DC Generator:

A DC generator is an electromechanical energy conversion device that converts mechanical

power into DC electrical power through the process of electromagnetic induction.
A DC generator operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction i.e. when the magnetic
flux linking a conductor changes, an EMF is induced in the conductor. A DC generator has a
field winding and an armature winding.
The EMF induced in the armature winding of a DC generator is alternating one and is converted
into direct voltage using a commutator mounted on the shaft of the generator. The armature
winding of DC Generator is placed on the rotor whereas the field winding is placed on the stator.

Construction of a DC Generator:

1. Stator - A stator is a set of two magnets placed in such a way that opposite polarity faces
each other. The purpose of the stator is to provide a magnetic field in the region where
the coil spins.
2. Rotor - A rotor is a cylindrical laminated armature core with slots.
3. Armature Core - The armature core is cylindrical in shape and has grooves on the outer
surface. These slots accommodate armature winding in it.
 4. Armature Winding - These are the insulated conductors placed in the armature core.
Because of them, the actual conversion of power takes place.
5. Field Coils - To produce the magnetic field, field coils are placed over the pole core. The
field coils of all the poles are connected in series. When current flows through them,
adjacent poles acquire opposite polarity.
6. Yoke - The outer hollow cylindrical structure is known as Yoke. It provides support to
main poles and inter poles and gives a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.
7. Poles - The main function of the poles is to support the field coils. It increases the cross-
sectional area of the magnetic circuit, which results in a uniform spread of magnetic flux.
8. Pole Shoe - To protect the field coil from falling and to enhance the uniform spread of
magnetic flux pole shoe is used. The pole shoe is fixed to Yoke.
9. Commutator - The commutator is cylindrical in shape. Several wedge-shaped, hard
drawn copper segments form a commutator. The functions of a commutator:

 To connect stationary external circuits to the rotating armature conductors through

brushes and

 To convert induced alternating current into direct current.

Working Principle of a DC Generator:

A DC generator operates on the principle of Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.
According to Faraday’s law, whenever a conductor is placed in a fluctuating magnetic field (or
when a conductor is moved in a magnetic field) an EMF is induced in the conductor.
When the loop rotates from its vertical position to its horizontal position, it cuts the flux lines of
the field. As during this movement two sides, i.e., AB and CD of the loop cut the flux lines there
will be an EMF induced in both of the sides (AB and BC) of the loop.

We can see that in the first half of the revolution current always flows along ABLMCD, i.e.,
brush no 1 in contact with segment a.

In the next half revolution, in the figure, the direction of the induced current in the coil is
reversed. But at the same time the position of segments a and b are also reversed which results
that brush no 1 comes in touch with segment b.

Hence, the current in the load resistance again flows from L to M.

EMF equation:

As the armature rotates, a voltage is generated in its coils. In the case of a generator, the emf of
rotation is called the Generated emf or Armature emf and is denoted as Er = Eg. In the case of
a motor, the emf of rotation is known as Back emf or Counter emf and represented as Er = Eb.
 P – number of poles of the machine
 ϕ – Flux per pole in Weber.
 Z – Total number of armature conductors.
 N – Speed of armature in revolution per minute (r.p.m).
 A – number of parallel paths in the armature winding.

In one revolution of the armature, the flux cut by one conductor is given as:

Time taken to complete one revolution is given as:

Therefore, the average induced e.m.f in one conductor will be:

DC motor:

A DC motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. In a
DC motor, the input electrical energy is the direct current which is transformed into the
mechanical rotation.

Construction:

Different Parts of a DC Motor

A DC motor is composed of the following main parts::

Armature or Rotor
The armature of a DC motor is a cylinder of magnetic laminations that are insulated from one
another. The armature is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. The armature is a rotating part
that rotates on its axis and is separated from the field coil by an air gap.

Field Coil or Stator

A DC motor field coil is a non-moving part on which winding is wound to produce a magnetic
field. This electro-magnet has a cylindrical cavity between its poles.
Brushes
 The brushes of a DC motor are made with graphite and carbon structure. These brushes conduct
electric current from the external circuit to the rotor. Hence, we come to understand that the
brush unit is concerned with transmitting the power from the static electrical circuit to the
mechanically rotating region or the rotor.
Working principle:

A DC motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The
basic working principle of the DC motor is that whenever a current carrying conductor places in
the magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force.

