never disconnected from the driving voltage,it prevents current surges
The sequence of operation is as follows.

 The main circuit breaker is closed firsts

 The ‘start’button is pressed –Contactor KM1 energises and its main contact create a star
connection at the ends of the autotransformer windings.
 The N/O contact of KM1 activates the timer relay T and simultaneously energises the auxiliary
relay (Aux) that is connected in parallel to the timer relay T,its N/C contact breaks to keep KM3
de-energised thereby preparing the starting circuit
 The N/O contact of the auxiliary relay(Aux) completes the circuit for contactor KM2
 The main contats of KM2 connect the autotransformer to the 3-phase line. This applies a
reduced voltage to the motor windings ,U,V,W via the auto transformer
 The auxiliary contact of KM2 makes a self retaining contact that also serves to keep KM1
energised

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 After a pre set time delay, which allows the motor to runup to its rated speed, the timer relay T
de-energises contactor KM1
 The main N/O contacts of KM1 open and the N/C contact makes to energise KM3
 This ends the autotransformer action and the motor is connected to the main
supply through part of the autotransformer windings, which merely act as series
choked coils.
 The main contacts of KM3 make to connect the motor directly to the 3-phase supply;
simultaneously it breaks its N/C contact to de-energise the timer relay T and the auxiliary relay
(Aux)
 The de-energising of Aux causes its N/O contact to break and thus de-energise KM2.The
autotransformer is disconnected from the supply.
 The motor now runs with the total voltage applied to its windings

SOFT STARTER:

 Soft Starters are usually current or voltage controlled, not frequency.

 Soft Starters do not have the ability to control speed.
 The soft starter employs solid state devices to control the current flow and therefore the voltage
applied to the motor.
 Soft starters can be connected in series with the line voltage applied to the motor controlling the
voltage applied to each winding.

This method of supplying a gradually increasing a.c. voltage during start-up generally refers to
an efficient ‘electronic’ switching technique.A basic method shown in fig. is to use back-to-back
connected ‘thyristors’ or ‘triacs’ in the supply lines which are ‘gated’ to delay ‘turn-on’ within
each a.c half-cycle. This delayed switching applies a reduced average a.c. voltage to the motor.
The applied motor voltage is gradually ramped up by the starter software program until the full
voltage level is reached. To achieve maximum efficiency, the electronic switching circuit can
now be bypassed for normal running.
A ‘soft’ starter may be further adapted to become a voltage controller over the motor operating
load range. In this type of efficient ‘energy manager’ application, the controller monitors the
motor power factor which is a measure of the motor loading. On light load and full voltage, the
power factor is low so the controller reduces the motor voltage which reduces current while
improving power factor and efficiency. Note, this type of “soft-start/energy manager” is not a
speed controller. To electrically change the speed of an induction motor it is necessary to vary
the applied ‘frequency’.

222
Phase angle control:
It is easiest to change the motor voltage by means of a phase angle control using a controllable
semiconductor thyristor. It is possible to pass on only a certain percentage of voltage to the
motor by phase control. The point of time from which the thyristor conduct the sine half wave
called ignition angle ‘ὰ’. If the angle ‘ὰ’ is big the average motor voltage is low.If the ignition
angle ‘ὰ’ is slowly shifted to the left the motor voltage increases with the corresponding control.
The phase angle is a good and simple method for changing the motor voltage.

Soft starter type:

The difference between the soft starter type lie above all in the structure of the power component
and the control characteristics. As already mentioned the soft starter is based on the phase angle
principle. By mean of thyristor it is possible to switch at different points the sine half wave and
supply, only parts of main voltage to the motor.The thyristor permits the current to flow in one
direction only.This thyristor is second semiconductor with opposite polarity which supply the
negative current (back to back switched semiconductor)

Single – phase full – wave controlled soft starter

• In case of single – phase controlled soft starter a phase by mean of two back to back thyristor
.
• The phase L1 and L3 are directly connected to the motor.
• During start approximately the 6x rated motor current still flow in phase L1 and L3. It is only
positive to reduce the current to the 3x rated current during the controlled phase.
• If this mention is compared with a direct start the run up time is longer but the total average
motor current is not considerable reduced.
• This means that approximately the same current flow through the motor as during direct
start.

