UNIT-II

• A DC machine is an electromechanical energy conversion device. The DC machine

can be classified into two types namely DC motors as well as DC generators.
• DC generator can be used as a DC motor without any constructional changes and vice
versa is also possible.
CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF DC MACHINE

1. Yoke
o Function
o It provide mechanical Support for poles
o It also provide protection to whole machine from dust, moisture etc.
o It also carries magnetic flux produced by the poles
o Yoke is also called as frame.
o Material used
o For small M/C yoke is made of cast iron.
o For large M/C it is made of cast steel.
2. Pole & Pole core
o Function
o Pole of a generator is an electromagnet.
o The field winding is winding over pale.
o Pole provides magnetic flux when field winding is excited.
o Material used
o Pole core or pole made of cast iron or cast steel.
o It built of these laminations of annealed steel. The laminations is done to reduce the
power lose due to eddy currents.
3. Pole Shoe
o Function
o It is extended part of pole. It enlarge area of pole
o Due to this enlarged area, flux is spread out in the air gap and more flux can pass
through the air gap to armature.
o Material used
o It is made of cast iron or cast steed.
o It built of this lamination of annealed steel. the lamination is done to reduce power
loss due to eddy currents
4. Pole coil or field windings
o Function
o It is wound around pole core and called as field coil
o it is connected in series to from field winding
o When Current is passed through field winding it electro magnetize the poles which
produce necessary flux.
o Material used
o The material used for field conductor is copper.
5. Armature Core
o Function
o It has large number of slots in its periphery
o Armature conductor, are placed in this slots
o It is also provide path of low reluctance to the flux produced by field winding
o Material used
o High permeability low reluctance materials such as cast or iron are used for
armature core.
o The lamination is provided so as to reduce the loss due to eddy current.
6. Armature Winding
o Function
o Armature conductor are inter connected to form armature Winding
o When armature winding is rotated using prime mover. the magnetic flux and
voltage gets induced in it
o Armature winding is connected to external circuit
o Material used
o It is made of conducting material such as coppers.
7. Commutator
o Function
o It Convert alternating current induce in the current in a unidirectional current
o It collects the current form armature conductor and pass it load with the help of
brushes
o It also provide unidirectional torque for dc motor
o Material used
o It is made of a large number of edge shaped segments of hard drawn copper.
o The Segments are insulated from each other by thin layer of mica.
o The Segment of commutator is made of copper and insulating material between
segments is mica.
8. Brushes
o Function
o Brushes collect the current from commutator and apply it to external load.
o Brushes wear with time and it is should be inspected regularly.
o Material used
o Brushes are made of carbon or graphite it is rectangular in shape.
WORKING PRINCIPLE & OPERATION OF DC GENERATOR
Definition:
A DC generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy (direct current electricity). This energy conversion is based on the principle of
production of dynamically induced emf.
Working principle:
• DC generator works on the principle of Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. It
states that whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an e.m.f. is induced in that
conductor.
• This EMF will cause a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.
• Fleming's right hand rule is used to find the direction of induced current when a
conductor is moving in a magnetic field.
• According to the Fleming's right hand rule, the thumb, fore finger and middle finger of
the right hand are stretched to be perpendicular to each other, if the thumb represents the
direction of the movement of conductor, fore-finger represents direction of the magnetic
field, and then the middle finger represents direction of the induced current.
Hence the most basic two essential parts of a generator are:
1. The magnetic field
2. Conductors which move inside that magnetic field.
Operation:
Consider Single Loop DC Generator

In the figure above, a single loop of conductor of rectangular shape is placed between two
opposite poles of magnet.
According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor is placed in
a varying magnetic field (OR a conductor is moved in a magnetic field), an emf
(electromotive force) gets induced in the conductor. The magnitude of induced emf can be
calculated from the emf equation of dc generator. If the conductor is provided with a closed
path, the induced current will circulate within the path. In a DC generator, field coils produce
an electromagnetic field and the armature conductors are rotated into the field. Thus, an
electromagnetically induced emf is generated in the armature conductors. The direction of
induced current is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.
According to Fleming’s right hand rule, the direction of induced current changes whenever
the direction of motion of the conductor changes. Let’s consider an armature rotating
clockwise and a conductor at the left is moving upward. When the armature completes a half
rotation, the direction of motion of that particular conductor will be reversed to downward.
Hence, the direction of current in every armature conductor will be alternating. If you look at
the above figure, you will know how the direction of the induced current is alternating in an
armature conductor. But with a split ring commutator, connections of the armature
conductors also get reversed when the current reversal occurs. And therefore, we get
unidirectional current at the terminals.
The below figure shows the output of DC Generator
WORKING PRINCIPLE & OPERATION OF DC MOTOR

