DC Motors

1.1 Introduction

Almost every mechanical movement that we see around us is accomplished by

an electric motor. Electric machines are a means of converting energy. Motors
take electrical energy and produce mechanical energy. Electric motors are used
to power hundreds of devices we use in everyday life. Motors come in various
sizes. Huge motors that can take loads of 1000’s of Horsepower are typically
used in the industry. Some examples of large motor applications include
elevators, electric trains, hoists, and heavy metal rolling mills. Examples of
small motor applications include motors used in automobiles, robots, hand
power tools and food blenders. Micro-machines are electric machines with parts
the size of red blood cells, and find many applications in medicine. Electric
motors are broadly classified into two different categories: DC (Direct Current)
and AC (Alternating Current). Within these categories are numerous types, each
offering unique abilities that suit them well for specific application. In most
cases, regardless of type, electric motors consist of a stator (stationary field) and
a rotor (the rotating field or armature) and operate through the interaction of
magnetic flux and electric current to produce rotational speed and torque. DC
motors are distinguished by their ability to operate from direct current.

There are different kinds of D.C. motors, but they all work on the same
principles. In this chapter, we will study their basic principle of operation and
their characteristics. It’s important to understand motor characteristics so we can
choose the right one for our application requirement. The learning objectives for
this chapter are listed below.
Learning Objectives:
 Understand the basic principles of operation of a DC motor.
 Understand the operation and basic characteristics of simple DC motors.
 Compute electrical and mechanical quantities using the equivalent circuit.
1.2 Electromechanical Energy Conversion
An electromechanical energy conversion device is essentially a medium of
transfer between an input side and an output side. Three electrical machines
(DC, induction and synchronous) are used extensively for electromechanical
energy conversion. Electromechanical energy conversion occurs when there is a
change in magnetic flux linking a coil, associated with mechanical motion.
Electric Motor
The input is electrical energy (from the supply source), and the output is
mechanical energy (to the load).

Electric Generator
The Input is mechanical energy (from the prime mover), and the output is
electrical energy.

Construction
DC motors consist of one set of coils, called armature winding, inside another
set of coils or a set of permanent magnets, called the stator. Applying a voltage
to the coils produces a torque in the armature, resulting in motion.
Stator
 The stator is the stationary outside part of a motor.
 The stator of a permanent magnet dc motor is composed of two or more
permanent magnet pole pieces.
 The magnetic field can alternatively be created by an electromagnet. In
this case, a DC coil (field winding) is wound around a magnetic material
that forms part of the stator.
Rotor
 The rotor is the inner part which rotates.
 The rotor is composed of windings (called armature windings) which are
connected to the external circuit through a mechanical commutator.
 Both stator and rotor are made of ferromagnetic materials. The two are
separated by air-gap.
Winding
A winding is made up of series or parallel connection of coils.
  Armature winding - The winding through which the voltage is applied or
induced.
 Field winding - The winding through which a current is passed to produce
flux (for the electromagnet)
 Windings are usually made of copper.

1.3. DC Motor Basic Principles

1.3.1 Energy Conversion
If electrical energy is supplied to a conductor lying perpendicular to a magnetic
field, the interaction of current flowing in the conductor and the magnetic field
will produce mechanical force (and therefore, mechanical energy).
1.3.2 Value of Mechanical Force
There are two conditions which are necessary to produce a force on the
conductor. The conductor must be carrying current, and must be within a
magnetic field. When these two conditions exist, a force will be applied to the
conductor, which will attempt to move the conductor in a direction
perpendicular to the magnetic field. This is the basic theory by which all DC
motors operate.
The force exerted upon the conductor can be expressed as follows. F = B i l
(Newton) where B is the density of the magnetic field, l is the length of
conductor, and i the value of current flowing in the conductor. The direction of
motion can be found using Fleming’s Left Hand Rule.

The first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field (first - field), which
goes from the North Pole to the South Pole. The second finger points in the
direction of the current in the wire (second - current). The thumb then points in
the direction the wire is thrust or pushed while in the magnetic field (thumb -
torque or thrust).
1.3.3 Principle of operation
Consider a coil in a magnetic field of flux density B (figure 4). When the two
ends of the coil are connected across a DC voltage source, current I flow
through it. A force is exerted on the coil as a result of the interaction of
magnetic field and electric current. The force on the two sides of the coil is such
that the coil starts to move in the direction of force.