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 • This result in an additional motor warm up since only one phase is controlled the network is
put under an asymmetrical load in the start phase.
• This method corresponds to the classical connection.

Three – phase half – wave controlled soft starter:

• A thyristor with an anti-parallel diode serve as a power semiconductor. This means that the
phase controlled is only implemented in one half wave.
• This means that the voltage is only reduced during the half wave when the thyristor conducts.
During the second half wave when the diode conducts the full main voltage is applied to the
motor.
• During the uncontrolled half wave (diode) the current peak are higher than the controlled one.
• The upper harmonic linked to this result in a further motor warmup.
Three – phase full wave controlled soft starter:
• For this starter type the phase control is implemented in all three phases.
• Two back to back thyristor are used as power semiconductor. This means that the phase voltage
is controlled in both half wave (full wave control).
• As a result of the upper harmonics occurring during control the motor is put under a higher
thermal load than during a direct starter.
• Three phase full wave controlled soft starter are applied for up to approximately 630KV.

Soft starter Settings:

PEDESTAL VOLTAGE
• The Pedestal Voltage is the initial voltage supplied to the motor at the beginning of the start
routine.
RAMP UP TIME
• The Ramp Up Time is the time taken from the Pedestal Voltage to reach full voltage. The Ramp
Up Time controls the availability of acceleration torque available to the motor and therefore
controls the acceleration time of the motor. The motor will not necessarily accelerate to full
speed as per the Ramp Time; this is due to the miss match of motor torque and the load torque
requirements which often prevail.
(i) Start Ramp : it is the time from were the softstarter starts its ramp (initial voltage) until full
voltage is reached. The ramp time should not be too long, as this will only result in unnecessary
heating of the motor and a risk of the overload relay tripping.
(ii) Stop Ramp : it is used when a soft stopping of the motor is required, for example,
a pump or a conveyor belt. The stop ramp is the time from full voltage until end
voltage is reached. If the ramp time is set to zero the stop will be like a direct stop.

Advantage of soft starter:

1. Solid state - no moving parts, less maintenance
2. Reduced starting current & mechanical shock
3. Smooth, stepless acceleration & deceleration
4. Closed current loop starting
5. Easy adjustments for all applications

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 Soft Starter application
1. Travelling cranes conveyor belts drivers.
2. Mixer mills crushers.
3. Pumps
4. compressors
5. Chillers
6. Escalators
7. Conveyors

Rules and regulation governing electrical machinery onboard ships

1. Ships shall be designed, constructed and maintained in compliance with the structural,
mechanical and electrical requirements of a classification society.
2. Electrical installations shall ensure the availability of the following:
A) all electrical auxiliary services necessary for maintaining the ship in normal
operational conditions
B) electrical services essential for safety under various emergency conditions; and
C) the safety of passengers, crew and the ship from electrical hazards.
3. The main source of electrical power shall consist of at least two generating sets.

4.Minimum comfortable conditions of habitability (suitability for living in ) shall also be

ensured which include at least adequate services for cooking, heating, domestic
refrigeration, mechanical ventilation, sanitary and fresh water.
5.Generators, motors and other rotating machines are to be installed preferably with their
shafts in a fore-and-aft direction of the vessel. Arrangements are to be made to protect
generator and motors from bilge water.
6.Precautions are also to be taken to prevent any oil which may escape under pressure from
entering machine windings.
7. In the case of loss of the generator in operation, adequate provision shall be made for
automatic starting and connecting to the main switchboard of a stand-by generator of
sufficient capacity

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Ships constructed on or after 1st july 1998,shall comply with the following:

8. When the total installed electrical power of the main generating sets is in excess , the main
bus-bars shall be subdivided into at least two parts which shall normally be connected by
removable links
9. Where the main source of electrical power is necessary for propulsion of the ship, the main
bus-bar shall be subdivided into atleast two parts which shall normally be connected by circuit
breakers or other approved means; so far as is practicable, the connection of generating sets and
other duplicated equipment shall be equally divided between the parts;
10. EMERGENCY SOURCE OF ELECTRICAL POWER IN PASSENGER SHIPS:

• the emergency source of electrical power, associated transforming equipment, if any,

transitional(middle) source of emergency power, emergency switchboard and emergency
lighting switchboard shall be located above the uppermost continuous deck and shall be readily
accessible from the open deck
• the emergency generator may be used exceptionally, and for short periods, to supply non-
emergency circuits.