Definition:
A DC motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Working principle:
• The working of DC motor is based on the principle that when a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force.
• The direction of the mechanical force is given by Fleming’s Left-hand Rule and its
magnitude is given by F = BIL Newton.
• Fleming’s left-hand rule is used to find the direction of the force acting on the current
carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field.
• According to Fleming's left hand rule, if the thumb, fore-finger and middle finger of the
left hand are stretched to be perpendicular to each other, if the fore finger represents the
direction of magnetic field, the middle finger represents the direction of current, and then
the thumb represents the direction of force.
• Fleming's left hand rule is applicable for motors.
According to Fleming’s left-hand rule when an electric current passes through a coil in a
magnetic field, the magnetic force produces a torque that turns the DC motor. The direction
of this force is perpendicular to both the wire and the magnetic field.
Operation:
Consider a part of a multipolar DC motor as shown in the figure below. When the terminals
of the motor are connected to an external source of DC supply:
• The field magnets are excited developing alternate North and South poles
• The armature conductors carry currents.
 Fig: Part of a Multi-polar DC Motor
All conductors under North-pole carry currents in one direction while all the conductors
under South-pole carry currents in the opposite direction.
The armature conductors under N-pole carry currents into the plane of the paper (denoted
as ⊗in the figure). And the conductors under S-pole carry currents out of the plane of the
paper (denoted as ⨀in the figure).
Since each armature conductor is carrying current and is placed in the magnetic field,
a mechanical force acts on it.
On applying Fleming’s left-hand rule, it is clear that force on each conductor is tending to
rotate the armature in the anticlockwise direction. All these forces add together to produce
a driving torque which sets the armature rotates.
When the conductor moves from one side of a brush to the other, the current in that conductor
is reversed. At the same time, it comes under the influence of the next pole which is of
opposite polarity. Consequently, the direction of the force on the conductor remains the same.
It should be noted that the function of a commutator in the motor is the same as in a
generator. By reversing current in each conductor as it passes from one pole to another, it
helps to develop a continuous and unidirectional torque.

Back EMF
The interaction of the current-carrying conductor with the changing magnetic field produced
by the field winding induces an EMF in the conductor. This EMF acts in the opposite
direction to the applied voltage. This induced EMF in the motor is known as Back EMF. The
magnitude of back EMF is directly proportional to the speed of the motor.
WORKING PRINCIPLE AND OPERATION OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION
MOTOR
Definition
A 3-phase induction motor is an electromechanical energy conversion device which converts
3-phase input electrical power into output mechanical power.
Working Principle
A three phase induction motor works on the principle of electromagnetic induction where the
relative motion between the flux and the rotor caused by the rotating magnetic field induces a
current in the rotor, forcing it to rotate in the same direction
Operation
1. When a three phase supply is given to the three phase stator winding, a rotating
magnetic field of constant magnitude is produced. The speed of this rotation magnetic
field is synchronous speed Ns r.p.m.

Where
f = supply frequency.
p = Number of poles for which stator winding is wound.
2. This rotating field produces an effect of rotating poles around a rotor. Let direction of
rotation of this rotating magnetic field is clockwise as shown in the Fig. 1(a).