In an actual DC motor, several such coils are wounded on the rotor, all of which
experience force, resulting in rotation. The greater the current in the wire, or the
greater the magnetic field, the faster the wire moves because of the greater force
created.
At the same time this torque is being produced, the conductors are moving in a
magnetic field. At different positions, the flux linked with it changes, which
causes an emf to be induced (e = dФ/dt) as shown in figure 5. This voltage is in
opposition to the voltage that causes current flow through the conductor and is
referred to as a counter-voltage or back emf.
The value of current flowing through the armature is dependent upon the
difference between the applied voltage and this counter-voltage. The current due
to this counter-voltage tends to oppose the very cause for its production
according to Lenz’s law. It results in the rotor slowing down. Eventually, the
rotor slows just enough so that the force created by the magnetic field (F = Bil)
equals the load force applied on the shaft. Then the system moves at constant
velocity.
1.3.4 Torque Developed
The equation for torque developed in a DC motor can be derived as follows.
The force on one coil of wire F =i l x B (Newton)
Note that l and B are vector quantities
Since B = Ф/A where A is the area of the coil,
Therefore the torque for a multi turn coil with an armature current of Ia:
T = K Ф Ia (2)
Where Ф is the flux/pole in weber, K is a constant depending on coil geometry,
and Ia is the current flowing in the armature winding.
Note: Torque T is a function of force and distance, equation (2) lumps all the
constant parameters (e.g. length, area and distance) in constant K.
The mechanical power generated is the product of the machine torque and the
mechanical speed of rotation, ῶm
Or, Pm = ῶm T
= ῶm K Ф Ia (3)
It is interesting to note that the same DC machine can be used either as a motor
or as a generator, by reversing the terminal connections.
Note that equation (4) gives the emf induced in one coil. As there are several
coils wound all around the rotor, each with a different emf depending on the
amount of flux change through it, the total emf can be obtained by summing up
the individual emfs. The total emf induced in the motor by several such coils
wound on the rotor can be obtained by integrating equation (4), and expressed
as: Eb = K Ф ῶm where K is an armature constant, and is related to the
geometry and magnetic properties of the motor, and ῶm is the speed of rotation.

The electrical power generated by the machine is given by:

1.3.6 DC Motor Equivalent circuit

The schematic diagram for a DC motor is shown below. A DC motor has two
distinct circuits: Field circuit and armature circuit. The input is electrical power
and the output is mechanical power. In this equivalent circuit, the field winding
is supplied from a separate DC voltage source of voltage Vf. Rf and Lf represent
the resistance and inductance of the field winding. The current I f produced in
the winding establishes the magnetic field necessary for motor operation. In the
armature (rotor) circuit, VT is the voltage applied across the motor terminals, Ia
is the current flowing in the armature circuit, Ra is the resistance of the armature
winding, and Eb is the total voltage induced in the armature.
1.3.7 Voltage Equation
Applying KVL in the armature circuit of Figure 7:
VT = Eb + IaRa (7)
VT = Eb - IaRa (8)
Where VT is voltage applied to the armature terminals of the motor and Ra is the
resistance of the armature winding.
Note: The induced voltage is typically represented by symbol e (or E) and the
terminal voltage by v (or V).
At standstill, the motor speed is zero; therefore back emf is also zero. The
armature current at starting is thus very large.
1.3.8 Derivation of Speed Equation
Let, P = number of poles of the machine
Z = total number of armature conductors
N = armature speed in revolution per minute
A = area of parallel paths in the armature winding
Ф = flux per pole in weber
In one revolution of armature, the flux cut by one conductor = PФ (Wb)
Time taken to complete 1 revolution = 60/N (seconds)
Average induced emf in one conductor = PФ/t = PФN/60 (Volt)
Number of conductors connected in series in each parallel path = Z/A
The average induced emf across each parallel path or the armature terminals
(Eb) = PZФN/60A (V)
For a given machine, the number of poles and the number of conductor per
parallel path are constant. Hence, the equation above can be rewritten as….
Eb = KФN……..where K is a constant given as,
K = PZ/A
Therefore, the average induced emf can be written as Eb α ФN
Eb = KФN
Eb α ῶФ……. Where ῶ is the angular velocity in radian/second
ῶ = 2ΠN/60
Factors affecting the induced current:
 Magnetic field strength (magnetic flux density)
 Speed of 'cutting'.
 Number of pieces of wire
Parts of DC Motors
 The armature
 Commutator
  Brushes
 Field magnet
 Yoke/ outer frame
 Dc Power supply
 Pole Shoe

