Administrative Notes

• Friday 1pm: Communications lecture

– Discuss: writing up your ideas for an Practical Aspects of Motors
architecture to solve final course challenge
for Mobile Robots
• Monday 15 February (Presidents Day)
– MIT Holiday; No Lecture, No Lab
• Tuesday 16 February (Institute Monday) RSS Technical Lecture 3
– MIT on Monday schedule; Wednesday, Feb 10 2010
• RSS-I Lecture Una-May O’Reilly
• RSS-I Lab - briefings of Lab 2, Lab 3 out

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RSS I (6.141J / 16.405J) S10

Today Basic Principles

• Orsted (1819): DC current produces a B field
• DC (permanent magnet) motors
• Faraday motor (1821)
– Basic principles
– Magnet; bowl of mercury; stiff wire attached at top
– Characterization – Run DC current through wire; it rotates about magnet
– Sensing rotation with encoders • Effect came to be known as “Lorentz force”
– Choosing one that’s adequate (“sizing”) – Induced force perpendicular to current direction, B field
– Gears Wire Battery +

– Electronic support for control

Current
• Servo Motors
• Stepper Motors - time permitting N

Bar Magnet Battery - UF Phys. 3054

3
Faraday Motor Lorentz Force4
 DC motor (based upon Lorentz force) Completing a rotation
• Wind wire coil around armature to strengthen B field • Reverse current direction
• Mount armature on rotor; attach rotor to drive shaft • Commutator (copper) and brushes (not shown)
• Enclose rotor and drive shaft within stator • Blue coil is the one in contact with + terminal
– Permanent magnet or electromagnet
• Supply DC voltage and current as shown below

5 Wikipedia 6 Wikipedia

Motor Power, Torque, and Efficiency Back-EMF

Pe : Supplied Electrical Power, in watts [J / s] • When a conductor moves
Pe = V • I F within a static magnetic field:
– Current is produced in conductor
r
Pm : Output Mechanical Power – Current is called “back-EMF”
ω
Pm = T • ! – Back-EMF is proportional to shaft angular
velocity, and opposes current supplied by PS
T = F • r is the torque; it is the tangential force F
– Thus as shaft (armature) angular velocity
delivered at a distance r from shaft center [N m]
increases, rotation-induced current increases
! : Angular velocity of shaft [radians / sec] – Thus supplied current from PS decreases
– Thus as ω increases, torque decreases !
Efficiency e = ? Pm / Pe
7 8
Pittman GM9236S025 DC Motor (12VDC) Load vs. RPM, Power, and Torque
• Increase load on the shaft
“Speed-Torque Characteristic” – RPM drops (direction on plot?)
What does
– Rotation-induced voltage across
this plot armature (opposing PS) decreases
mean? – Thus (since V=IR) more current
will flow from the power supply
– Thus more torque will be produced

How can we
• Decrease load on the shaft
interpret it? – RPM goes up (direction on plot?)
– Rotation-induced voltage across
armature (opposing PS) increases (Details depend on the motor geometry,
materials, # of windings, supply voltage)
– Thus (since V=IR) less current
will flow from the power supply
– Thus less torque will be produced

• What if you apply 12 voltage V at no load? 70 rpm

Pittman
9 10

Pittman GM9236S025 DC Motor Motor operating regimes

“Power-Torque Characteristic” • Continuous torque (480 oz. in. for Pittman motor)
– Torque that won't overheat the motor
• Peak torque (2585 oz. in. for Pittman motor)
– Momentary, intermittent or acceleration torque
– Torque maximized at stall (immobilized shaft)
• Peak output power (T . ω)
– Calls for much more than
continuous torque level

What info is • Peak efficiency

in this plot? – Maximum battery duration
– But only ~10% of peak torque!
Pittman
11 12
Example motor datasheet (detail) Shaft Encoders
• Report motor shaft speed (easy) or position (harder)
• Codewheel: Circular disk mounted on motor shaft
with many alternating black and white regions
F = 5 lb.
r = 6 in.

