Peee Notes Unit III

UNIT 3 - ELECTRICAL MACHINES
1. Describe the construction and principle of operation of DC generator.
Construction:
A Direct Current (DC) machine is a electromechanical energy conversion device. It converts
electrical energy to mechanical energy while working as a motor and mechanical energy to
electrical energy while working as generator. It consists of two main parts i.e., stator and rotor.
Stator is the assembly of stationary parts like yoke, main poles, field windings, interpoles etc.,
and the rotor is the assembly of rotating parts like armature core, armature winding etc.
Yoke
Yoke is the outer covering of the machine, which supports and protects the internal parts. It is
made of low reluctance material like silicon steel or cast iron, since it has to carry the magnetic
flux i.e., to provide closed path for the flux produced by the poles.
Pole Core and Pole Shoe
The main poles consist of pole core and pole shoe. Pole core is generally a solid material and
pole shoe is a laminated one, but now a days the pole shoe and pole core both are
laminated and made of annealed steel. The purpose of the pole core is to provide flux and to
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support the field windings, whereas the pole shoe is

stretched so as to provide uniform air-gap along the
armature core and also to provide uniform flux
distribution in the air gap.
Brush and Brush Holders
Brushes are the structures placed on the rotating
commutator through which the unidirectional
current is to be collected. Generally it is made of
carbon, which can give smooth surface at the
contacts so as to reduce the spark and wear and tear of the commutator bars. These brushes are
housed in brush holders.
Field Windings
The field windings are wound initially on a frame and then installed into the pole core. These
are generally made of low resistivity materials like copper or aluminium. There are two ways
of connecting the field winding to the armature in case of self-excited machine. They can be
connected in series or shunt. If they are connected in series less numbered turns with larger
cross-sectional conductors are used. If they are connected in shunt, the winding would be
of large turns, whose cross-section is less.
Interpoles
These are the pole structures generally smaller than main poles and are placed in between the
main poles. These windings of the interpoles are of less turns and are connected in series with
armature windings. The main purpose of these inter poles is to reduce the armature reaction
in the space between two main poles. They also reduce the sparks at the brush contacts.
Hence, with interpoles sparkless commutation can be achieved. The polarity of the interpole is
made same as that of the main pole ahead of it in the direction of rotation.
Armature Core
The armature core is made of laminated silicon steel. The main purpose of armature core is to
hold the armature windings and to provide the low reluctance path for the flux of main poles
Armature Windings
The windings placed in the armature slots are called the armature windings. These are generally
connected in two ways and are named as, (i) Lap windings (ii) Wave windings. Lap windings
are preferred for higher currents and lower voltages and wave windings are preferred for higher
voltages and lower currents
Commutator
The commutator is a split ring made of hard copper so as to withstand the brush forces. It
consists of number of segments or bars insulated from each other and are combined together
tightly to form a cylinder and fitted on the insulated shaft of the armature.
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To insulate the segments of commutator thin layers of (0.5 to 1 mm) mica are used. The ends
of the coils wound on the armature are soldered on the segment of commutator. As the voltage
build up in the armature conductors is in A.C form, a commutator is used in the external circuit
in generator operation to convert it into D.C voltage, whereas in D.C motor it produces
unidirectional torque. It also facilitates the collection of current from armature.
Principle of Operation:
DC generator works on the principle of Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction i.e.,
whenever a moving conductor is placed in a magnetic field, dynamically induced e.m.f is
produced in the conductor or whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic flux, e.m.f is produced
dynamically.
A basic DC generator has four basic parts: (1) a magnetic field; (2) a single conductor, or loop;
(3) a commutator; and (4) brushes. The magnetic field may be supplied by either a permanent
magnet or an electromagnet. For now, we will use a permanent magnet to describe as basic DC
Generator.
A single conductor, shaped in the form of a loop, is positioned between the magnetic poles.As
long as the loop is stationary, the magnetic field has no effect (no relative motion). If we rotate
the loop, the loop cuts through the magnetic field, and an EMF (voltage) is induced into the
loop. When we have relative motion between a magnetic field and a conductor in that
magnetic field, and the direction of rotation is such that the conductor cuts the lines of flux,
an EMF is induced into the conductor.
The magnitude of the induced EMF depends on the field strength and the rate at which the flux
lines are cut, as given in EMF equation. The stronger the field or the more flux lines cut for a
given period of time, the larger the induced EMF.
Commutator is usually made of smooth conducting material such as copper separated by
insulating material and is attached on one end of the loop and it rotates along with the loop.
The brushes usually made of carbon, rest against the commutator and slide along the
commutator as it rotates. This is the means by which the brushes make contact with each end
of the loop
Every time the ends of the loop reverse polarity, the brushes switch from one commutator
segment to the next. This means that one brush is always positive with respect to another.
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A dc generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into direct current
electricity. This energy conversion is based on the principle of production of dynamically
induced emf. When the armature is rotated with the help of prime mover and field windings
are excited, emf is induced in armature conductors which is taken out via commutator – brush
arrangement.
The left hand is held with the thumb, first finger and second finger mutually perpendicular to
each other (at right angles), as shown in the diagram.
The thumb is the force, F.
The first finger is the magnetic flux density, B.
The second finger is the electric current, I.
Commutator converts the AC voltage generated in the rotating loop into DC voltage and also
it connects the brushes with rotating loop. Purpose of the brushes is to transfer the generated
voltage to an external circuit. The brushes are connected to the ends of loop through the
commutator.
2. Derive the EMF equation of a DC generator
Let,
ɸ = flux/pole in Wb (weber)
Z = total no. of armature conductors
P = No. of generator poles, A = No. of parallel paths in armature
N = rotational speed of armature in revolutions per min. (rpm)
E = emf induced in any parallel path in armature
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By Faradays law,
dφ
Average e.m.f generated per conductor = Volts ... (1)
dx
During one revolution of armature in a ‘P’ pole generator, each armature conductor cuts the
magnetic flux ‘P’ times so that flux cut per one conductor in one revolution is,
dφ = φP Webers ... (2)
Armature revolves 60/N times in one second. Therefore the time taken by it for one revolution
is dt.
dt = 60/N seconds ... (3)
Substituting equations (2) and (3) in equation (1), we get,
E.m.f generated/conductor = Volts.
The total number of armature conductors per parallel path = Z/A.
Where,
A = 2 for simplex wave winding
A = P for simplex lap winding
3. Explain the types and characteristics of DC generator.