The Yoke
The outer frame or yoke serves double purpose:
 It provides mechanical support for the poles and acts as a protecting cover
for the whole machine
 It carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles.
In small generators where cheapness rather than weight is the main
consideration, yokes are made of cast iron. But for large machines usually cast
steel or rolled steel is employed.

The modern process of forming the yoke consists of rolling a steel slab round a
cylindrical mandrel and then welding it at the bottom. The feet and the terminal
box etc. are welded to the frame afterwards. Such yokes possess sufficient
mechanical strength and have high permeability.

Pole Shoes
The field magnets consist of pole cores and pole shoes. The pole shoes serve
two purposes: they spread out the flux in the air gap and also, being of larger
cross-section, reduce the reluctance of the magnetic path they support the
exciting coils (or field coils)

There are two main types of pole construction.

 The pole core itself may be a solid piece made out of either cast iron or
cast steel but the pole shoe is laminated and is fastened to the pole face by
means of counter sunk screws
 In modern design, the complete pole cores and pole shoes are built of thin
laminations of annealed steel which are riveted together under hydraulic
pressure. The thickness of laminations varies from 1 mm to 0.25 mm.
Field magnet
The function of the field system is to produce uniform magnetic field within
which the armature rotates. Field coils are mounted on the poles and carry the
dc exciting current. The field coils are connected in such a way that adjacent
poles have opposite polarity. The m.m.f. developed by the field coils produces a
magnetic flux that passes through the pole pieces, the air gap, the armature and
the frame. Practical dc machines have air gaps ranging from 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm.
Since armature and field systems are composed of materials that have high
permeability, most of the mmf of field coils is required to set up flux in the air
gap. By reducing the length of air gap, we can reduce the size of field coils (i.e.
number of turns).
Armature Winding
The slots of the armature core hold insulated conductors that are connected in a
suitable manner. This is known as armature winding. This is the winding in
which “working” emf is induced. The armature conductors are connected in
series-parallel; the conductors being connected in series so as to increase the
voltage and in parallel paths so as to increase the current. The armature winding
of a dc machine is a closed-circuit winding; the conductors being connected in a
symmetrical manner forming a closed loop or series of closed loops.

Depending upon the manner in which the armature conductors are connected to
the commutator segments, there are two types of armature winding in a d.c.
machine viz.,
(a) lap winding
(b) wave winding.

Commutator
A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating voltage
generated in the armature winding into direct voltage across the brushes. The
commutator is made of copper segments insulated from each other by mica
sheets and mounted on the shaft of the machine. The armature conductors are
soldered to the commutator segments in a suitable manner to give rise to the
armature winding. Depending upon the manner in which the armature
conductors are connected to the commutator segments. Great care is taken in
building the commutator because any eccentricity will cause the brushes to
bounce, producing unacceptable sparking. The sparks may bun the brushes and
overheat and carbonize the commutator.
Brushes
DC motors are of two types: one is brushed dc motor and the other one is
brushless dc motor. Brushless dc motors are mainly used in high speed
applications such as multicopters. The purpose of brushes in a dc generator is to
ensure electrical connections between the rotating commutator and stationary
external load circuit. The brushes are made of carbon and rest on the
commutator. The brush pressure is adjusted by means of adjustable springs.