3. Now at this instant rotor is stationary and stator flux R.M.F. is rotating. So its obvious
that there exists a relative motion between the R.M.F. and rotor conductors. Now the
R.M.F. gets cut by rotor conductors as R.M.F. sweeps over rotor conductors.
Whenever a conductor cuts the flux, e.m.f. gets induced in it. So e.m.f. gets induced in
the rotor conductors called rotor induced e.m.f. This is electro-magnetic induction. As
rotor forms closed circuit, induced e.m.f. circulates current through rotor called rotor
current as shown in the Fig.1(b). Let direction of this current is going into the paper
denoted by a cross as shown in the Fig. 1(b).
 4. Any current carrying conductor produces its own flux. So rotor produces its flux
called rotor flux. For assumed direction of rotor current, the direction of rotor flux is
clockwise as shown in the Fig. 1(c). This direction can be easily determined using
right hand thumb rule.
5. As a result of this, mechanical force acts on the rotor conductors.
6. As all the rotor conductors experience a force, the overall rotor experiences a torque
and starts rotating. So interaction of the two fluxes is very essential for a motoring
action. As seen from the Fig. 1(d), the direction of force experienced is same as that
of rotating magnetic field. Hence rotor starts rotating in the same direction as that of
rotating magnetic field.

d)
CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
The three basic parts of an induction motor are the stator, rotor, and enclosure.
The stator and the rotor are electrical circuits that perform as electromagnets.
STATOR
 The stator is the stationary electrical part of the motor.
 The stator core of a induction motor is made up of several hundred thin laminations.
 Stator laminations are stacked together forming a hollow cylinder. Coils of insulated
wire are inserted into slots of the stator core.
 Each grouping of coils, together with the steel core it surrounds, form an
electromagnet. The stator windings are connected directly to the power source.
ROTOR
It is the part of the motor which will be in a rotation to give mechanical output for a given
amount of electrical energy. The rated output of the motor is mentioned on the nameplate in
horsepower. It consists of a shaft, short-circuited copper/aluminum bars, and a core.
The rotor core is laminated to avoid power loss from eddy currents and hysteresis.
Conductors are skewed to prevent cogging during starting operation and gives better
transformation ratio between stator and rotor.
The rotor is the rotating part of the electromagnetic circuit.
It can be found in two types:
• Squirrel cage
• Wound rotor(Slip ring)
However, the most common type of rotor is the “squirrel cage” rotor.
SQUIRREL CAGE ROTOR
• The rotor consists of rotor bars which are permanently shorted with the help of end
rings
• Since the rotor bars are permanently shorted, its not possible to add external resistance
• Staring torque is low and cannot be improved
• Slip ring and brushes are absent
• Less maintenance is required
• The construction is simple and robust and it is cheap as compared to slip ring
induction motor
• Due to its simple construction and low cost. The squirrel cage induction motor is
widely used
• Squirrel cage induction motor is used in lathes, drilling machine, fan, blower printing
machines etc

WOUND ROTOR (SLIP RING)

• We can easily add rotor resistance by using slip ring and brushes
• Due to presence of external resistance high starting torque can be obtained
• Slip ring and brushes are present
 • The construction consists of brushes and slip rings.
• This motor is rarely used only 10% industry uses slip ring induction motor
• Slip ring induction motor are used where high starting torque is required i.e in hoists,
cranes, elevator etc
• Easy to control speed, more expensive.

Applications of three-phase induction motors

Three-phase induction motors are used for commercial and industrial purposes, ideal for higher-
power applications.
• Lifts
• Cranes
• Hoists
• Large exhaust fans
• Lathe machines
• Crushers
• Oil extracting mills
• Textiles
• Commercial electric and hybrid vehicles
WORKING PRINCIPLE AND OPERATION OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
Definition:
• The synchronous generator or alternator is an electrical machine that converts the
mechanical power from a prime mover into an AC electrical power at a particular voltage
and frequency.
• The synchronous motor always runs at a constant speed called synchronous speed.
• Alternators have the Armature winding on stator and the field winding on the rotor, not
like other DC generator which have the armature winding on its rotor. Armature winding
is placed on stator by which the sparking problem reduced or almost neglected at the
time of taking output to load.
Working Principle
An alternator or synchronous generator works on the principle of electromagnetic induction,
i.e., when the flux linking a conductor changes, an EMF is induced in the conductor.
Operation
To understand the working principle of the alternator, consider two opposite magnetic poles
north and south, and the flux is traveling between these two magnetic poles. In the figure (a)
rectangular coil is placed between the north and south magnetic poles. The position of the
coil is such that the coil is parallel to the flux, so no flux is cutting and therefore no current is
induced. So that the waveform generated in that position is Zero degrees.