Types of DC Generators based on Methods of Excitation
A D.C machine is an
electromechanical energy conversion
device. It requires magnetic flux and
conductors and the relative motion
between them for the energy
conversion. Based on the method of
production of magnetic flux (i.e., way
of exciting the field windings) the D.C
machines are classified as follows.
Permanent Magnet Type Machines
In this type of machines permanent
magnets are used to create field flux.
These machines are of low rating and consists of the magnetic poles fixed in the inner periphery
and the armature coils feed the supply.
Electromagnetic Type Machines
In this type of machines, electromagnets are used to create field flux. Depending on the
way in which field winding and armature winding are connected across the mains, they are
further classified into,
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(a) Separately excited

(b) Self excited
(a) Separately excited
In the separately excited machine the field windings are
being fed by a separate D.C source (battery) that is not connected to armature winding. The
e.m.f generated in case of separately excited generator would be the sum of the supply voltage
and the armature resistance drop.
Eg = V + IaRa
(b) Self Excited
In case of self excited machines, the field windings are connected to the armature, so that
the armature energizes the field coils. A self excited D.C machine can be classified as follows
(i) Shunt Generator
If the field winding is connected across the armature winding then the
machine is called the shunt machine. In the shunt generator, as the
shunt winding has to overcome the generated voltage it has to be made
with higher turns of lower cross-sectional conductors. It has higher
resistance but the field current is less.
Line current = Armature current – Shunt field current ⇒ IL = Ia – Ish
and
Generated e.m.f = Terminal voltage + Armature resistance drop ⇒ Eg = V + IaRa
(ii) Series Generator
In this type of generator the field coils are connected in series with the armature terminals and
the field winding would be of higher cross-section and with lesser number of turns. The current
flowing through the field coil would be the same as that of the armature current. So, it is made
with higher cross-section.
(iii) Compound Generator

In this type of generator the field windings is the combination of two windings i.e., series
field winding and shunt field winding. In the compound generator, normally the field of the
shunt will be more stronger than the series field. Based on the type of connection of the shunt
field to the armature and series field it is classified as,
1. Long shunt
2. Short shunt
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1. Long Shunt Machine

In this type of compound machine, the series field current and the
armature current is made same and the shunt field connection is
made after the series field connection is done.
2. Short Shunt Machines

In this type of machine, the series field current is made same to
that of the line current. The connection of shunt field is done first
and then the series field.
Whatever the connection of machine

either long or short shunt, if the flux
produced by the series field aids with
the shunt field then the machine is
called cumulative compound
machine or if the series field opposes
the shunt field then the machine is
called the differential compound
machine.
Characteristics of DC shunt and series generator

1. No-load Characteristics (O.C.C)
It is a plot between generated voltage at no-load (E) and
field current (If) when the speed of generator is held
constant. It is also known as open circuit characteristics or
magnetization characteristics.
2. Load-Characteristics
They are further classified into two categories.
(a) External Characteristics. It is a plot between terminal voltage (V) and load current (IL).
(b) Internal Characteristics. It is a plot between induced e.m.f (E) and load current (IL).
(i) D.C Shunt Generator Characteristics. The circuit diagram of a shunt generator is
shown in diagram.
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1. No Load Characteristics
To obtain the no-load characteristics the load is
disconnected. Also, the field winding is detached from
the armature and connected to an external D.C source.
Therefore, the generator runs as separately excited
generator. The field current (If) is increased gradually
and the variation of generated voltage on no-load (E)
and field current (If) is plotted to obtain no-load
characteristics as shown in diagram.
The curve starts from point A due to the presence
of residual magnetism. Initially the curve is linear, but as the value of If keeps increasing,
saturation of poles increases and E remains constant for any increase in the field curve.
2. Load Characteristics
The load characteristics of D.C shunt generator are
shown in diagram.
Eo is the ideal voltage, when there is no armature reaction
and no drop in field flux. E is the induced e.m.f, when the
generator is connected to the load. The curve of E drops
compared to curve of Eo due to armature reaction and
drops in field flux.
For a shunt generator, V = E – IaRa, the variation of terminal voltage V is like the curve of E.
As the load current increases the curve of V falls below the curve of E by a difference of
armature resistance drop Ia.
3. DC Series Generator Characteristics
The circuit of series generator is shown in diagram
1. No-load Characteristics
The no-load characteristics of self-excited generators whether
series or shunt are obtained in the same way.
2. Load Characteristics
The load characteristics of D.C series generator is
as shown in diagram. The induced e.m.f (E) in the
armature is lesser than the O.C.C voltage (Eo) because
of armature reaction drop. The curve for E shows the
internal characteristic. In a series generator, load
current ‘IL’ is same as the series field current (Ise) and
armature current ‘Ia’. Therefore, when IL increases, Ise
and Ia also increase. So, the induced e.m.f (E) which is directly proportional to φ also increases.
The increase in Ia causes increase in armature reaction but its effect is negligible when
compared to increase in E. Thus, the internal characteristics are of rising nature. If Rse
and Ra are the resistances of series field and armature respectively, then the terminal voltage V
= E – Ia(Rse + Ra). The external characteristics fall below the internal characteristics because
of the drop Ia(Rse + Ra) and is illustrated by the curve drawn for V. For high load currents,
due to saturation of poles the flux φ is constant. Then the effect of armature reaction is
dominating when compared to increase in V. Therefore, V starts decreasing as indicated by
dotted line.
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Load Characteristics of Cumulatively and Differentially compound DC Generator

Load characteristics is a plot between terminal voltage (V) and load current (IL). D.C.
compound generators are further classified into two types. They are cumulative compound and
differentially compound generators. The load characteristics of cumulative and differentially
compound generators are shown in diagram (1) and (2) respectively.
When the load on cumulative compound generator is increased, armature current
increases due to which series field current increases. As the flux due to series field is directly
proportional to series field current,
series field flux also increases resulting
in increase of main field flux because φ
= φsh + φse.
Hence the e.m.f generated and
terminal voltage also increases upto
certain extent i.e., till the drops due to
armature current and armature reaction
reaches to their higher values after
which terminal voltage starts
decreasing. The cumulative compound generator is said to be over compounded when the
decrement in terminal voltage caused by various drops and armature reaction is less than the
increment in terminal voltage due to the increase in the main field flux.
Cumulative compound generator is said to be under compounded, when the
decrement in terminal voltage due to the increase in load current is more dominating than the
increment in terminal voltage due to the increase in main flux. Cumulative compound
generator is said to be level compounded if the full-load terminal voltage is equal to
the e.m.f generated on no-load. In this case, the two effects i.e., decrement and increment
in terminal voltage at full load will neutralize each other.
When the load on differentially compound generator is increased, load current
increases due to which series field flux increases to a very high value, whereas shunt field flux
remains constant. Therefore, the main flux decreases because in this case φ = φ sh – φse. As a
result the e.m.f generated reduces due to which terminal voltage reduces. Further reduction in
the terminal voltage takes place because of the armature reaction and various drops due to
armature resistance and series field resistance.
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Problems in DC Shunt Generator:

1. An 8 pole D.C shunt generator with 778 wave connected armature conductors running
at 500 r.p.m supplies a load of 12.5 ohm resistance at terminal voltage of 250 V. The
armature resistance is 0.24 ohms and the field resistance is 250 ohms. Find the armature
current, the induced e.m.f and the flux per pole.
Solution:
DC Shunt Motor
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2. In a 110 V, compound generator the resistances of the armature, shunt and series
winding are 0.06 W, 25 W and 0.04 W respectively. The load consists of 200 lamps
each rated at 55 W, 110 V. Find the total electromotive force and armature current
when the machine is connected long shunt and short shunt.
Solution:
For Long Shunt
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For Short Shunt
Principle of Operation of a DC Motor