If the brush pressure is very large, the friction produces heating of the
commutator and the brushes. On the other hand, if it is too weak, the imperfect
contact with the commutator may produce sparking. Multipole machines have
as many brushes as they have poles. For example, a 4-pole machine has 4
brushes. As we go round the commutator, the successive brushes have positive
and negative polarities. Brushes having the same polarity are connected together
so that we have two terminals viz., the positive terminal and the negative
terminal.

Lap Winding
In lap winding, the conductors are joined in such a way that their parallel paths
and poles are equal in number. The end of each armature coil is connected to the
adjacent segment on the commutator. The number of brushes in the lap winding
is equal to the number of parallel paths, and these brushes are equally divided
into negative and positive polarity. The lap winding is mainly used in low
voltage, high current machine applications. They are three types
 Simplex Lap Winding
 Duplex Lap Winding
 Triplex Lap Winding
The lap winding has many paths and hence it is used for the larger current
applications. The only disadvantage of the lap winding is that it requires many
conductors which increase the cost of the winding.

Wave Winding
In wave winding, only two parallel paths are provided between the positive and
negative brushes. The finishing end of the one armature coil is connected to the
starting end of the other armature coil commutator segment at some distance
apart.

In this winding, the conductors are connected to two parallel paths irrespective
of the number of poles of the machine. The number of brushes is equal to the
number of parallel paths. The wave winding is mainly used in high voltage, low
current machines. If after passing one round, the armature winding falls into a
slot to the left of its initial point, then the winding is said to be retrogressive.
And if the armature windings fall on one slot to the right then it is called
progressive winding.
Armature Reaction
The armature reaction simply shows the effect of armature field on the main
field. In other words, the armature reaction represents the impact of the
armature flux on the main field flux. The armature field is produced by the
armature conductors when current flows through them. And the main field is
produced by the magnetic poles. The armature flux causes two effects on the
main field flux.
 The armature reaction distorted the main field flux
 It reduces the magnitude of the main field flux.
Consider the figure below shows the two poles dc generator. When no load
connected to the generator, the armature current becomes zero. In this condition,
only the MMF of the main poles exists in the generator. The MMF flux is
uniformly distributed along the magnetic axis, or we can say the centre line
between the north and South Pole. The arrow in the below-given image shows
the direction of the magnetic flux ΦM. The magnetic neutral axis or plane is
perpendicular to the axis of the magnetic flux.

The MNA coincides with the geometrical neutral axis (GNA). The brushes of
the DC machines are always placed in this axis, and hence this axis is called the
axis of commutation.
Consider the condition in which only the armature conductors carrying current
and no current flows through their main poles. The direction of current remains
same in all the conductors which lying under one pole. The direction of current
induces in the conductor is given by the Fleming right-hand rule. And the
direction of flux generates in the conductors is given by the cork-screw rule.
The direction of current on the left sides of the armature conductor goes into the
paper (represented by the cross inside the circle). The armature conductors
combine their MMF for generating the fluxes through the armature in the
downward direction. Similarly, the right-hand side conductors carry current, and
their direction goes out of the paper (shown by dots inside the circle). The
conductor on the right-hand sides is also combining their MMF for producing
the flux in the downwards direction. Hence, the conductor on both the sides
combines their MMF in such a way so that their flux goes downward direction.
The flux induces in the armature conductor ΦA is given by the arrow shown
above. The figure below shows the condition in which the field current and the
armature current are simultaneously acting on the conductor.