1. If the rectangular coil rotates in a clockwise direction at an axis a and b, the conductor
side A and B comes in front of the south pole and C and D come in front of a north
pole as shown in figure (b). So, now we can say that the motion of the conductor is
perpendicular to the flux lines from N to S pole and the conductor cuts the magnetic
flux. At this position, the rate of flux cutting by the conductor is maximum because
the conductor and flux are perpendicular to each other and therefore the current is
induced in the conductor and this current will be in maximum position.
2. The conductor rotates one more time at 900 in a clockwise direction then the
rectangular coil comes in the vertical position. Now the position of the conductor and
magnetic flux line is parallel to each other as shown in figure (c). In this figure, no
flux is cutting by the conductor and therefore no current is induced. In this position,
the waveform is reduced to zero degrees because the flux is not cutting.
3. In the second half cycle, the conductor is continued to rotate in a clockwise direction
for another 900. So here the rectangular coil comes to a horizontal position in such a
 way that the conductor A and B comes in front of the north pole, C and D come in
front of the south pole as shown in the figure (d). Again the current will flow through
the conductor that is currently induced in the conductor A and B is from point B to A
and in conductor C and D is from point D to C, so the waveform produced in opposite
direction, and reaches to the maximum value. Then the direction of the current
indicated as A, D, C and B as shown in figure (d). If the rectangular coil again rotates
in another 900 then the coil reaches the same position from where the rotation is
started. Therefore, the current will again drop to zero.
4. In the complete cycle, the current in the conductor reaches the maximum and reduces
to zero and in the opposite direction, the conductor reaches the maximum and again
reaches zero. This cycle repeats again and again, due to this repetition of the cycle the
current will be induced in the conductor continuously.

This is the process of producing the current and EMF of a single-phase. Now for producing 3
phases, the coils are placed at the displacement of 1200 each. So the process of producing the
current is the same as the single-phase but only the difference is the displacement between
three phases is 1200. This is the working principle of an alternator.
CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR OR ALTERNATOR:
In Synchronous generator or alternator the stationary winding is called 'stator' while the
rotating winding is called 'Rotor'.
Stator:
The stator in the synchronous generator is a stationary armature. This consists of a core and
the slots to hold the armature winding similar to the armature of a d.c generator. The stator
core uses a laminated construction. It is built up of special steel stampings insulated from
each other with varnish or paper .The laminated construction is basically to keep down eddy
current losses.
Generally choice of material is steel to keep down hysteresis losses. The entire core is
fabricated in a frame made of steel plates. The core has slots on its periphery for housing the
armature conductors. The frame does not carry any flux and serves as the support to the core.
Ventilation is maintained with the help of holes cast in the frame.
Rotor:
There are two types of rotors used in the synchronous generators or alternators:
1) Salient pole rotor
2) Smooth cylindrical rotor
1) Salient pole rotor:
This is also called projected pole type as all the poles are projected out from the surface of
the rotor. The poles are built up of thick steel laminations. The poles are bolted to the rotor as
shown in the figure. The pole face has been given a specific shape. The field winding is
provided on the pole shoe. These rotors have large diameters and small axial lengths.

The limiting factor for the size of the rotor is the centrifugal force acting on the rotating
member of the machine. As the mechanical strength of salient pole type is less, this is
preferred for low-speed alternators ranging from 125 r.p.m to 50 r.p.m. The prime movers
used to drive such rotor are generally water turbines and I.C. engines.
2) Smooth cylindrical rotor:
This is also called non-salient type or non-projected pole type or round rotor. This rotor
consists of a smooth solid steel cylinder, having a number of slots to accommodate the field
coil. These slots are covered at the top with the help of steel or manganese wedges. The
unslotted portions of the cylinder itself act as the poles. The poles are not projecting out and
the surface of the rotor is smooth which maintains a uniform air gap between stator and
rotor.

These rotors have small diameters and large axial lengths. This is to keep peripheral speed
within limits. The main advantage of this type is that these are mechanically very strong and
thus preferred for high-speed alternators ranging between 1500 to 3000 r.p.m. Such high-
speed alternators are called 'turbo-alternators'. The prime movers used to drive such type of
rotors are generally steam turbines, electric motors.
Applications of synchronous generator.
The applications of an alternator are
• Automobiles
• Marine applications
• Diesel electrical multiple units
• Radiofrequency transmission
• The three-phase synchronous generators have many advantages in generation,
transmission, and distribution.
• The large synchronous generators use in the nuclear, thermal, and hydropower system for
generating the voltages.