Rating and characteristics of Main Switch Board

• Power generated by the generators will distribute by the main switchboard. Components of the
main switchboard are switching, protection, controlling and monitoring devices.
• All the machineries on ship that consume electrical power should be connected to a main switch
board. The system should be designed in such a way that under all normal conditions of
operation, power should be distributed from main switch board.
• The main switch boards are located in the center of the distribution or in engine control room.
They should be installed in such an area that in time of emergency such as fire or flooding, they
should be easily accessible. Thus they should be installed in spaces away from the main
machinery spaces.
Mechanical Construction
• The panels of the MSB consisting of a heavy steel-profile construction and are mounted on a
foundation, which is welded to the deck. The top, sides and front of the switchboard will be
closed with sheet metal covers. The rear-side is open. The front of the switchboard will be
closed with steel-sheet doors.
Interrupting Rating -Interrupting rating is the level of current that a protective device (fuse or
circuit breaker) can safely interrupt without damage under specified conditions.
• There are two ways to meet this requirement, the full rating method and the series rating
method.
• Full Rating -The full rating method requires selecting circuit protection devices with individual
ratings equal to or greater than the available fault current. For example, if 65,000 amperes of
fault current are available at the service entrance, every circuit protection device must have an
interrupting rating of 65,000 amperes.

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• Series Rating-subsequent downstream circuit protection devices connected in series can be
rated at lower values.

• Short Circuit Withstand Rating -refers to the level of fault current a piece of equipment can
withstand for a specified time without sustaining damage.
• Ampere Rating -The ampere rating refers to the current a switchboard or protective device can
carry continuously without deterioration and without exceeding temperature rise limits.
• Voltage Rating -The voltage rating of a switchboard must be at least equal to the system
voltage. The voltage rating of a switchboard can be higher than the system voltage, but never
less.

Generator protection scheme

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The protection of generator is largely based on the sensing of current and voltage from CTs and
PTs. The number and type of protective relay functions increases with the generator KVA rating
and voltage level.
1.OCIT
The over current inverse time relay function monitors general balanced overloading and has
current/time settings determined by overall protective discrimination scheme.
Ranges for current and time:

I > 0.7 – 2 In ( In =normal or rated generator current)

t= 1 -10 secs
2.OC(INST)
Instantaneous trip to protect against extremely high over current caused by a short circuit fault.
Ranges for current and time:

I >> 2 – 10 In ( In =normal or rated generator current)

t= 0.1 -1 sec

3. NPS
A negative phase sequence relay determines the amount of unbalance in the stator currents
which is an indirect measure of generator stator and rotor temperature.A relatively small degree
of unbalance causes a significantly increased temperature rise.

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 Ranges for current

I<< 0.2 In ( In =normal or rated generator current)

4. DIFF
This is a differential measurement of current at each end of a stator phase winding.This
comparison of current is to detect an internal fault in the stator windings which may be caused
by partially short circuited coil turns or earth fault.
Ranges for current:
I: 0.1 In ( In =normal or rated generator current)
5. EL
An earth leakage relay detects an earth fault current returning back through the earthed neutral
connection. In a ships high voltage generator system, the earth fault current is limited by a high
impedance NER (Neutralearthing resistor) so the pick up current setting is very low
Ranges for current and time:
I: 1 – 5 A
t :0.1 -0.5 sec
6.OV/UV
Over voltage and undervoltage functions are monitored by these relays with settings of around
0.8 Un and 1.2 Un ( Un=rated voltage) with time delay of about 2 secs
7.OF/UF
Over frequency and under frequency settings are typically 58 Hz & 62 Hz for a 60 Hz system.
8. LO
This is the master lock out or trip/hand-reset relay responsible for tripping the generator
circuit breaker. Its action is instantaneous when triggered by a protective relay
9. RP
Generators intended to operate in parallel must have reverse power protection. A reverse
power relay monitors the direction of power flowing between the generator and the load. If the
prime mover failure occurred, the generator would acts as a motor. The relay detects this fault
and acts to trip the generator circuit breaker