This happens when machines running at no load condition. Now the machine
has two fluxes, i.e., the armature flux and the field pole flux. The armature flux
is produced by the current induces in the armature conductors while the field
pole flux is induced because of the main field poles. These two fluxes combines
and gives the resultant fluxes ΦR as shown in the figure above. When the field
flux enters into the armature, they may get distorted. The distortion increases
the density of the flux in the upper pole tip of North Pole and the lower pole tip
of the South Pole. Similarly, the density of flux decreases in the lower pole tip
of the North Pole and the upper pole tip of the South Pole. The resultant flux
induces in the generator are shifted towards the direction of the rotation of
generator. The magnetic neutral axis of poles is always perpendicular to the axis
of the resultant flux. The MNA is continuously shifted with the resultant flux.
Effect of Armature Reaction
The effects of Armature Reaction are as follows:-
 Because in armature reaction, the flux density of over one-half of the pole
increases and over the other half decreases. The total flux produced by
each pole is slightly less due to reduction in the magnitude of the terminal
voltage. This reduction is known as the demagnetizing effect.
 The resultant flux is distorted. The direction of the magnetic neutral axis
is shifted with the direction of resultant flux in case of the generator, and
it is opposite to the direction of the resultant flux in case of the motor.
 The armature reaction induces flux in the neutral zone, and this flux
generates the voltage that causes the commutation problem.
The MNA is the axis in which the value of induced MEF becomes zero. And the
GNA divides the armature core into two equal parts. In order to minimize the
armature reaction, two simple methods can be taken up;
 Shifting the position of the brushes such that its plane is in the neutral
plane.
 Installation of interpoles in the generator or motor to nullify the effect of
armature reaction.
Starting Methods of DC Motor
Basic operational voltage equation of a DC motor is given as E = Eb + IaRa and
hence, Ia = (E - Eb) / Ra. Now, when the motor is at rest, obviously, the back
emf Eb = 0. Hence, armature current at the moment of starting can be given as
Ia = E / Ra. In practical DC machines, armature resistance is basically very low,
generally about 0.5 Ω. Therefore, a large current flows through the armature
during starting. This current is large enough to damage the armature circuit. Due
to this excessive starting current -
The fuses may blow out and the armature winding and/or commutator brush
arrangement may be damaged.
Very high starting torque will be produced (as torque is directly proportional to
the armature current), and this high starting torque may cause huge centrifugal
force which may throw off the armature winding.
Other loads connected to the same source may experience a dip in the terminal
voltage.
A large DC motor will pick up speed rather slowly due to its large rotor inertia.
Hence, building up the back emf slowly causing the level of high starting
current maintained for quite some time. This may cause severe damages. To
avoid this, a suitable DC motor starter must be used. Very small dc motors,
however, may be started directly by connecting them to the supply with the help
of a contactor or a switch. It does not result in any harm because they gather
speed quickly due to small rotor inertia. In this case, the large starting current
will die down quickly because of the fast rise in the back emf.
DC Motor Starters
To avoid the above dangers while starting a DC motor, it is necessary to limit
the starting current. So, a DC motor is started by using a starter. There are
various types of dc motor starters, such as 3 point starter, 4 point starter, no-load
release coil starter, thyristor controller starter etc. The basic concept behind
every DC motor starter is adding external resistance to the armature winding
during starting. From the followings, 3 point starters and 4 point starters are
used for starting shunt wound motors and compound wound motors.
3 Point Starter
The internal wiring of a 3 point starter is as shown in the figure. When the
connected dc motor is to be started, the lever is turned gradually to the right.
When the lever touches point 1, the field winding gets directly connected across
the supply, and the armature winding gets connected with resistances R1 to R5 in
series. During starting, full resistance is added in series with the armature
winding. Then, as the lever is moved further, the resistance is gradually is cut
out from the armature circuit. Now, as the lever reaches to position 6, all the
resistance is cut out from the armature circuit and armature gets directly
connected across the supply. The electromagnet 'E' (no voltage coil) holds the
lever at this position. This electromagnet releases the lever when there is no (or
low) supply voltage. It can be seen that, when the arm is moved from the
position 1 to the last position, the starter resistance gets added in series with the
field winding. But, as the value of starter resistance is very small as compared to
the shunt resistance, the decrease in shunt field current may be negligible.
However, to overcome this drawback a brass or copper arc may be employed
within a 3 point starter which makes a connection between the moving arm and
the field winding, as shown in the figure of 4 point starter below. When the
motor is overloaded beyond a predefined value, 'overcurrent release
electromagnet' D gets activated, which short-circuits electromagnet E and,
hence, releases the lever and the motor is turned off.
4 Point Starter
The main difference between 3-point starter and 4-point starter is that the no
voltage coil (electromagnet E) is not connected in series with the field coil.
The field winding gets directly connected to the supply, as the lever moves
touching the brass arc (the arc below the resistance studs). The no voltage coil
(or Hold-on coil) is connected with a current limiting resistance Rh. This
arrangement ensures that any change of current in the shunt field does not affect
the current through hold-on coil at all. This means, electromagnetic pull of the
hold-on coil will always be sufficient so that the spring does not unnecessarily
restore the lever to the off position. A 4 point starter is used where field current
is to be adjusted by means of a field rheostat for the purpose of operating the
motor above rated speed by reducing the field current.