An electric motor is a machine used to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. It
works on the principle of Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction i.e., whenever a current
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force. The magnitude of force
experienced on the conductor is given by,
F = BIL Newton.
The direction of force is given by Fleming's left hand rule.
Working of a DC Motor
Consider a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force.
The current carrying conductor is placed under
the effect of north and south poles. The conductor
under north pole effect experiences the force from
right to left and the conductor under the south
pole effect experiences the force from left to right
thus a couple of force is formed.
In the actual motor, there are number of
conductors and number of couple of forces
developed. Hence, the electrical energy is
converted into rotation (mechanical energy) and
motor continues to rotate.
Working Principle of DC Motor
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Classify DC Motors based on the excitation along with the voltage, current and power
equations.
Based on the type of field excitation, D.C motors are mainly classified into two types. They
are,
1. Separately excited D.C motors
2. Self excited D.C motors
1. Separately Excited DC Motors

In separately excited D.C motors, the supply is given separately to the field and armature
winding as shown in figure
2. Self Excited D.C Motors

In self excited D.C motor, the field winding is connected either in series or parallel to armature
winding. They are further classified into 3 types.
They are,
(a) Shunt motor
(b) Series motor
(c) Compound wound D.C motor.
(a) Shunt Motor

In D.C shunt motor, the field winding is connected in
parallel with armature winding as shown in diagram
Where, Ra = Armature winding resistance, Rsh = Shunt
field winding resistance
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The shunt field winding possesses less cross sectional area with more numbers of turns since
the value of Rsh is very high when compared with the value of Ra.
(b) Series Motor

In D.C series motor, the series field winding is connected in series with armature and supply
as shown in diagram.
Series resistance winding possesses less number of
turns with large cross sectional area as the value of Rse
is very small.
Series resistance winding possesses less number of
turns with large cross sectional area as the value of Rse
is very small.
(c) Compound Wound D.C Motor

In D.C compound motor, the part of shunt field winding is connected in series and the other
part is connected in parallel with armature. It is further classified into two types.(i) Short shunt
compound motor (ii) Long shunt compound motor
(i) Short Shunt type
In this type of compound motor, shunt field winding is connected in parallel with armature and
series field winding is connected in series with this
combination as shown in diagram.
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(ii) Long Shunt type

In this type of compound motor, the shunt field
winding is connected across the combination of
armature and series field as shown in diagram.
Derive the torque and speed equations of D.C machine (DC Motor)
Let, F – Force in Newton,
r – Radius of armature in meter,
Ta – Armature torque in N-m,
S – Circumferential distance
f – Flux/pole in Wb
P – Number of poles
Z – Number of armature conductors
A – Number of armature paths
Ia – Armature current
N – Speed of armature in r.p.m
Since, torque is the twisting movement produced across the armature.
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The electrical work done per second,
As 1 N-m/sec = 1 Watt, equating mechanical and electrical power, we get
Derivation for Speed of a D.C Machine

The expression for back e.m.f in a D.C motor is given by,
Thus, the relation between speed and back e.m.f for constant values of P, Z and A can be
written as,
Where, V = Supply voltage, Ra = Resistance of armature winding.
Draw and explain the speed characteristics of different types of DC motors.

Characteristics of Motor
The characteristics of a motor can be listed as below.
1. Torque and armature current: Ta/Ia characteristics (electrical characteristics)
2. Speed and armature current: N/Ia characteristics
3. Speed and torque: N/Ta characteristics (mechanical characteristics)
We know that,
 (1)
 (2)
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Series Motor Characteristics

1. Ta /Ia Characteristics
In series Motors the flux is proportion to field current only
upto saturation point and hence the armature current on
light load Ta ∝ Ia2 hence curve drawn between Ta and Ia
is a parabola up to saturation point. After saturation point,
flux ɸ is almost independent of excitation current and so
Ta ∝ Ia. Hence the characteristic becomes a straight line.
From the torque current characteristic it is evident that as
long as the field Ta of motor is not saturated, the series
motor exerts a torque proportional to the square of current i.e., starting torque is very high.
Hence, series motors are used where large starting torque is required such as in hoists, electric
railways, trolleys and electric vehicles.
2. Speed (N) and Armature Current (Ia) Characteristics
Since on no-load the speed is dangerously high, the series motors

are never started on no-load.
When the motor is connected across supply mains without load,
the current drawn is small and hence ‘f’ is small and the speed
tends to increase.
With increase in speed, Eb increases , and the field current decreases.
which in turn leads to decrease in flux and hence speed increases gradually. This process
continues until the armature gets damaged. Hence, series motors are not suitable for the
services with no load conditions.
3. Speed Torque Characteristics
These characteristics can be obtained or derived from the above two
characteristics mention.
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Shunt Motor Characteristics

1. Ta/Ia Characteristics
If the applied voltage ‘V ’is kept constant, the field current will
remain constant and hence flux is also constant and is maximum.
But as the load increases, the flux decreases lightly due to
armature reaction. Hence, with the increase in Ia, Ta also
increases linearly passing through origin.
2. Speed (N) vs Armature Current (Ia) Characteristics

We know that,
Since ‘f ’ is practically constant in shunt motor.
With the increase in load current IL, the Ia also increases [ Ia = IL – Ish,
as Ish is constant]. With the increase in load current, the speed slightly
falls due to increase in voltage drop in armature as shown in diagram,
Since voltage drop in armature at full-load is very small as compared
to applied voltage, the drop in speed from no-load to full-load is very
small and for all practical purposes the shunt motor is taken as a
constant speed motor.
Shunt Motors are best suited for driving line shafts, milling machine conveyors, fans etc.
3. Speed – Torque Characteristics
The speed-torque characteristics of D.C shunt motor are also known as mechanical
characteristics. They can be obtained from torque-current and speed-current characteristics of
D.C shunt motor.
The expression for back e.m.f in a D.C motor is given by,
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As the torque in a D.C motor

increases, flux (f) decreases. This
is because when torque is
increased, armature current
increases resulting in reduction of
air gap flux ‘f’ i.e., due to armature
reaction and saturation.
Therefore, for increased torque
there is an increase in the value
T/φ2 of equation (4) causing a drop
in the speed of the motor.
Problems:
1. A 4 pole series motor has 944 wave-connected armature conductors at a certain load.
The flux per pole is 34.6 mWb and the total mechanical torque developed is 209 N-m.
Calculate the line current taken by the motor and the speed at which it will run. The
applied voltage is 500 V and total motor resistance is 3Ω.
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2. A 200 V D.C shunt motor takes a total current of 100 A and runs at 750 rpm. The
resistance of the armature winding and shunt field winding is 0.1 ohms and 40 ohms
respectively. Find the torque developed by the armature.
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Single Phase Transformers

Construction details of Single Phase Transformer
Depending upon the type of core
used there are two types of
transformers in practice. They
are,
(i) Core type transformer
(ii) Shell type transformer
(i) Core Type Transformer:

The core of this transformer is rectangular in shape and
consists of two limbs. Cylindrical type winding coils are
used in this type of transformer. The primary and secondary
windings are both wound on different limbs as shown in
diagram.
Here, the winding surrounds a considerable part of the core.
There is only one path for the flux to flow which is through
the yoke. Hence, core type transformers have only one
magnetic circuit. This small amount of flux is known as
leakage flux which needs to be minimized.
Half of the primary winding and half of the secondary winding has been placed concentrically
on each limb due to which the leakage flux reduces.
1. Shell Type Transformer:
The core of the transformer consists of three limbs.
Sandwich type or multilayer type windings are used
in this type of transformer. The primary and
secondary windings are both wound on the same
limb i.e., the central limb. The flux in the
transformer divides equally in the central limb and
flows through the outer two limbs.
Shell type transformer have two magnetic circuit. In order to reduce the leakage flux, low
voltage and high voltage windings are interleaved on the central limb as shown in diagram.
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Principle of operation of a transformer and its application in power system

The working principle of transformer
is based on mutual induction between
two coupled coils. According to this
principle a changing flux creates an
induced e.m.f in each turn equal to the
derivative of the flux so that the total
induced e.m.f across N turns is E.
Transformer core is wound with two
windings having N1 and N2 number of
turns. The winding with N1 turns is
known as primary as it is fed by alternating voltage source. This voltage source also forms a
closed path in the primary. So that alternating current starts flowing through the primary. The
winding in which e.m.fs are induced mutually is known as secondary winding.
Uses of Transformer in Power System
1. It is used at generation side (generation substation) of power system to step up the level of
generated voltage.
2. It is used at distribution side (distribution substation) of power system to step down the level
of voltage for domestic and commercial consumers.
EMF equation of a Transformer
Whenever the primary winding of transformer

is connected to sinusoidal voltage source, an
alternating flux is set up by the voltage source
is shown in figure.
From figure, it is clear that the alternating flux
attains its maximum value φm in quarter cycle.
Hence change in flux
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By electromagnetic induction (mutual induction between coupled coils) principle, rate of

change of flux linkages is an induced e.m.f. Then average induced e.m.f per turns,
-
Since the flux varies sinusoidally, form factor of sinusoidal flux (= e.m.f) is 1.11.
Substituting the value of φm in the above induced e.m.f equations, we get
Problem 1: A single phase 2200/250 V, 50 Hz transformer has a net core area of 36 cm2
and a maximum flux density of 6 Wb/m2. Calculate number of turns of primary and
secondary.
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Losses in Transformer:
Transformer, being a stationary electrical equipment, does not have rotational or windage
losses. The losses which occur in a transformer are (i) Copper losses and (ii) Iron or core losses.
1. Copper Losses
These losses occur due to the resistance of the transformer windings and appear as heat
resulting in the increase of temperature. If R1 and R2 are the primary and secondary resistances
and I1 and I2 are the primary and secondary currents, then the copper loss in the respective
windings is given by
These losses depend on transformer load.

Copper losses at various loads can be
determined as follows,
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2. Iron or core loss

Iron (or) core losses occur when the core is subjected to alternating flux. These losses are
further divided into two types, namely, (a) Hysteresis loss and (b) Eddy current loss
(a) Hysteresis Loss
Hysteresis loss occurs due to the continuous magnetization and demagnetization of the core.
In every cycle of alternating flux, i.e., magnetization, the hysteresis loss appears as heat.
Hysteresis loss exists by virtue of property of material.
Hysteresis loss is given by the relation,
Hysteresis losses cannot be eliminated. However, they can be minimized by selecting the core
material which posses low hysteresis coefficient. For example, silicon steel and nickel-iron
alloy.
(b) Eddy current losses
Alternating flux linking with the core induces an e.m.f in it and causes circulating current
known as eddy current to flow within the body of the transformer core. These eddy currents
lead to the power loss given by I2R and are also called as eddy-current losses. These losses
depend upon the length of the eddy current path and the effective resistance. Eddy current
losses are given by the relation,
Similar to the hysteresis losses, it is impossible to eliminate eddy-current losses. However, they
can be reduced by using laminations of thickness suitable to the capacity of the machine.
In transformers, iron or core losses play a vital role in deciding the equipment rating,
temperature rise and efficiency.
Construction details of three phase transformer:

The 3-phase transformers are of two types. They are, (i) Core type (ii) Shell type.
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(i) Core Type Three Phase

Transformer
A core type three phase transformer is shown
in diagram. The core consists of three limbs
and two yokes to complete the magnetic
circuit. The schematic diagram of core type
three phase transformer is shown.
Each limb is wound with a primary and
secondary winding corresponding to one
phase.
The winding which is placed near the core of every limb (L.V and H.V) is wound over the L.V
winding. Suitable insulation is provided between the core and winding and also between L.V
and H.V windings. The three windings create fluxes which are displaced in time phase by 120°.
The flux of each limb is directed upwards and it turns downwards in the other two limbs.
(ii) Shell type three phase transformer
It resembles three single phase shell type
transformer cores placed in vertical direction.
There is less iron used in the three phase shell type
transformer compared to three equivalent single
phase shell type units due to combined use of
magnetic path. The schematic diagram of shell
type three phase transformer is shown in diagram.
Here the flux carried is additive in nature i.e. the
resultant flux is the phasor sum of two fluxes ɸR/2
and ɸY/2.
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Possible configurations of 3-phase transformers:

There are basically four possible ways of connections of 3-phase transformers. They are,
1. Star-star connection
2. Star-delta connection
3. Delta-star connection
4. Delta-delta connection
(i) Star – Star connection

In this type of connection, the primary winding is connected in star and the secondary winding
is also connected in star as shown in diagram.
This connection scheme is preferred for H.V trans-formers which are small in size.
(ii) Star-Delta Connection
In this type of connection, the primary
side is connected in star and the
secondary side is connected in delta as
shown in diagram.
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This scheme of connection is preferred for step down of higher level voltages to medium or
lower level voltages.
(iii)Delta – Star Connection
In this type of connection, primary side is connected
in delta and secondary side is connected in star as
shown in diagram.
This connection scheme is used to step up the voltage to higher level. Delta - star connected
distribution transformer is used for providing 3-phase and 1-phase power through 3-phase four-
wire system at the secondary of transformers.
(iv) Delta-Delta Connection:
In this type of connection, primary side
is connected in delta and secondary
side is also connected in delta as shown
in diagram.
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This connection scheme is preferred for huge L.V transformers as winding connected in delta
handles line voltage.
Problem:1 A bank of three single phase transformers has its H.V terminals connected to
3-wire, 3-phase, 11 kV system. Its L.V terminals are connected to a 3-wire, 3-phase load
rated at 1500 KVA, 2200 V. Specify the voltage, current and KVA ratings of each
transformer for both H.V and L.V windings for the following connections:
(i) Star – Delta
(ii) Delta – Star
Given that,
H.V side voltage, VL1 = 11 kV, L.V side voltage, VL2 = 2200 V, Load KVA rating = 1500 kV
(i) Star – Delta
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Problem:2
A bank of three single - phase transformers has its H.V terminal connected to 3-wire 3-
phase, 11 kV system. Its L.V terminals are connected to a 3-wire 3-phase load rated at
1500 kVA, 2200 V. Specify the voltage, current and kVA ratings of each transformer for
both H.V and L.V winding for the following connections: (i) Star-Star connection (ii)
Delta – Delta Connection
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Efficiency of a transformer
In a practical transformer, two types of major losses namely core and copper losses occur. The
losses are wasted as heat and temperature. Output power of the transformer is always less than
the input power drawn by the primary from the source and efficiency is defined as,
All day efficiency of Transformer