Overload relay

• Current in the main winding is obtained through a CT from the alternator input to the
switchboard
• Main winding is tapped and the taps are brought out to a plug bridge for selection of different
stages
• AC in the main winding on the center leg of the upper laminated iron coreproduces a magnetic
field which in turn induces current in the closed winding.
• Displacement of magnetic field produces changing eddy currents in the aluminum disc.

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• Rotation of the disc is prevented by a helical restraining spring when normal current is flowing.
Excessive current causes rotation against the spring.
• A moving contact on the spring rotates about half a turn. The two fixed contact are bridged and
the tripping circuit is closed.

REVERSE POWER RELAY

• A reverse power relay is a directional power relay that is used to monitor the power from a
generator running in parallel with another generator or the utility. The function of the reverse
power relay is to prevent a reverse power condition in which power flows from the bus bar into
the generator. This condition can occur when there is a failure in the prime mover such as an
engine or a turbine which drives the generator.
• The failure can be caused to a starvation of fuel in the prime mover, a problem with the speed
controller or an other breakdown. When the prime mover of a generator running in a
230
 synchronized condition fails. There is a condition known as motoring, where the generator
draws power from the bus bar, runs as a motor and drives the prime mover. This happens as in a
synchronized condition all the generators will have the same frequency. Any drop in frequency
in one generator will cause the other power sources to pump power into the generator. The flow
of power in the reverse direction is known as the reverse power relay.

• Reversal of current flow cannot be detected with an alternating supply but power reversal can,
and protection is provided by a Reverse Power Relay.
• Reverse Power protection is provided in main generator circuit to prevent the generator from
motoring.
• To Test the Reverse Power Relay, run two generators in parallel. Shift the entire load to one
generator and reduce the load on other generator just below zero. (Less than 20 Kw). The below
zero load generator reverse power relay will operate and trip it’s air-circuit breaker.

• It consists of an aluminum disc which is free to rotate in between the poles of two
electromagnets.
• The upper electromagnet carries a winding (called potential coil) on the central limb which is
connected through a PT to the circuit voltage source
• The lower electromagnet has a separate winding (called current coil) connected to the secondary
of CT in the line to be produced
• The current coil is provided with a no of tapping's connected to the plug setting bridge to have
any desired current setting
• The voltage coil is designed to have high inductance so that the current in the coil lags the
voltage by an angle 90˚.
• Both fields pass through the aluminum disc and cause eddy currents. The effect of eddy currents
results in a torque being produced in the disc

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• With normal power flow, trip contacts on the disc spindle are open and the disc bears against a
stop. When power reverses, the disc rotates in the other direction, away from stop, and the
contacts are closed so that the breaker trip circuit is energized.

Under voltage relay

• To prevent closing of the circuit breaker when the generator is to be paralled with other
generators or the shore supply and the terminal voltage is between 35% and 70%.
• To provide a back-up to short-circuit protection. If a short-circuit fault occurs, the generator
voltage wil reduce and may cause the under voltage tripping device to operate. With this in
mind, a time delay device (of about 0.5 seconds) has been fitted to the undervoltage device to
prevent the ACB from tripping immediately, allowing the defective system circuit breaker to
operate first.
• Under voltage protection is necessary on generator because low voltage below certain value will
destroy electrical and electronic equipment's onboard ship.
• Under voltage protection is necessary on motors because low voltage below certain value will
increase the running current of the motor and may burn the motor.
• An under-voltage release is fitted to all generator breakers and some main feeder circuit
breakers. Its main function is to trip the breaker when a severe voltage dip (around 70%) occurs.
The under-voltage release on a generator circuit breaker prevents it from being closed when the
generator voltage is very low or absent.
• The under-voltage trip on the generator breaker must not be operated if a feeder fault occurs.
Consequently, it must be ‘time-delayed’ to permit the prior operation of feeder protection
circuits.