DC Series Motor Starter

Construction of DC series motor starters is very basic as shown in the figure
below. The start arm is simply moved towards right to start the motor. Thus,
maximum resistance is connected in series with the armature during starting and
then gradually decreased as the start arm moves towards right. This starter is
sometimes also called as a 2-point starter. The no load release coil holds the
start arm to the run position and leaves it when the voltage is lost.

Electronic Starters
All of the motor starters above are manually controlled in that the starter handle
is moved by an operator. While these starters are still in use, electronically
controlled soft starters have been introduced more recently. These devices are
typically used to start shunt motors and feature a resistor series with parallel
thyristors. When the motor starts, the high startup current flows through the
entire resistor series so that resistance is maximized. A microcontroller then
sends voltage pulses at preset intervals to fire the thyristors in sequence,
progressively shunting the current around the resistors as CEMF develops. Like
the manual starters above, the starter limits the potentially damaging
startup current spike and starts the motor with "soft" acceleration. The diagram
below shows a starter similar to the device described above, except that it uses
current-triggered thyristors in place of a microcontroller.
Efficiency of a DC Motor:
Like a dc generator, the efficiency of a dc motor is the ratio of output power to
the input power i.e.

The efficiency of a dc motor will be maximum when Variable losses =

Constant losses
I.e. Pc = I2aRa.

Parallel Operation of DC Generators

In a dc power plant, power is usually supplied from several generators of small
ratings connected in parallel instead of from one large generator. This is due to
the following reasons:
(i) Continuity of service: If a single large generator is used in the power plant,
then in case of its breakdown, the whole plant will be shut down. However, if
power is supplied from a number of small units operating in parallel, then in
case of failure of one unit, the continuity of supply can be maintained by other
healthy units.
(ii) Efficiency: Generators run most efficiently when loaded to their rated
capacity. Therefore, when load demand on power plant decreases, one or more
generators can be shut down and the remaining units can be efficiently loaded.
(iii) Maintenance and repair: Generators generally require routine maintenance
and repair. Therefore, if generators are operated in parallel, the routine or
emergency operations can be performed by isolating the affected generator
while load is being supplied by other units. This leads to both safety and
economy.
(iv) Increasing plant capacity: In the modern world of increasing population, the
use of electricity is continuously increasing. When added capacity is required,
the new unit can be simply paralleled with the old units.
(v) Non-availability of single large unit: In many situations, a single unit of
desired large capacity may not be available. In that case a number of smaller
units can be operated in parallel to meet the load requirement. Generally a
single large unit is more expensive.

Exercise 1: a four pole motor is fed at 440V and takes an armature current of
50A. The armature winding is wave-connected with 888 conductors and the
useful flux per pole is 0.023Wb. Calculate the speed.
Exercise 2: a motor runs at 900rev/min with 460V supply, calculate the
approximate speed when the machine is connected across a 200V source.
Assume the new flux to be 0.7 of the original flux.
Exercise 3: the torque required to drive a dc generator at 15r/s is 2kNm. The
core, friction and windage losses in the machine are 8kW.calculate the power
generated in the armature winding.
Exercise 4: a 230V series dc motor is taking 50A. Resistance of armature and
series field winding is 0.2Ω and 0.1Ω respectively. Calculate (i) brush voltage
(ii) back emf (iii) power wasted in the armature (iv) mechanical power
developed
Exercise 5: a 25kW, 250V, 50Hz dc shunt generator has armature and field
resistances of 0.06Ω and 100Ω respectively. Determine the total power
developed when working as (i) a generator delivering 25kWoutput (ii) a motor
taking 25kW input.