Fleming's left-hand rule and its magnitude decide the direction of this force.

Fleming's Left Hand Rule:

If we stretch the first finger, second finger and thumb of our left hand to be perpendicular to each
other, and first finger represents the direction of the magnetic field, the second finger represents the
direction of the current, then the thumb represents the direction of the force experienced by the
current carrying conductor.

F = BIL Newtons

Where,
B = magnetic flux density,
I = current and
L = length of the conductor within the magnetic field.

When armature winding is connected to a DC supply, an electric current sets up in the

winding. Permanent magnets or field winding (electromagnetism) provides the magnetic field. In
this case, current carrying armature conductors experience a force due to the magnetic field,
according to the principle stated above.

Torque Equation:

 Tg = armature or gross torque (N-m) = Force × radius

 r = radius of the armature in m
 N = speed of the armature in rpm = N/60 rps
Work done/revolution = force × distance moved per revolution

Types of DC Motors:

 Separately excited DC motor

 Self Excited DC Motor
 DC shunt motor
 DC series motor
 DC compound motor
o Long shunt compound motor
o Short shunt compound motor

 Separately excited DC motor:

A separately excited DC motor the supply is given separately to the field and armature
windings. The main distinguishing fact in these types of DC motor is that, the armature
current does not flow through the field windings, as the field winding is energized from a
separate external source of DC current.

 DC shunt motor:

In case of a shunt wound DC motor or more specifically shunt wound self excited DC
motor, the field windings are exposed to the entire terminal voltage as they are connected
in parallel to the armature winding.
 DC series motor:

In case of a series wound self excited DC motor or simply series wound DC motor, the
entire armature current flows through the field winding as its connected in series to the
armature winding.

DC Compound Motor:

The compound excitation characteristic in a DC motor can be obtained by combining the

operational characteristic of both the shunt and series excited DC motor.

Long Shunt Compound Wound DC Motor:

In case of long shunt compound wound DC motor, the shunt field winding is connected
in parallel across the series combination of both the armature and series field coil.
Short Shunt Compound Wound DC Motor:

In case of short shunt compound wound DC motor, the shunt field

winding is connected in parallel across the armature winding only.
 Transformer

Introduction:

The transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. A

transformer is an electrical device, having no moving parts, which by mutual
induction transfers electric energy from one circuit to another at the same
frequency, usually with change in values of voltage and current.

Working principle of a Transformer:

Transformer consists of two windings insulated from each other and wound
on a common core made up of magnetic material. Alternating voltage is
connected across one of the windings, called primary winding. In both the
windings, emf is induced by electromagnetic induction. The second winding
is called the secondary winding.

When the primary winding is connected an ac source, an exciting current

flows through the winding. As the current is alternating , it will produce an
 alternating flux in the core which will be linked by both the primary and
secondary windings. The induced emf in the primary winding(E1) is almost
equal to the applied voltage V1 and will oppose the applied voltage. The emf
induced in the secondary winding (E2) can be utilized to deliver power to
any load connected across the secondary. Thus, power is transferred from
the primary to the secondary circuit by electromagnetic induction.

The flux in the core will alternate at the same frequency as the frequency of
the supply voltage. The frequency of induced emf in secondary is the same
as that of the supply voltage. The magnitude of the emf induced in the
secondary winding will depend upon its number of turns.

In a transformer, if the number of turns in the secondary winding is less than

those in the primary winding, it is called step-down transformer.

When the number of turns in the secondary winding is higher than the
primary winding, it is called a step-up transformer.

Classification of transformers:
Transformers are classified on the basis of

i) construction

1) Core type transformer

2) Shell type transformer

ii) voltage output:

1) Step down transformer

2) Step up transformer

iii) input supply:

1) Single phase transformer

2) Three phase transformer

Construction details of Transformer:
The main components of a transformer are

i) The magnetic core

ii) Primary and secondary windings

iii) Tank, oil, cooling arrangement, temperature gauge, oil gauge

iv) Buchholz relay

Magnetic core:

Magnetic circuit consists of an iron core. The transformer core is generally

laminated and is made out of a good magnetic material like silicon steel. The
thickness of laminations or stampings varies from 0.35mm to 0.5mm. The
laminations are insulated from each other by coating them with a thin coat of
varnish.