All day efficiency is also called as energy efficiency. To estimate the efficiency, the whole day
is broken into several time blocks over which the load remains constant. The idea is to calculate
the total amount of energy output in KWH and the total amount of energy input in KWH over
a complete day and then take ratio of these to get the energy efficiency or all day efficiency of
the transformer.
Energy or all day efficiency of a transformer is expressed as,
Synchronous Generators
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Synchronous Generators
Synchronous machines are AC machines where a field circuit is supplied by an external DC
source. It consists of two major parts namely stationary part (stator) and a rotating field (rotor).
Principle of an alternator
Machines which are generating AC are called as alternators or synchronous generators,
whereas, the machines which are accepting the input from an AC supply to produce mechanical
output are called as synchronous motors. Both these machines work at a specific constant speed
called as synchronous speed and it is called as synchronous machines.
The working principle of an alternator is very simple which is similar to the basic principle of
DC generator. It depends on the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction which says that
the current is induced in the conductor inside a magnetic field when there is a relative motion
between that conductor and the magnetic field.
Construction:
An alternator mainly consists of two parts as follows
1. Stator
2. Rotor
Stator
The armature core is supported by stator
frame and it is built up of laminations of
special magnetic iron or steel iron alloy where
the core is laminated to minimize loss due to
eddy currents. The laminations are insulated
from one another and the space between them
allows the cooling air to pass through. Construction of stator
Rotor
Depending on the type of application, they are classified into two types as follows.
(1) Salient-pole or the projecting pole type
(2) Non salient-pole or round rotor or cylindrical rotor
a) Salient pole rotor:
This is also called as projected pole type since all the
poles are projected out from the surface of the rotor.
The poles are built up of thick steel laminations. Its
face has a specific shape. The field winding is
provided on the pole shoe. These rotors have large
diameters and small axial lengths.
The limiting factor for the size of the rotor is the
centrifugal force that acts on the rotating member of the machine. As mechanical strength of
salient pole type is less, it is preferred for low speed alternators ranging from 125 r.p.m to 50
r.p.m. The prime movers used to drive such rotors are water turbines and I.C engines.
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b) Smooth Cylindrical Rotor (non-salient type or

non-projected pole type or round rotor)
It consists of smooth solid steel cylinder which has a
number of slots to support the field coil. The un-slotted
portions of the cylinder act as the poles.
The poles are not projecting out and the surface of the
rotor is smooth which help us to maintain an uniform air
gap between stator and rotor.
These rotors have small diameters and large axial lengths.
This keeps the peripheral speed within the limit. The main
advantage of this type is that these are mechanically very strong and preferred for high speed
alternators ranging between 1500 to 3000 rpm.
High speed alternators are known as turbo-alternators. The prime movers used to drive such
type of rotors are steam turbines and electric motors.
Applications of alternator
 Alternators are used in modern automobiles to charge the battery and to power the electrical
system when its engine is running.
 Alternators provide electricity to power the accessory of the vehicle such as lights and radio
and charge its battery. It converts the mechanical energy created by the crankshaft in the
engine into electrical energy via induction.
 The energy-conversion process generates a magnetic field which then charges the wires
that connect the alternator to the battery and accessories.
 Ball mills, clocks, record player turntables makes use of synchronous motors
 Synchronous condensers are used for power factor correction.
Advantages of rotating field type alternator

(a) Ease of construction
Armature winding of large alternators are complex, so that the connection and bracing of the
armature windings is easily made for the stationary stator.
(b) Number of slip rings
If the armature rotates, then number of slip rings required for power transfer from armature to
external circuit is atleast three. Heavy current that flows through brush and slip rings causes
problems and it requires more maintenance in large alternators. Insulation required for slip
rings from rotating shaft is difficult in the rotating armature system.
(c) Better insulation to armature
Insulation arrangement of armature windings is made from core on stator.
(d) Reduced rotor weight and rotor inertia
Insulation requirement is less since the field system is placed on the rotor. Also rotational
inertia is less. It takes lesser time to gain full speed.
(e) Improved ventilation arrangement
Cooling occurs when we enlarge the stator core with radial ducts. Water cooling is easier if the
armature is housed in the stator. In all the alternators, the armature is housed in the stator while
the DC field system is placed in the rotor.
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Working principle of Synchronous Machine

Working of synchronous motors depends on the interaction of the magnetic field of the stator
with the magnetic field of the rotor. The stator contains 3 phase windings and is supplied with
3 phase power. Thus, stator winding produces a 3 phased rotating Magnetic- Field. DC supply
is given to the rotor.
Synchronous Machine constitutes of both synchronous motors as
well as synchronous generators. An AC system has some
advantages over DC system. Therefore, the AC system is
exclusively used for generation, transmission and distribution of
electric power.
Where, Ns is the synchronous speed in revolution per minute (r.p.m),
f is the supply frequency
P is the number of poles of the machine.
The rotor enters into the rotating Magnetic-Field produced by the stator winding and rotates in
synchronization. Now, the speed of the motor depends on the frequency of the supplied current.
When connected to an electric power system, a synchronous machine always maintains the
above relationship shown in the equation (1).
If the synchronous machine working as a motor fails to maintain the average speed (Ns) the
machine will not develop sufficient torque to maintain its rotation and will stop. Then the motor
is said to be Pulled Out of Step. If the load greater than breakdown load is applied, the motor
gets desynchronized.
In case, when the synchronous machine is operating as a generator, it has to run at a fixed
speed called Synchronous speed to generate the power at a particular frequency.
Features of Synchronous Motors

 Synchronous motors are inherently not self starting. They require some external means to
bring their speed close to synchronous speed to before they are synchronized.
 The speed of operation of is in synchronism with the supply frequency and hence for
constant supply frequency they behave as constant speed motor irrespective of load
condition
 This motor has the unique characteristics of operating under any electrical power factor.
This makes it being used in electrical power factor improvement.
Methods of Starting of Synchronous Motor
1. Motor starting with an external prime Mover: Synchronous motors are mechanically
coupled with another motor. It could be either 3 phase induction motor or DC shunt motor.
Here, we do not apply DC excitation initially. It rotates at speed very close to its
synchronous speed, and then we give the DC excitation. After some time when magnetic
locking takes place, supply to the external motor is cut off.
2. Damper winding: In this case, the synchronous motor is of salient pole type, additional
winding is placed in rotor pole face. Initially, when the rotor is not rotating, the relative
speed between damper winding and rotating air gap flux is large and an emf is induced in
it which produces the required starting torque. As speed approaches synchronous speed,
emf and torque are reduced and finally when magnetic locking takes place; torque also
reduces to zero. Hence in this case synchronous motor first runs as three phase induction
motor using additional winding and finally it is synchronized with the frequency.
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Synchronous motors
Based on type of magnetization of rotor, synchronous motors are classified as follows.
1. Non-excited Synchronous Motors
(a) Reluctance motors (b) Hysteresis motors (c) Permanent magnet motors.
2. D.C-excited Motor
Working Principle of Synchronous Motors
Ns, Ss→ North and south poles of stator