WORKING PRINCIPLE AND OPERATION OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

Definition
A transformer is a static device, which transforms electrical energy from one circuit to
another without change in frequency but may be at different voltage levels depending upon
the need.
 Single Phase Transformer Schematic

Transformer Symbol

Working Principle
• The Transformer works on the principle of Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
Basically, mutual induction between two or more windings
• According to Faraday’s law, “Rate of change of flux linkage with respect to time is
directly proportional to the induced EMF in a conductor or coil”.
Operation
The primary winding is supplied an alternating electrical source. The alternating current
through the primary winding produces an alternating flux that surrounds the winding.
Another winding, also known as the secondary winding, is brought close to the primary
winding. Eventually, some portion of the flux in the primary will link with the secondary. As
this flux is continually changing in amplitude and direction, there is a change in flux linkage
in the second winding as well. According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, an
electromotive force (emf) is induced in the secondary winding which is called as induced
emf. If the circuit of the secondary winding is closed an induced current will flow through it.
This is the simplest form of electrical power transformation; this is the most basic working
principle of a transformer.
The principle of operation of a transformer has been explained in the following simple steps:
• As soon as the primary winding is connected to a single–phase supply, an AC current starts
flowing through it.
• An alternating flux is produced in the core by the AC primary current.
• The alternating flux gets linked with the secondary winding through the core.
• Now, according to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction this varying flux will induce
voltage into the secondary winding.

CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

The three main parts of a transformer are:
• Primary Winding: The winding that takes electrical power, and produces magnetic flux
when it is connected to an electrical source.
• Magnetic Core: This refers to the magnetic flux produced by the primary winding. The flux
passes through a low reluctance path linked with secondary winding creating a closed
magnetic circuit.
• Secondary Winding: The winding that provides the desired output voltage due to mutual
induction in the transformer.
A transformer can be constructed in the following two ways −
1. Core Type Transformer Construction
2. Shell Type Transformer Construction

1. Core Type Construction of Transformer

In the core type construction of the transformer, the magnetic core has two vertical lags
(called limbs) and two horizontal sections (called yokes). The half of the primary winding
and the half of the secondary winding are placed around each limb as shown in Figure-1.
This arrangement of windings minimizes the leakage flux. In practice, the low-voltage
winding (it could be primary or secondary) is placed next to the core and the high-voltage
winding is placed around the low-voltage winding. This considerably reduces the requirement
of insulating material.
The main advantage of the core-type construction of transformers is that it is easier to
dismantle for repair and maintenance. The core-type construction is most suitable for high-
voltage and high-power transformers because in the core type construction, the nature cooling
is more efficient.
2. Shell Type Construction of Transformer

In the shell-type construction of transformers, both primary and secondary windings are
wound on the central limb, while the two outer limbs complete the low reluctance flux paths
as shown in Figure-2.
In this case, each winding is sub-divided into sections, and the low-voltage (lv) winding
sections and high-voltage (hv) winding sections are alternatively put in the form of a
sandwich. Therefore, this type of winding is also called as sandwich winding or disc winding.
The shell-type construction of transformers provides better mechanical support against
electromagnetic forces between the current-carrying windings. Also, this transformer
construction provides a shorter path for magnetic flux and hence requires small magnetizing
current. The shell-type construction is more suitable for low voltage transformers because of
poor nature cooling due to the embedding of the windings.
PMMC INSTRUMENT
In this type of instrument, deflection occurs due to the movement of a coil therefore it is
called a moving coil instrument or simply an MC instrument. This type of instrument has a
limitation that it works only on DC supply.

Working Principle of PMMC Instrument

The working principle of this instrument is based on the magnetic effect of electric
current, which states that when a current-carrying conductor is kept under the
influence of the magnetic field then this conductor experiences a force and tries to move
out of the magnetic field.

