Earth Science Reviewer Solution: reclamation and closure activities
should always be considered in the program of
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Gaylord Nelson
- Founder of the first “Earth Day”
- Listed 5 characteristics that define
sustainability
1. Renewability – use renewable resources
so that the rate of extraction is not faster
than the rate of replenishment
2. Substitution – shift to any alternative
renewable resource that is deemed feasible
to obtain so to avoid reaching the stage of
scarcity of nonrenewable resources
3. Interdependence – recognized that all
communities are part of a larger system ;
any action done by one community will
affect entire system
4. Adaptability – recognize that changed in
the environment, whether positive or not,
are opportunities for growth and
improvement of their communities
5. Institutional Commitment – abide by
laws and policies that are geared toward
sustainability.
SUSTAINABLE MINING OPERATIONS
1. Water is used in various applications
at minesites
Solution: wastewater from the mining operation
can be recycled through a wastewater treatment
facility
2. Metal processing is energy-intensive
Solution: use renewable sources of energy, even
for the purpose of mining operations only
3. Land use (impacts of clearing of
vegatation, construction of buildings,
roads power lines, etc.)
Solution: creating a santuary offsite where
displaced organisms may migrate to; trees should
be either transplanted or replaced in another site
4. Acid rock drainage found on waste
rocks and ore can affect natural water
systems
Solution: contolling runoff either by making a
diversion of waterways toward a designated pond
or by contructing barriers within the mine site
5. Mining activities are actually a
temporary operation and are
considered to have finite operating
lives
operation as the last phase where land restoration
should be the main goal
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
1. Fossil Fuels
a) Carbon Emissions
Solution: use technology to reduce carbon before
combustion; and use natural gas instead of coal.
b) Surface Disturbance and Erosion
Solution: avoid unstable slopes that can cause
instability; access roads need to be created,
develop, and follow the natural topography of the
land; and clean and maintain catch basins, drainage
2. Geothermal Energy
a) Dust Pollution
Solution: cover all open areas; and vegetate most
of the open grounds to avoid erosion and dispersion
of dust particles in the air
b) Noise Pollution
Solution: locate all noisy equipment; install or use
low-noise systems; operate noisy equipment during
daytime only
3. Hydroelectric Power
a) Alteration of natural river flow
patterns
Solution: create a “fish passage” that direct
organisms away from turbines
b) Changes in water quality that may be
harmful to organisms
Solution: install aeration systems in the dam to
control or regulate temparature and oxygen levels;
create a flood bypass channelling flood waters away
from the dam
WATER CONSERVATION PRACTICES
Domestic Use
1. Using water only when necessary
2. Regularly check for leaks in faucets and
waterpipes
3. Watering the plants early in the morning rather
than midday
4. Store rainwater in mosquito-proof containers
5. For washing cars, dishes, or future watering of
plants
Municipal/City Use
1. Identification of water sources, size of the
population, and extent of water use of each
sector of the community
2. Local governments , if they use ground water,
must have a thorough understanding of the
aquifer they use.
3. Obtain potable water by preserving a watershed
(for urban places)
*Watershed- area of land where all the water being
collected come from various sources and all the
water that is under it flows into the same place
Agricultural Use
1. For large-scale agriculture, most efficient is the
one that uses gravity-flow system, so that it will
naturally go to the crops
2. Scheduling of irrigation (better early in the
morning to avoid loss of water)
3. Collect surface runoff from irrigation and add to
the water to be used for next irrigation
SOIL CONVERSATION PRACTICES
1. Enhance organic matter content of soils to
protect it against erosion and compaction
2. Avoid excessive tillage to avoid breaking up soil
structure and loss of organic matter
3. Apply proper pest management to avoid
pollution of soil and water systems
4. Prevent soil compaction to avoid reduced rate
of water infiltration and drainge
5. Maintain a ground cover to not only prevent soil
erosion but also retain water in the soil
PROPER WASTE DISPOSAL AND
MANAGEMENT
1. Solid Wastes
a) Segragation – solid wastes can be groped on
their ability to decompose
o Biodegrable – wet and organic
o Nonbiodegrable – dry & inorganic
b) 3Rs –
o Recycling – using the object again for a
different purpose
o Reuse – using materials for the same
purpose
o Reduction – practice of designing,
manufacturing, purchasing, using and
reusing materials
c) Compost – mixture of organic wastes that is
combined with soil, this mixture is high in
nutrients and can be used as natural fertilizer
d) Sanitary Landfill – final disposal site os all
the wastes that were not removed from
segragation and sorting
Different components of a sanitary landfill
o Clay Barrier – to prevent seepage of
chemicals into the ground. The liquid waste
generated by decomposing garbage is called
leachate.
o Leachate Collecting Pipe - to direct leachate
to a treatment pipe.
o Refuse Cell – designated portion of the
landfill that receives the garbage for a given
time
o Compaction and Daily Cover – to prevent
contamination
2. Liquid Wastes
Sewage treatment plant (STP) – a custom-fit
wastewater treament
It comprises two treament processes:
a) Primary sewage treatment – separates
solid particles from the liquid through large
screens. Makes use of filtration and
sedimentation processes
b) Secondary sewage treatment –
eliminates or at least reduces the amount of
organic load. Microorganisms, together with
other organic wastes (collectively called
sewage slude) settle out.