• Under-voltage protection is also required for motor starters. The starter contactor normally
provides this protection as it drops out when the supply voltage is lost or is drastically reduced.
• The starter circuit will not normally allow the motor to re-start when the voltage supply is
restored except when special automatic re-starting facilities are provided.

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• Under-voltage protection can be electromagnetic or electronic. Checking and calibration of
generator under-voltage relays can be done accurately by voltage injection. A known variable
voltage is directly applied to the under-voltage relay to check
(a) the voltage at which the relay ‘pulls in’ and
(b) the voltage at which the relay ‘drops out’

Arrangement of preferential trips

• It is essential to prevent interruption of services necessary to maintain propulsion and

navigation. Domestic supplies are temporarily sacrificed.
There are two ways to safe guard these services:
• First there must be at least two generators, the rating of which must be such that the essential
services can be maintained if one set is out of order.
• Secondly, a protection device must be provided such that if the sea load is too much for one
generator, a system of preferential selection will operate.
• Without preferential trips, the generators may be overloaded to the extent that a complete
shutdown (and probably a blackout situation) occurs.
• Therefore non-essential services are fed through one or more circuit breakers fitted with shunt
retaining coils or shunt tripping coils. Over current (over load) relays with time lags are
provided for each generator.
• Warning of over load is given by an alarm. The over load setting will generally be about 115%
to 120% but may be as high as 150% too. Preference tripping is normally tested by current
injection.
• If the current on a running generator exceeds 110% of the rated current for a period of 10
seconds, the PMS will initiate the release of the preferential tripping, thereby providing
protection against the overcurrent which would otherwise trip the ACB.
• The preferential trips are released in two stages, separated by a time of 5 seconds. If the
overload condition is removed after the release of the first stage, the second stage release is
cancelled.

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• Each generator has its own normal overcurrent relay to trip its own circuit-breaker which is
typically ‘high’ set at 150% with a 20 seconds delay.
• In addition, each generator has its own ‘preference’ overload trip, this being ‘low’ set generally
at 110% current, instantaneous operation.
• If a generator overload condition develops, its preference overload trip will operate to energise
the timing relay. The timing relay then operates to disconnect non-essential services in a definite
order at set time intervals
1st trip – air-conditioning and ventilation – 5 seconds
2nd trip – refrigerated cargo plant – 10 seconds
3rd trip – deck equipment – 15 seconds
This order of tripping obviously varies with the ship type. When sufficient non-essential load
has been disconnected, the preference overload trip resets and no further load is disconnected.

Reverse current trip (DC)

 The relay is actuated only when the direction of the current is reversed.
 Loss of excitation of prime mover power causes a drop in generator voltage.If running in
parallel, normal full voltage from the other generators will cause current to be fed back into the
faulty machine.
 With D.C systems, reversal of flow can be monitored by change of direction of the magnetic
field in a coil itself ( carrying load current)

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 The armature spindle of the device carries the trip which opens the breaker. Anticlockwise
movement of the armature operate it.
 During normal working conditions, current passing through the winding on the middle leg of the
E –shaped laminated iron core create a magnetic field
 The voltage coils on the outer leg are connected across the main positive and negative generator
outputs.
 The armature is pivoted on the load current coil leg, and the load current magnetic field extends
through the iron core & armature. The flux is superimposed on those due to the voltage coils
 It increases field strength on the left hand side, pulling the iron armature clockwise against the
stop and reduced field in the right hand side.
 Reverse current in the centre leg reverses its magnetic field. The superimposed field now
weakens in the left hand side and in strengthening the flux in the right hand side, pulls the
armature anticlockwise to trip the breaker.

GENERATORS IN PARALLEL

 Synchronization means to connect an alternator in parallel with another alternator or bus-bar

already supplying the load.
 The generator already ‘on-the-bus bars’ is called the ‘running’ machine and the generator to be
brought into service is the ‘incoming’ machine.
 To smoothly parallel the incoming generator, it must be ‘synchronized’ with the live bus-bars.