Operation:
When a direct current (DC) is passed through the coil then the coil will produce magnetic
flux. Due to the reaction of the horseshoe magnet magnetic field and coil magnetic field a
deflecting torque is developed which is proportional to the product of the current and the
magnetic field strength in the air gap.
In other words, the pointer's deflection is proportional to the current. The aluminum former is
used to house the coil and works as a damper also because eddy currents are produced in it
which produces the damping torque.

Construction of PMMC
The figure given below shows the construction of a PMMC instrument.

PMMC Instrument consists of the following given component for its proper working.
(1) Permanent Magnet
It is a horseshoe permanent magnet that provides magnetic flux. The soft iron pole piece is
used to get uniform flux.
(2) Magnetic Coil
It is a movable coil made of thin winding wire and has a few numbers of turns placed on the
rectangular aluminum frame. this frame along with the coil is attached to the spindle.
(3) Iron Core
It is a soft iron core placed in the magnetic field and its function is to minimize the reluctance
effect.
(4) Pointer and Scale
A light pointer is attached to the spindle which moves over the scale and gives the reading.
Sometimes a mirror is also provided in the instrument for an accurate reading.
(5) Spring
Two Flat spiral spring of phosphor bronze is attached to both sides of the spindle. The
function of the spring is to provide controlling torque and supply electric current to the coil.
(6) Jewel
It is placed at each side of the spindle which acts as a bearing to minimize the friction effect.
Advantages of PMMC Instrument
PMMC instrument has some advantages over other measuring instrument which are given
below:-
• Its range of either voltage or current can be easily extended by using a suitable shunt.
• Damping force is very effective.
• There is no hysteresis loss.
• Power consumption is low.
• Its scale has uniform marking.
The disadvantage of PMMC Instrument
• The main disadvantage of the PMMC instrument is that it works only in DC.
• it is costly.
• Friction and thermal losses can develop in it.
MOVING IRON INSTRUMENT
These instruments are sensibly exact, less expensive and simple in construction. These
instruments are generally utilized in research laboratories and on electric boards. Moving iron
instruments are normally utilized either as ammeters or voltmeters. Moving iron instruments
are of two types:
a) Attraction type
b) Repulsion type
a) Attraction Type Moving Iron Instruments
Principle –
When an unmagnetized soft iron piece is placed in the magnetic field of a coil, the piece is
attracted to the coil. The moving system of the instrument is attached to a soft iron piece and
the operating current is passed through a coil placed adjacent to it. The operating current sets
up a magnetic field that attracts the iron piece and thus creates deflecting torque in the pointer
to move over the scale.
Construction –
It consists of a hollow cylindrical coil (or solenoid) that is kept fixed. An oval-shaped soft
iron piece is attached to the spindle in such a way that it can move in or out of the coil. The
pointer is attached to the spindle so that it is deflected with the motion of the soft iron piece.
The controlling torque on the moving system is usually provided by the spring control
method while the damping is provided by air friction.
Operation –
When the instrument is connected in the circuit, the operating current flows through the coil.
This current sets up a magnetic field in the coil. The coil then behaves like a magnet and it
attracts the soft iron piece towards it. The pointer attached to the moving system moves from
zero position across the dial.

If the current in the coil is reversed, the direction of the magnetic field also reverses and so
does the magnetism produced in the soft iron piece. Hence the direction of deflecting torque
remains unchanged. Therefore, such instruments can be used both for dc as well as ac
measurement of current and voltage.
The force F pulling the soft iron piece towards the coil depends upon
(i) The field strength H produced by the coil.
(ii) The pole strength M developed by the iron piece
REPULSION TYPE MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS
Principle - These instruments are based on the principle of repulsion between the two iron
pieces magnetized with the same polarity.
Construction - Any Repulsion Instrument consists of a fixed cylindrical hollow coil that
consists of the operating current. Inside the coil, there are two soft iron pieces of vanes, one
of which is fixed and the other is movable. The fixed iron vane is attached to the coil whereas
the movable vane is attached to the spindle. Under the action of deflection torque, the pointer
attached to the spindle moves over the scale.