F = 240 lb.
Agilent
r = 1/8 in.
• Optical sensor reads / emits codewheel region transitions
• Counting the pulses produced in any time interval yields
F = 1292 lb.
change in shaft angle (how to compute distance traveled?)
r = 1/8 in. • This is basic odometry used for control & “dead reckoning,”
or estimation of position relative to some starting point
13 14
RSS I (6.141 / 16.415) S08
Pittman

Gearing Down Motor Sizing Example

v
• Robot’s task: climb ramp of inclination r
• Gearbox: θ = π/6 at constant velocity v = 1 in/sec
– Transmits power mechanically • How much torque must each wheel Ft = w sin θ
– Transforms shaft angular motor deliver? (Current, power needed?) w θ
velocity ω and torque T (how?) • What else do you need to know?
Pinion A (driver): – Weight w = ~25 lbs;
ωin, Tin – Wheel radius r = ~2.5 in.
• Ft = w sin θ (tangential component)
• Gear ratio • Equate power terms: Ft v = 2 T ω
Wheel B
R = # teethout / # teethin • Since v=ωr
(follower):
• So ωout = ωin / R ωout, Tout • Then Ft ω r = 2 T ω

• Tout = e (Tin . R)
• So that T = Ft r / 2
= w sin θ r / 2
= (25 lb.)(0.5)(2.5 in) / 2
• What is e ? • Where does (1-e) part go? • Convert units: = 15.625 lb.-in. = 250 oz.-in. required torque
– Heat (friction, deformation), sound
• Current (from datasheet) = ~2 A; Power = I V = 2A * 12V = ~25 W
– Gearbox efficiency, 0 < e < 1 15 16
Interfacing Motor and Microprocessor
• So far, we’ve looked only at constant 12V DC
• In reality, must control motor direction and speed
• Accomplished through electronic support
– 1. How do we control the motor speed?
• PWM handled by PSOC on µ-orc
• Java code provides %-on of duty cycle
– 2. How do we control motor direction?
• Handled by an H-Bridge
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Motor Direction Control
• This circuit is called an H-bridge.
– In ORCboard, it’s in an L6205 DUAL FULL BRIDGE
DRIVER
– Direction of motor is determined by corner-paired
switch that determines direction of potential and
thus current flow
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PWM: Pulse Width Modulation
• Apply motor voltage as square
wave at fixed frequency (from
60Hz to 50KHz; Orc uses ~16KHz)
• Control motor speed/power by
changing the duty cycle (or
pulse width) of voltage signal
– At 0% duty cycle, motor is off
– At 100%, full power
– At 50%, half power etc.
• Effectively produces a time-
averaged voltage signal
• Inductive load of motor
smoothes input signal in coils
• Duty cycle: Laptop-> 8 bits value to Clark and Owings
PSOC on m-orc, PSOC
frequency= ?? kHz
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H-Bridge Circuit States
• Open
– No voltage applied across motor M
• Forward
– Vin applied left to right across M
• Reverse
– Vin applied right to left across M
Wikipedia
20
Servomechanisms (servo motors, servos) Stepper Motor (Example: 90-degree bipolar)
• DC motor in an integrated Stator: even N coils Rotor: permanent
package with 3 extra elements: arrayed around magnet(s) mounted
rotor symmetry axis on output drive shaft
– Gearbox between motor (out of plane of page)
shaft and output shaft
• Provides low-speed,
• Controller does commutation:
high-torque output Clark and Owings
Energizes coils in rotational
• Adv: holding torque, speed and position
– Feedback-based position control sequence; rotor swings into
control without using encoders or feedback
alignment to successive states
circuit (pulse-width control) • When the coil is kept energized, • Angular resolutions of < 1deg are available!
• Drives servo to commanded motor produces “holding torque” • Brushless!
“position” (shaft angle)
• Shaft angle sensing (potentiometer)
• Current sense for torque sensing
– Limit stops on output shaft
• These mechanically delimit servo’s
minimum & maximum “position”

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Comparison of Motor Types Supplementary Reading