NR, SR→ North and south poles of rotor.
Figure (i) → Attractive force between stator and rotor poles. Rotor tends to rotate in clockwise
direction.
Figure (ii) → Repulsive force between stator and rotor poles. Rotor tends to rotate in anti-
clockwise direction.
The principle of operation of a synchronous motor is based on Lorentz force law, which states
that, whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field, it experiences a
force. The direction of force can be obtained by applying Fleming’s left hand rule. The driving
torque of the synchronous motor is produced due to the interaction of the magnetic fields setup
in the stator and rotor of the motor. Once the motor picks up speed, the auxiliary arrangement
can be removed.
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Three Phase and Single Phase Induction Motors

Constructional Features of an Induction Motor
The constructional features of a 3-phase induction motor are
stator and rotor. Usually stator receives 3-phase supply and
working currents are developed in rotor.
Stator
Stator consists of cast iron stator frame and laminated steel
stampings of cylindrical stator core as shown in diagram. These
stator core steel laminations have minimum hysteresis and eddy current losses compared to
other materials when alternating current passes through them. Stator core have the slots for
inserting the polyphase winding. Slots provided on the stator core are of three types. They are
open type, semi-closed type and closed type slots. Among all the three, semi-closed slots are
advantageous because of less ripple content in their e.m.f waveform and less initial labour cost
for designing.
Rotor
Induction motors are of two types depending upon the
type of rotor used. The two types of rotors are squirrel-
cage type and slip ring type. Squirrel cage type rotor has
slots on its outer periphery which are circular in shape.
The rotor winding is placed in the rotor slots and its ends
are shorted by same winding material known as end rings
as shown in diagram. The starting torque of squirrel cage
type induction motor is double to that of full load torque.
Squirrel cage induction motors (SCIM) are simple and economical in construction and require
less maintenance. Slip ring type rotor also have slots on its circular outer periphery. The rotor
winding which is to be placed in the rotor slots is similar to that of its 3-phase stator winding
so that number of rotor poles are equal to stator poles.
Slip ring type of rotors have a facility to insert external resistance at their output terminals as
shown in diagram. The starting torque of the slip ring rotor can be changed by placing a suitable
resistance in rotor circuit.
Slip of an Induction motor:

The difference between the synchronous speed ‘Ns’ of the stator field and the actual speed ‘N’
of the rotor is known as slip. It is usually expressed in percentage slip
Sometimes (Ns – N) is called the slip speed and expressed in revolutions per second.
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Principle of Operation of a Three Phase Induction Motor

A 3-φ induction motor works on the principle of
electromagnetic induction.
When the three-phase winding of the stator is
connected to the three-phase supply, the three
phase current in stator winding produces a rotating
magnetic field, which rotates around the stator at
synchronous speed (Ns). This rotating field or flux
passes through the air gap and cuts the rotor
conductors and thus the emf is induced in the rotor
conductors.
Thus, a torque is produced due to the interaction
between the air gap flux and the rotor flux. The
rotor starts rotating in the same direction as the rotating magnetic field (according to Lenz law)
and the speed of the rotor starts increasing from 0 to N, thus the relative motion between the
two decreases. At equilibrium condition, the motor runs almost at synchronous speed but not
equal to synchronous speed.
As soon as the motor is loaded, the load torque plus the torque due to losses becomes greater
than the developed torque. Therefore, the motor slows down thus the relative speed between
two gets increased increasing the developed torque and thus the equilibrium is reached in
loaded condition. Thus the motor runs at speed less than the no-load speed and thus the motor
speed varies with the load.
Torque-speed characteristics of three phase induction motors in motoring, generating

and braking modes
The speed-torque characteristics of three phase induction motors in motoring, generating and
braking modes is shown in diagram
1. Motoring Mode (When 0 < Slip < 1)
The operation of an induction motor is
based on the value of slip. When the
slip lies between 0 and 1, then the
machine acts as a motor. At the time
of starting, the value of slip is 1 and it
reaches to 0 when the motor runs near
to synchronous speed.
The maximum torque developed is
much higher than the full load torque.
If the torque developed is more than
maximum torque, the motor stalls and
is known as stalling torque of the
motor.
2. Generating Mode (When Slip < 0)
When the slip is less than zero or negative the machine acts as generator. When acting as
induction generator, it draws only exciting current from the supply mains to which the stator is
connected. When the rotor runs at synchronous speed, there will be no e.m.f induced in the
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rotor circuit and stator will draw the exciting current continuously from the supply mains.
When the rotor runs above the synchronous speed the e.m.f (sE2) induced in the rotor circuit
leads the phasor φm by 90° instead of lagging it and it is in the generator action because the slip
is negative.
3. Braking Mode (Slip > 1)
If the connections of supply of the induction motor running under normal conditions are
suddenly interchanged, then the direction of revolving field becomes opposite to the direction
of the rotation of rotor and slip becomes greater than 1. The rotor slows down at a faster rate
under action of the torque which is acting as a brake.
Draw and explain the torque slip characteristics of a 3-phase induction motor.
Torque – Slip characteristics of 3 phase Induction Motor
Therefore, at no-load condition, slip is maximum. This is the starting condition and the torque
at s = 1 is called as the starting torque.
Case (ii): Increasing load condition
As the load is increased, slip decreases, but it has got a significant value. Hence at this condition
R2 is negligible when compared to sX2.
Torque is inversely proportional to slip, thus the torque continues to increase.
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Case (iii): Maximum Torque Condition

As the load is increased, the torque continues to increase. Now if the load is increased in such
a way that s = R2/X2 then the torque reaches a point called as maximum torque or breakdown
torque or stalling torque.
Case (iv): Further Increasing the Load
If the load is further increased after reaching the maximum torque condition, slip reduces to
low values and the torque (T) is directly proportional to slip (s) i.e., the torque also starts
decreasing. The torque-slip curve continues to decrease till they become zero.
The graph shows the different regions of operation. They are,
(i) PQ, the unstable region
(ii) ST, the stable region
(iii) OP, the starting point.
In the stable region, the torque varies linearly with slip i.e., it is the region between the points
s = 0 and s = Tmax.
In the unstable region, the load torque decreases as the slip is increased. This is the region after
the maximum torque.
Problem on Synchronous Motor
A 6 pole, 3-phase, star connected synchronous motor has synchronous impedance of (0.5
+ j8.0) Ω per phase. When operating on 2.2 kV, 50 Hz bus bars, its field current is such
that the induced e.m.f is 1.8 kV. Calculate the maximum torque that can be developed at
this excitation.
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EMF Equation of a Synchronous Generator

The generator which runs at a synchronous speed is known as the synchronous generator. The
synchronous generator converts the mechanical power into electrical energy for the grid. The
Derivation of EMF Equation of a synchronous generator is given below.
Let,
P be the number of poles
ϕ is Flux per pole in Webers
N is the speed in revolution per minute (r.p.m)
f be the frequency in Hertz
Zph is the number of conductors connected in series per phase
Tph is the number of turns connected in series per phase
Kc is the coil span factor
Kd is the distribution factor
Flux cut by each conductor during one revolution is given as Pϕ Weber. Time taken to
complete one revolution is given by 60/N sec.
Average EMF induced per conductor will be given by the equation shown below
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Average EMF induced per phase will be given by the equation shown below
The average EMF equation is derived with the following assumptions given below.
 Coils have got the full pitch.
 All the conductors are concentrated in one stator slot.
Root mean square (R.M.S) value of the EMF induced per phase is given by the equation shown
below.
Eph = Average value x form factor
Therefore,
If the coil span factor Kc and the distribution factor Kd, are taken into consideration than the
Actual EMF induced per phase is given as,
Above equation is the EMF equation of Synchronous Generator.