The controlling torque is produced by the spring control method and damping torque is
provided by air friction damping in repulsion type instruments.
Operation –
When the instrument is connected in a circuit and current is flowing through the circuit, the
current sets up a magnetic field in the coil within the instrument. The magnetic field
magnetizes both the iron vanes in the same direction (i.e. both pieces become magnets with
the same polarity) they repel each other. Due to this force of repulsion, only movable iron
vane can move as the other piece is fixed and cannot move. The result is that the pointer
attached to the spindle moves from zero position.
If the current in the coil is reversed, the direction of deflection torque remains unchanged.
This is because both iron vanes are in the same magnetic field and so they will be magnetized
similarly and consequently repel each other irrespective of the direction of the magnetic field.
Hence, such instruments can be used both for ac and dc measurements. The deflection torque
is generated due to the repulsion between the similarly charged iron pieces.
THE FOLLOWING ARE THE ADVANTAGES OF MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS
• They are cheap. robust and simple in construction.
• The instruments can be used for both ac as well as dc circuits.
• These instruments have a high operating torque.
 • These instruments are reasonably accurate.
THE FOLLOWING ARE THE DISADVANTAGES OF MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS
• These instruments have a non-uniform scale.
• These instruments are less sensitive to changes in operating variables.
• Errors are introduced due to the change in frequency in case of ac measurement.
• The power consumption of these instruments is relatively higher.
TO FIND VALUE OF UNKNOWN RESISTANCE BY WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

• Four resistors are connected in the four arms of the Wheatstone bridge as
shown in the figure.
• The galvanometer is connected between the terminals of d and b to determine
the null or balanced condition of the bridge.
• The Wheatstone bridge works on the principle of null deflection, i.e. the ratio of their
resistances is equal, and no current flows through the circuit.
• Under normal conditions, the bridge is in an unbalanced condition where current flows
through the galvanometer.
• The bridge is said to be balanced when no current flows through the galvanometer.
This condition can be achieved by adjusting the known resistance and variable
resistance.

Wheatstone bridge Derivation

The current enters the galvanometer and divides into two equal magnitude currents as I1 and
I2. The following condition exists when the current through a galvanometer is zero,
The currents in the bridge, in a balanced condition, are expressed as follows:

Here, E is the emf of the battery.

By substituting the value of I1 and I2 in equation (1), we get

Equation (2) shows the balanced condition of the bridge, while (3) determines the value of
the unknown resistance.

In the figure, R is the unknown resistance, S is the standard arm of the bridge and P and Q are
the ratio arm of the bridge.

Principle of Wheatstone Bridge

The Basic Principle of Wheatstone Bridge is the Principle of Null Deflection. According to this
principle, there is no current present in this circuit, and the ratio of resistances is said to be the
same. Moreover, at first, the bridge in the circuit, as shown in the diagram, exists in an
unbalanced condition, and they can find the current is indeed flowing through the galvanometer.
However, in order to keep the bridge in a balanced condition, there should not be any current
flow in the circuit. Although to achieve this balanced position, it is needed to adjust the variable
resistance and known resistance in the circuit.
Construction of Wheatstone Bridge

From the above diagram, as you can see, the Wheatstone Bridge consists of four arms, two
known and two unknown resistances, and more importantly a variable resistance. The G symbol
located in the center of the circuit represents Galvanometer. And the emf source is attached to
points a and c, while the galvanometer is connected between points b and d.

Wheatstone Bridge Formula Derivation

The currents I1 and i2 are divided into two equals in magnitude, because of the galvanometer. If
the current in the galvanometer is considered zero, then,

I1P=I2R
In balanced condition, the terms and quantities in the balanced conditions are represented as,

I1=I3=EP+Q
I2=I4=ER+S
Where, E = emf of the battery, and

PEP+Q=RER+S
EP+Q=ER+S
P(R+S)=R(P+Q)
PR+PS=PR+QR
PS=RQ
R=P/QS
And in this equation,
R = Unknown Resistance
S = Standard Arm of the Bridge
P/Q = Ratio Arm of Bridge

Applications of Wheatstone Bridge

• In order to measure the low resistance in a circuit.

• Other important quantities such as Capacitance, Impedance, and Inductance, can also be
calculated using Wheatstone Bridge.
• By using an optional amplifier, in the Wheatstone bridge, we will be able to measure physical
parameters like Strain, Light, and Temperature.