The two types of transformer cores are:

Core type

Shell type

Core type transformer:

The windings surround a considerable part of core and has only one magnetic path.
It has two limbs for the two windings and is made up of two L-type stampings.
Shell type transformer:

The core surrounds the considerable part of windings. The two windings are
carried by central limb. The core is made up of E and I stampings and has three
limbs.

Primary and secondary winding:

The windings are made of copper. Enamel insulation is used as the inter-turn
insulation for low voltage transformers.

Tank:

A small oil tank may be mounted above the transformer and connected to main
tank by a pipe. Its function is to keep the transformer tank full of oil despite
expansion or contraction of the coil with the changes in temperature.

Temperature gauge:

To indicate hot oil or hottest spot temperature.

Oil gauge:

To indicate the oil level present inside the tank.

Buchholz relay:

It is possible to mount gas operated relay in this pipe to give an alarm in case of
minor fault and to disconnect the transformer from the supply mains in case of
severe faults.
 PN Junction Diode:

A PN-junction diode is formed when a p-type semiconductor is fused to an n-type

semiconductor creating a potential barrier voltage across the diode junction

A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around, and which has
the electrical characteristic of passing current through itself in one direction only.
However, unlike a resistor, a diode does not behave linearly with respect to the applied
voltage.

There are two operating regions and three possible “biasing” conditions for the
standard Junction Diode and these are:
 1. Zero Bias – No external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction diode.
 2. Reverse Bias – The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-type material
and positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect
of Increasing the PN junction diode’s width.
 3. Forward Bias – The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-type material
and negative, (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect
of Decreasing the PN junction diodes width.

Zero Bias
In zero bias condition , no external voltage is applied to the pn junction i.e the circuit is open.
Hence, the potential barrier at the junction does not permit current flow.

Therefore, the circuit current is zero at V=0 V, as indicated by point O in figure below.

Forward Bias
In forward biased condition , p-type of the pn junction is connected to the positive terminal and
n-type is connected to the negative terminal of the external voltage.

This results in reduced potential barrier.

At some forward voltage i.e 0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge, the potential barrier is almost
eliminated and the current starts flowing in the circuit.

Form this instant, the current increases with the increase in forward voltage. Hence. a curve OB
is obtained with forward bias as shown in figure above.

From the forward characteristics, it can be noted that at first i.e. region OA , the current increases
very slowly and the curve is non-linear. It is because in this region the external voltage applied to
the pn junction is used in overcoming the potential barrier.
However, once the external voltage exceeds the potential barrier voltage, the potential barrier is
eliminated and the pn junction behaves as an ordinary conductor. Hence , the curve AB rises
very sharply with the increase in external voltage and the curve is almost linear.

Reverse Bias
In reverse bias condition , the p-type of the pn junction is connected to the negative terminal and
n-type is connected to the positive terminal of the external voltage.

This results in increased potential barrier at the junction.

Hence, the junction resistance becomes very high and as a result practically no current flows
through the circuit.

However, a very small current of the order of μA , flows through the circuit in practice. This is
knows as reverse saturation current(IS) and it is due to the minority carriers in the junction.

As we already know, there are few free electrons in p-type material and few holes in n-type
material. These free electrons in p-type and holes in n-type are called minority carriers .

The reverse bias applied to the pn junction acts as forward bias to there minority carriers and
hence, small current flows in the reverse direction.

If the applied reverse voltage is increased continuously, the kinetic energy of the minority
carriers may become high enough to knock out electrons from the semiconductor atom.
At this stage breakdown of the junction may occur. This is characterized by a sudden increase of
reverse current and a sudden fall of the resistance of barrier region. This may destroy the
junction permanently.

Comparison between Intrinisic semiconductor and extrinsic semiconductor:

Intrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductor

it is a pure form of semiconductor
Number of electrons and holes are
equal
Conductivity is poor
an impurity or doping is added pure
semiconductor forms extrinsic semiconductor
Number of electrons and holes are not equal
because of doping
Conductivity is improved.

Peak inverse voltage:

It is the maximum voltage with which the rectifier can withstand drawing reverse biasing.