Type: Pluses: Minuses: Best For:
DC Common Too fast (needs gearbox)
Large • Theoretical
Wide variety of sizes High current (usually)
Motor robots – Foundations of Electric Power,
Most powerful Expensive
Easy to interface PWM is complex J.R. Cogdell
Must for large robots – Electric Motors and their Controls: An Introduction,
Hobby All in one package Low weight capability Small, Tak Kenjo
Servo Variety; cheap; easy to Little speed control
mount and interface legged • Practical
Medium power required robots
Precise speed control Heavy for output power
– Building Robot Drive Trains,
Stepper Line D. Clark and M. Owings
Great variety High current
Motor followers,
Good indoor robot speed Bulky / harder to mount – Mobile Robots: Inspiration to Implementation,
Cheap, easy to interface Low weight capability, maze
low power solvers J.L. Jones, B. Seiger, A.M. Flynn
Complex to control
Clark and Owings, p. 29
23 24
Lecture Wrap Up Motor Nomenclature

REVIEW • Armature: 1 or more coils mounted on a

central shaft which transmits torque
• Covered practical aspects of DC motors – Loading with iron will increase
magnetic flux
– To help characterize your motor for velocity • Commutator: split plates that touch the
controller design half-cylinder brushes, providing power to
coils
Next Lecture (Tuesday 1pm!) • Stator: the permanent magnet
surrounding the shaft/armature
• Motor controllers • Motors have multiple (odd nmr’d
– Ramping to desired speed and error correction quantity) of coils with each coil of
multiple turns (aka windings) for more
torque

25 26

Coil in Flux and Commutation Quadrature Encoder

Coil Brush
t
+
en
S eg
m
+ en
t

N
A - Se
gm

N A
-
B
S
ent
Se
gm
gm
ent
B S
Se

Coil in Flux Commutation;

Alternation of current through
the coil
Clark and Owings

27 28
 Gears for other purposes Gear Knowledge

• Can change angle of A B C • Backlash: the amount of space between an

rotation or direction engaging tooth and the tooth space of the
of rotation: e.g. c
mating gear
• Can convert
– built-in to most gear systems for lubricant to flow
rotational motion to
linear motion (eg E) – When objectionable, it’s “slop”: noise and low
durability
• Can change location D E F
of rotational motion • Efficiency of gear: decreases with gear ratio
A: spur gear
(eg a) – Loss due to mechanical friction
B: Planetary gears
C: Worm gear
D: Ball screw
E: rack and pinion
F: belt and pulley
29 30

PPM for Servo Motors Servo Motors

• Hobby, 5V supply,
• Position control, not speed • Complete package of
control -- closed loop – DC motor and geartrain
• Pulse proportional modulation: – Limit stops (minimum, maximum shaft angle)
width of pulse is the encoded – Shaft angle sensing with a potentiometer
information needed by – Integrated circuit for shaft angle control
controller (I.e. the position to – 3 wires:
which the shaft should turn) • power, ground, pulse-width control input
• Use 1-2ms out of a possible 20 • Servos to a position: ie. Electric circuit directs motor to
ms time period to encode the rotate to commanded position, and keeps it there. If you
position info
interfere, circuit reads pot and makes correction with
• Typical: increased current, which increases torque
– Center: 1.3 ms pulse,
– range: 0.7ms - 1.7 ms

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 More Realistic Diagram of Stepper RSS Encoders

• HEDS-9000
• 2 channel quadrature
• Optical encoders and
codewheel for rotary
position (angle) sensing
• Datasheet:

33 34

Electronic current switching Interfacing Motor and Microprocessor

• Brushless motors sense the armature position
and use logic to alternate the current direction
• Brushless motors are quieter, and last longer
• So far, we’ve looked only at constant 12VDC
• In reality, must control motor direction and speed
• Two issues:
– 1. PSOC alone can’t provide sufficient current
– 2. How do we control the motor speed?

35 36
Interfacing Motor and Microprocessor
• Combine separate power source with control signals from
microprocessor using some interface circuitry:

• This circuit is called an H-bridge.

– In ORCboard, it’s in an L6205 DUAL FULL BRIDGE DRIVER
– Direction of motor is determined by corner-paired switch
that determines direction of potential and thus current flow

37 38

H-Bridge Circuit States

• Open
– No voltage applied across motor M

• Forward
– Vin applied left to right across M

• Reverse
– Vin applied right to left across M
Wikipedia
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