TRANSFORMERS

Transformers are devices that transfer energy from one circuit to another by
means of a common magnetic field. In all cases except autotransformers, there
is no direct electrical connection from one circuit to the other. When an
alternating current flows in a conductor, a magnetic field exists around the
conductor, as illustrated in Figure 1.1. If another conductor is placed in the field
created by the first conductor such that the flux lines link the second conductor,
as shown in Figure 1.2, then a voltage is induced into the second conductor. The
use of a magnetic field from one coil to induce a voltage into a second coil is the
principle on which transformer theory and application is based.
Air Core Transformer
Some small transformers for low-power applications are constructed with air
between the two coils. Such transformers are inefficient because the percentage
of the flux from the first coil that links the second coil is small. The voltage
induced in the second coil is determined as follows.
Transformer Loading
First let’s look at what happens to a transformer when it is in this no-load
condition that is with no electrical load connected to its secondary winding and
therefore no secondary current flowing.
A transformer is said to be on “no-load” when its secondary winding is open
circuited. In other words, nothing is attached and the transformer loading is
zero. When an AC sinusoidal supply is connected to the primary winding of a
transformer, a small current, IOPEN will flow through the primary coil winding
due to the presence of the primary supply voltage. With the secondary circuit
open, and nothing is connected, a back emf along with the primary winding
resistance acts to limit the flow of this primary current. Obviously, this no-load
primary current (Io) must be sufficient to maintain enough magnetic field to
produce the required back emf. Consider the circuit below.
Transformer No-load Condition
The ammeter above will indicate a small current flowing through the primary
winding even though the secondary circuit is open circuited. This no-load
primary current is made up of the following two components:
 An in-phase current, IE which supplies the core losses (eddy current and
hysteresis).
 A small current, IM at 90o to the voltage which sets up the magnetic flux.
Note that this no-load primary current, Io is very small compared to the
transformer’s normal full-load current. Also due to the iron losses present in the
core as well as a small amount of copper losses in the primary winding, Io does
not lag behind the supply voltage, Vp by exactly 90o, ( cosφ = 0 ), there will be
some small phase angle difference.
Transformer On-load
When an electrical load is connected to the secondary winding of a transformer
and the transformer loading is therefore greater than zero, a current flows in the
secondary winding and out to the load. This secondary current is due to the
induced secondary voltage, set up by the magnetic flux created in the core from
the primary current.
The secondary current, IS which is determined by the characteristics of the load,
creates a self-induced secondary magnetic field, ΦS in the transformer core
which flows in the exact opposite direction to the main primary field, ΦP. These
two magnetic fields oppose each other resulting in a combined magnetic field of
less magnetic strength than the single field produced by the primary winding
alone when the secondary circuit was open circuited.
This combined magnetic field reduces the back EMF of the primary winding
causing the primary current, IP to increase slightly. The primary current
continues to increase until the cores magnetic field is back at its original
strength, and for a transformer to operate correctly, a balanced condition must
always exist between the primary and secondary magnetic fields. This results in
the power to be balanced and the same on both the primary and secondary sides.
Consider the circuit below.
We know that the turns ratio of a transformer states that the total induced
voltage in each winding is proportional to the number of turns in that winding
and also that the power output and power input of a transformer is equal to the
volts times amperes.

But we also know previously that the voltage ratio of a transformer is equal to
the turns ratio of a transformer as: “voltage ratio = turns ratio”. Then the
relationship between the voltage, current and number of turns in a transformer
can be linked together and is therefore given as: Transformer Ratio.
Note that the current is inversely proportional to both the voltage and the
number of turns. This means that with a transformer loading on the secondary
winding, in order to maintain a balanced power level across the transformer
windings, if the voltage is stepped up, the current must be stepped down and
vice versa. In other words, “higher voltage — lower current” or “lower voltage
— higher current”. As a transformer ratio is the relationships between the
number of turns in the primary and secondary, the voltage across each winding,
and the current through the windings, we can rearrange the above transformer
ratio equation to find the value of any unknown voltage (V), current (I) or
number of turns (N) as shown.

The total current drawn from the supply by the primary winding is the vector
sum of the no-load current, Io and the additional supply current, I1 as a result of
the secondary transformer loading and which lags behind the supply voltage by
an angle of Φ. We can show this relationship as a phasor diagram.