Coil Span Factor
The Coil Span Factor is defined as the ratio of the induced emf in a coil when the winding is
short pitched to the induced emf in the same coil when the winding is full pitched.
Distribution Factor
Distribution factor is defined as the ratio of induced EMF in the coil group when the winding
is distributed in a number of slots to the induced EMF in the coil group when the winding is
concentrated in one slot.
Problem on Induction Motor
A 4-pole induction motor is energized from a 50 Hz supply. If the machine runs on full
load at 2% slip, determine, (i) Rotor speed with respect to resultant rotor field (ii) Stator
resultant field speed with respect to rotor structure, and (iii) Frequency of rotor currents
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(i) Rotor Speed with Respect to Resultant Rotor Field

Speed of resultant rotor field with respect to stand still rotor
Similarly, speed of resultant rotor field with respect to rotor revolving at a speed,
Since rotor is running at a speed Nr, rotor speed with respect to resultant rotor field,
= Nr – sNs
= 1470 – 30
= 1440 r.p.m
(ii) Stator Resultant Field Speed with Respect to Rotor Structure
Speed of stator resultant field with respect to stator structure = Ns= 1500 r.p.m
Speed of rotor structure, Nr= 1470 r.p.m
Speed of stator resultant field with respect to rotor structure,
= Ns – Nr = 1500 – 1470 = 30 r.p.m
(iii) Frequency of Rotor Currents
fr = sf
= 0.02 (50)
= 1 Hz
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Difference between Squirrel cage rotor and slip ring rotor

S.No Squirrel cage rotor Slip ring rotor
1. Construction is simple Complex
2. Rotor consists of copper bars which Rotor consists of three phase winding
are shorted at the end by the end rings
3. No slip rings and brushes Consists of slip rings and brushes
4. External resistance can’t be added External resistance can be added
5. Moderate torque High starting torque.
6. Speed control by rotor resistance is not Speed control through rotor resistance
possible is possible.
7. Applications of SCIM: Used in the Applications of SRIM: Used in the
loads with low starting torque. Lathes, loads with high starting torque and
Drilling Machines, Fans, Blowers, speed. E.g., Hoists, Elevators,
Grinders and Printing machines Compressors, lifts and pumps.
Single Phase Induction Motors

Construction of single-phase induction motor
The single-phase induction motor mainly consists of two parts. They are,
1. Stator
2. Rotor
1. Stator
The stator is a stationary hollow cylindrical structure and it is the outer covering of the motor.
The stator core is usually made up of cast iron or cast steel. A large number of axial slots are
cut around the inner periphery of the core and these slots shelter the stator conductors. The
stator winding of a single-phase induction motor is provided with concentric coils.
The most widely used number of poles in the induction motor are 2, 4, 6, so that the induction
motor can be wound for even number of poles. Generally, the motors consisting of squirrel
cage type are provided with 2 stator windings (except for the shaded pole motor).
2. Rotor
It is the part of the motor that develops the driving torque and rotates. In practice there are two
types of rotors and the choice of the rotor is made on the basis of the application for which the
motor is employed. They are, (i) Squirrel cage rotor (ii) Slip ring rotor.
(i) Squirrel Cage Rotor
The rotor core is cylindrical and is usually made of
cast iron or cast steel. All along the periphery of the
core, longitudinal slots are made and these slots are
embedded rotor conductors. The rotor conductors
are usually thick bars of copper or aluminium. They are permanently welded to two copper end
rings as shown in diagram.
By this arrangement, the rotor always forms a closed-circuit. This type of construction is
termed as squirrel cage construction.
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(ii) Slip Ring Rotor

The rotor core is cylindrical. Slots are cut around the periphery of
the core and these slots house the rotor windings. The rotor
conductors are in the form of copper wire. The slip rings of the
rotor are shown in diagram.
Types of Single phase induction motor

Single phase induction motors are used in a wide range of applications where only single phase
supply is available. These are manufactured in fractional kilowatt range to meet the
requirements of various applications such as ceiling fans, food mixers, refrigerators, vacuum
cleaners, portable drills, hair driers, etc.
Why Induction motors are not self-starting? (Two marks)
Single Phase Induction Motor (also known as rotating transformer): It is not self-starting
because the stator winding with one winding produces the flux, which alternates along one
space only (pulsating flux), and not a rotating flux as in three phase motors. The pulsating flux
on the squirrel cage rotor can’t produce the rotation. A startup winding, also known as the
auxiliary winding, is used to create the torque needed to start a single-phase induction motor.
This winding creates the rotating magnetic field in this type of motor by changing the
relationship of the current in relation to the voltage. Hence, Single-phase induction motors are
not self-starting.
Based on the starting method, single phase induction motors are basically classified into the
following types.
 Split-phase motor
 Capacitor start motor
 Permanent capacitor run motor
 Capacitor start capacitor run motor
 Shaded pole motor
1. Split – Phase Motor
Similar to the other

motors, it also consists of
a stator and the rotor. The
rotor is similar to squirrel
cage rotor. The stator is
provided with extra
winding in support to the
main winding, which is
called as the starting
winding.
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These two windings are arranged in the stator,

so that the phase displacement between the two
is as high as possible. So they are placed 90°
electrically apart and are connected in parallel
across the same supply. In order to get the
maximum phase difference, the two windings
(starting winding and running winding) are
designed such that the starting winding has
lesser reactance and higher resistance as
compared to that of the main winding. It also
consists of a centrifugal switch which isolates the starting winding when the rotor reaches 70%
to 80% of its full load speed. It is also called as “Resistance Start Motor”
When the machine is connected across the single phase supply, a rotating magnetic field is
produced due to the presence of two-phase windings connected in parallel. The starting
winding draws a lagging current whose magnitude is less due to the presence of higher
resistance. The running winding also draws lagging current whose magnitude is high and is
more displaced due to higher reactance as shown in diagram.
The starting torque of the split phase motor depends on sin α, where ‘α’ is the phase difference
between the starting and running currents. It is ideal to get α = 90°, to obtain higher starting
torque. When the speed of the motor reaches 70% to 80% the running winding is isolated and
the machine runs as an ordinary single phase induction motor. When the start winding is
disconnected from the supply, torque reduces suddenly.
2. Capacitor Start Motor
Construction:
The construction of
capacitor start
induction motor is
almost same as that of
a split phase induction
motor. In this motor
capacitor is connected
in series with auxiliary
or starting winding and
are mounted on top of
the motor in any
convenient external position by means of metal casing, in some cases it may be mounted inside
the motor. The capacitor used in this motor provide higher starting torque and limits the starting
surge of current to a lower value than developed by the split phase motor.
Principle of operation:
The schematic diagram of capacitor start induction motor is shown in figure (1). In this motor
an inexpensive and small A.C electrolytic type of capacitor is connected in series with the
starting winding or the auxiliary winding. So that the current through the main winding, Im lags
behind the current of auxiliary winding, Ia by an 90º as shown as figure (2). This results in high
starting torque. The starting torque of a capacitor start induction motor, ranges between 3 to
4.5 times the full-load torque which is twice that of split phase induction motor.
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A centrifugal switch is connected in series with

auxiliary winding and capacitor. The purpose of this
switch is to disconnect the capacitor when motor
attains 75% of full-load speed. At rated speed motor
operates with main winding. The speed-torque
characteristics of capacitor start induction motor are
shown in diagram. These motors are quite expensive
than split phase induction motor because of the
addition of capacitor.
3. Capacitor Run motor