NECESSITY & ADVANTAGES OF CONNECTING ALTERNATORS IN PARALLEL:

1. The alternators can be run in parallel according to the requirement of the load.
2. Each alternator will run at full load, so the efficiency is good.
3. The alternator can be overhauled periodically, so life time is increase.
4. The load on the synchronized alternators will be divided automatically.
5. In case of fault, alternator can be removed and the load can be transferred to the other alternator.
Thus supply will continue.

Parallel Operation conditions

• Same RMS voltage.
• Same Phase sequence.
• Same Phase difference.
• Almost same frequency
• When these conditions are met, then the parallel operation is possible.

The correct synchronised position may be shown by either of the following methods;

1. Three ‘dark’ lamp method

2. Two ‘bright’ lamps and one dark method
3. Synchronoscope method

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 Three ‘dark’ lamp method

 In fig. alternator is to be connected in parallel with busbar which is already supplying load.
 In this case,each lamp is connected across each pole of the main switch connect the incoming
alternators to the bus-bar.
 If the incoming alternator is not properly delivered rated voltage, the three lamp units should be
brighttogether.
 If the incoming alternator is properly connected, the three lamp units should be bright and dim
together. The correct moment for switching ‘on’ is when all the lamps are totally dark.

ADVANTAGES:
1. Equipment is inexpensive
2. Proper phase sequence is readily obtained

DISADVANTAGES:
1. The lamps do not show whether incoming alternator is ‘fast’ or ‘slow’.
2. It is difficult to judge the middle of the ‘dark’ period.
Hence, this method is not used for synchronizing.
Two ‘bright’ lamps and one dark method

In this method as shown in fig, three units of lamps are connected in such a way that one unit is
connected to same phase and two units on the other different phases. The sequence method’ as
shown in fig.belowis preferred as it displays a ‘rotation’ of lamp brightness which indicates
whether the incoming machine is running fast (clockwise) or slow (anti-clockwise).
If we consider the lamps are placed on the junctions of triangle, then the three conditions are:

236
1. If the incoming machine is slow, the wave of the lamp light will travel in anti-clockwise
direction.
2. If the incoming machine is fast, the wave of lamp light will travel in clockwise direction.
3. At a position when the changes in the lamp’s light are very slow and lamp 1, connected in phase
RR1 becomes completely ‘dark’ and other two lamp units 2 and 3 are completely ‘bright’, the
synchronizing switch is closed at this position.
• This method is adopted for low voltage alternators only.

Note:
1. To vary the frequency, vary the speed of the alternator.
2. To vary the voltage, vary field excitation of the alternator.

SYNCHROSCOPE METHOD:
A synchroscope is an instrument for indicating the correct time for switching ‘on’. For operation
of large machines, it is a suitable device. It consists of a small motor with field and rotor, both
wound for two phase. Its working is based on the rotating field principle. A potential
transformer (PT), connected to two of the main bus bars, gives supply to the stator and potential
transformer , connected to the corresponding terminals on the incoming machine, supplies the
rotor as shown in figures.The phase difference produced in the currents through the two-rotor
coils make the rotor to set up a rotating magnetic field. In the same way, the stator produces a
rotating magnetic field.
With this arrangement, if the frequency of the incoming machine and that of the bus-bar
is the same, then two fields will rotate with same speed. The rotor, therefore, will not tend to
move. If the frequency differs, then the rotor rotates at a speed equal to the difference in the
speed of the two rotating fields set up by rotor and stator. It rotates in one direction if the speed
of the incoming machine is too slow while in the opposite direction, if too fast. In practice,
synchronizing is performed on a pair of auxiliary bars known as synchronizing bars. The rotor of
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 the synchroscope connected to these and the incoming machine is switched on to these bars
during synchronizing. Thus, the synchroscope can serve the purpose for a group of alternators.
The arrangement is shown in fig.

•
• The incomer is adjusted so that the synchroscope indicator rotates slowly clockwise (fast
direction) at about 4 seconds per indicator revolution.
• The circuit breaker should be closed as the indicator approaches the 12 o’clock(in-phase)
position.
• Breaker closing between 5-to and 5-past the 12 o’clock synchroscope position is satisfactory as
long as the pointer rotation is fairly slow.
• A traditional pointer-type synchroscope is usually short-time rated (up to 20 minutes) to avoid
overheating – do not forget to switch it off after a paralleling procedure.
• Modern synchroscope indicators use a circular set of led’s which sequentially light up to show
the phase difference between the generator voltages.