It consists of main
winding, auxiliary
winding, two capacitors
C1 and C2 and switch ‘S’.
It is similar to the single
value capacitor run
motor.
But the main difference
here is the auxiliary winding and a capacitor C1, are always connected in the circuit. The main
function of capacitor C2 is to start the motor. For this purpose, it is called the start capacitor
and capacitor C1 is called the run capacitor. It improves the power factor of the motor. In
general, the starting capacitor C2 is about 10 to 15 times as large as running capacitor C1.
At the time of starting, the centrifugal switch ‘S’ is closed, both the capacitors C1 and C2 are in
parallel and the total capacitance is the sum of their individual capacitances. After the motor
reaches to 75% of the full-load speed the switch is opened and the only capacitor C1 is present
in the auxiliary winding circuit. In this way, best starting performance with high capacitance
and best running performance (best torque
condition) with low capacitance is achieved.
Such motors produce continuous torque thereby
reducing the pulsating torque.
It is possible to obtain phase shift (β) equal to 90º.
Run capacitor C1 and auxiliary winding can be
designed in such a way that they provide
balanced two-phase field. The balanced two-
phase field avoids the backward rotating field
and improves the power factor and efficiency of
the motor.
4. Shaded pole motor:
Construction:
Shaded pole induction motor is the simplest and inexpensive type of motor similar to single-
phase induction motor. The stator poles of this motor are wound only with main winding, so
as to make them electromagnets. The pole has a slot cut at one third of one end for housing
high reactance but low resistance copper bars enclosing a part of the pole. This part is called
the shaded part and the other is called the unshaded part. The rotor of such motor is similar to
squirrel cage rotor.
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Working Principle:
The required phase-split for making
self-start is obtained through
induction principle (transformer
principle) when a shaded pole motor
is supplied with a single-phase A.C
supply. This single-phase current
produces two pole alternating flux
which is as explained follows
Consider a positive half cycle with

different time instants i.e., t1, t2, t3 as shown.
Consider one electromagnet in which the current
flowing is positive half.
Along Time Ot1
During this time, as the exciting current is increasing,
there will be an e.m.f generated in the shaded coil and
hence large current is set-up. The current flows in a
direction so as to oppose its cause and thus reduces the flux under the shaded pole. So most of
the flux is concentrated under the unshaded part, thus moving the magnetic axis as shown in
diagram.
Along Time t1t2
During this time, there is no change in the exciting current and hence the flux will be uniform
throughout the pole. This moves the magnetic axis to center of pole as shown in diagram.
Along Time t2t3
During this time, the exciting current is
decreasing thus, inducing e.m.f in the shaded
coil. The currents flowing in the shading coils
are in a direction so as to oppose the exciting
current and the flux produced will be adding
with the main field flux and thus the magnetic
axis moves under the shaded pole as shown in
diagram.
As the torque is very small, this type of motors
are generally used in toys, hair driers, desk fans, electric clocks etc.
5. Capacitor Start and Capacitor Run Induction Motor
These motors are also called as two-value
capacitor motors. It combines the advantages
of capacitor start type and permanent capacitor
type induction motors. This motor consists of
two capacitors of different value of
capacitance for starting and running. A high
value capacitor is used for starting conditions
while a low value is used for running
conditions.
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It is to be noted that this motor uses same winding arrangement as capacitor-start motor during
startup and permanent capacitor motor during running conditions. The schematic arrangement
of this motor is shown in figure below. At starting, both starting and running capacitors are
connected in series with the auxiliary winding. Thus the motor starting torque is more
compared with other types of motors.
Once the motor reaches some speed, the centrifugal switch disconnects the starting capacitor
and leaves the running capacitor in series with auxiliary winding. Thus, both running and
auxiliary windings remain during running condition, thereby improved power factor and
efficiency of the motor.
These are the most commonly used single
phase motors due to high starting torque and
better power factor. These are used in
compressors, refrigerators, air conditioners,
conveyors, ceiling fans, air circulators, etc.
The capacitors Cs and Cr are connected in
parallel during motor starting. The value of
the capacitor Cs is chosen such that current
Im is made to lag current Ia by greater than
90°. Therefore, there is a time-phase
difference (α) and 90° space difference
between the two currents. These two currents
produce a rotating magnetic field which
starts the motor.
When the motor reaches speed about 70 to 80
% of synchronous speed, the capacitor Cs
disconnects from the supply by centrifugally
operated switch S. The capacitor Cr is
permanently connected to the circuit. The
phasor diagram for this motor is shown in
diagram. During starting, the phase
difference is greater than 90° (α>90°) as
shown in diagram.
The Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Induction Motor is suitable for higher inertia loads where
frequent starts are required. It is used to pumps, refrigerator, air conditioner compressors, etc.
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Peee Notes Unit III

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UNIT 3 - ELECTRICAL MACHINES

1. Describe the construction and principle of operation of DC generator.

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support the field windings, whereas the pole shoe is

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3. Explain the types and characteristics of DC generator.

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(a) Separately excited

(iii) Compound Generator

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1. Long Shunt Machine

2. Short Shunt Machines

Whatever the connection of machine

Characteristics of DC shunt and series generator

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Load Characteristics of Cumulatively and Differentially compound DC Generator

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Problems in DC Shunt Generator:

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For Long Shunt

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For Short Shunt

Principle of Operation of a DC Motor

Working Principle of DC Motor

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1. Separately Excited DC Motors

2. Self Excited D.C Motors

(a) Shunt Motor

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(b) Series Motor

(c) Compound Wound D.C Motor

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(ii) Long Shunt type

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The electrical work done per second,

As 1 N-m/sec = 1 Watt, equating mechanical and electrical power, we get

Derivation for Speed of a D.C Machine

Where, V = Supply voltage, Ra = Resistance of armature winding.

Draw and explain the speed characteristics of different types of DC motors.

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Series Motor Characteristics

Since on no-load the speed is dangerously high, the series motors

With increase in speed, Eb increases , and the field current decreases.

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Shunt Motor Characteristics

2. Speed (N) vs Armature Current (Ia) Characteristics

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As the torque in a D.C motor

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Single Phase Transformers

(i) Core Type Transformer:

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Principle of operation of a transformer and its application in power system

EMF equation of a Transformer

Whenever the primary winding of transformer

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By electromagnetic induction (mutual induction between coupled coils) principle, rate of

Substituting the value of φm in the above induced e.m.f equations, we get

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These losses depend on transformer load.