SHAFT GENERATOR

• Shaft driven generators on board ships are alternator driven by the main engine to supply power
to the mains. They are known as shaft generator
• The main must be supplied with constant voltage and frequency by shaft generator even at
changing speeds of main engine
• Even in ships with CPP, it is more economical to use a shaft generator with a frequency
converter to compensate for variable speed

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 Conventional shaft generator system

 In this system, the output from the shaft generator is directly coupled to the main busbar which
means the output frequency is directly influenced by the main engine speed
 The main engine with CPP system has frequency are almost constant. The frequency range
would be 59 – 61 Hz with a rough sea conditions, tolerance + 2 Hz
 The frequency range is wider for FPP about 55 – 61 Hz
 Shaft generator is positioned directly in the shaft line between main engine and propeller.
 Most ships have FPP, so that the ships speed variation changing engine revolutions
 To accommodate changes of engine and shaft alternator speed, a constant speed power take off
system may be installed or output from alternator is delivered to the electrical system through a
static converter.

Shaft G with Static frequency converter

 Fig shows shaft generator of a ship with a fixed pitch propeller and a large main engine speed
range.
 The shaft generator output is delivered to the static converter which has two parts – 1. three
phase rectifier bridge
2. Inverter

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 The three phase rectifier bridge to change the shaft generator output from alternating current to
direct current. The second part is inverter to change the D.C back to alternating current at the
correct frequency
 The smoothing reactor reduces ripples caused by commutation of the thyristors. It will also limit
short circuit current delivered by shaft generator system.Inductor allows the dc to pass through
it, but it blocks the A.C. The rectifier output passes through an inductor, it offers a high
resistance to the ac component and no resistance to the dc component.
 Thyristor is used as switches for control of ac power to load. The thyristor require a control
signal to switch from the non-conducting to the conducting state. Gate signals are controlled to
switch each thyristor in sequence in order to pass a pulse of current
 The voltage and frequency of the inverter supply to the A.C system must be kept constant within
limits
 Synchronous condenser which does not require a prime mover except for starting. The
compensator may be an ordinary alternator with a clutch on the drive shaft from the prime
mover.
 The diesel prime mover for the compensator is started and used to bring it up to the adequate
speed to facilitate connection to the switchboard.
 The excitation is then set to provide reactive power and finally the clutch is opened, the diesel
shutdown and the synchronous machine then continues to rotate independently like a
synchronous motor at a speed corresponding to the frequency of the A.C system

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 Synchronous condenser:

A synchronous motor takes a leading current when over excited and behaves as a capacitor . An
over excited synchronous motor running on no load is known as synchronous condenser. When
such a machine is connected in parallel with the supply, it takes a leading current which partially
neutralizes the lagging reactive component of the load. Thus the power factor is improved

 Low power factor is caused by inductive loads such as Transformer Induction motor,generator
etc.,
 Increase in reactive and apparent power which causes decrease in power factor and efficiency.
 The low power factor is highly undesirable and cause an increase in current, resulting additional
active power losses in power system
 The reactive component is a measure of power factor. If a reactive component is small,Ф is
small then the power factor will be high.
 Power factor of the total system is 0.8 -0.9. If it is below 0.8, steps to be taken to improve power
factor by static capacitor and synchronous condenser.
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 Advantages of shaft generator
1. Less space required
2. Low investment & installation cost
3. Reliability
4. Low maintenance cost
5. Long life
Disadvantages of shaft generator
1. No power production in harbor
2. Increased load on main engine
3. More complex shaft arrangement
LOAD SHARING
• An overall balance of load sharing for kw and kvar can be seen by comparing the power factor meters of
each generator.
• For equal load sharing of kw and kvar, each machine must have similar ‘droop’ characteristics which are
typically 2-4% between no-load and full-load values.
• Load sharing can therefore be considered from two view points:
1. SHARING OF kw
2. SHARING OF kVAR.

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