3. Gaseous wastes
a) Conserve energy to reduce the need to
produce energy because consumption is
lessened
b) Use catalytic converters in car to reduce
emissions of carbon monoxide, nitrogen
oxides, and volatile organic compounds
c) Engage in carpooling, using public
transportation or bike, or walk to reduce the
amount of air pollution in the air.
d) Avoid burning to avoid emission of toxic
chemicals like dioxins and furans that are
associated with respiratory problems
e) Use water-based sprays or solvent-free
paints because chemical-based insect
killlers is very toxic to your health and your
environment
f) Advocate for emission reductions in
factories and more stringent
impplementation of emission standards to
help increase awareness of pollution
redections in your community
GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES OF THE EARTH
 These describes the natural forces that
influence the shape and structure of the
planet.
 Earth is DIVERSE. It is continuously
changing.
Two types of Geological Processes:
 Exogenous Processes
 Endogenous Processes
Exogenous Processes
- occurs on or near the surface of the Earth.
- These are natural occurrences that leave
significant changes on the landscape and
ecosystem of an area.
1. Weathering
- disintegration of rocks / other materials in contact
with the Earth’s crust.
- happens without transportation.
*2 types: Physical and Chemical Weathering
Physical Weathering
- Breakdown of rocks by mechanical forces
- Occurs due to change in temperature, pressure,
frost, etc.
Chemical Weathering
- Breakdown of rocks by chemical reaction
- New or secondary minerals are formed after the
reaction.
- Oxidation, carbonation, and hydrolysis
contribute to chemical weathering.
2. Erosion
- process by which Earth’s surface was worn away
by wind, water, ice, etc.
- involves transportation of rock debris from one
place to another.
- forces of nature capable of exfoliating or scraping
the surface of the Earth, exposing the layer
underneath.
- numerous human activities can also contribute to
erosion.
3. Mass Wasting
- movement of material downslope terrain due to
gravity.
- causes by weak supported landmass from elevated
areas.
Types of mass wasting according to the
speed of movement:
o Debris flow
o Mud Flow
o Slumps
A. Debris Flow
o Large amount of sediments fall
downslope.
o No need water to flow down.
B. Mud Flow
o Combined soil and water flow
downslope.
o Usually happens with areas with
moist/soaked landforms.
C. Slumps
o Slow downslope movement of loosely
consolidated materials.
o Exogenous Processes of the Earth
4. Sedimentation
- accumulation of materials that is settling at the
bottom.
- in time, the loads of sediments become thick and
forms new layer of the ground, part of the soil in
the envirwonment, and new layer of ocean basin.
Endogenous Processes
- Caused by the forces within on in the interior of
the Earth.
- Driven by the thermal energy of the mantle and
the crust.
*Thermal energy – from the disintegration of
radioactive elements in earth’s core.
- Responsible for earthquake, movement of
plates, and other movements of the Earth’s
crust.
1. Magmatism
- generation of magma and development of igneous
rocks.
* Magma – molten rocks; very hot and constantly
moving through convective flow.
2. Volcanism/plutonism
- usually happens after magma is formed.
- magma tries to escape from source through
openings in the ground (destructive explosions).
* Lava – magma that reaches the Earth’s surface.
3. Metamorphism
- process of changing the materials that make up a
rock.
- change in chemical components due to heat, fluid,
and pressure.
*2 types: Contact and Regional Metamorphism
A. Contact Metamorphism
- Rock minerals and texture changed because of
HEAT.
-
B. Regional Metamorphism
- Happens in large scale areas.
- Rock minerals changed because of large scale
HEAT and PRESSURE.
GEOLOGICAL STRESS
- Different geological processes exert forces
through rocks.
*Geological Stress – force applied to a rock that
influence its behavior and appearance.
Four stresses that influences rock
behavior : compression, tension, shear, and
confining stress.
1. Compressional Stress
- Rocks pushed or squeezed against each
other.
- direction: toward the center.
2. Tensional Stress
- Rocks are pulled apart.
- direction: opposite/away from the center.
- *This type of stress is what separates
Pangea to different continents.
3. Shearing Stress
- Plate edges break away in different
direction, making the plate smaller in size.
- direction: opposite though overlapping.
- *This type of stress usually happens at the
Plate Tectonic Boundaries.
4. Confining Stress
- Crust become compact, thus making it look
smaller.
- Because of pressure, damage at the center
may occur.
- direction: four corners towards the center.
- *This type of stress usually creates sink holes
and other inside portions without
manifestation at the surface.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
In 1596, Abraham Ortelius observed that the shapes
of the continents on both sides of the Atlantic ocean
seen to fit together.
*Earthquakes and floodings made this possible.
In 1912, Alfred Wegener developed the concept and
hypothesize the CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
*There used to be one supergiant landmass called
Pangaea.
Pangaea – massive landmass.
This supercontinent broke apart into two huge
landmasses:
Laurasia - Comprises the present-day Northern
Hemisphere
Gondwanaland - Comprises the present-day
Southern Hemisphere
- Separation continued until we have the
continents we see in our maps today.
This theory is also supported by other theories as
reference with similar ideas.
Eduard Suess
- Proposed the existence of Tethys Sea (separates
Laurasia and Gondwanaland.)
Evidences of the Continental Drift theory
1. Similarities of Fossils found in Different
Continents
- Many different plant and animal fossils found
in continents that are presently far from each
other.
- Unimaginable for an animal to flown of swum
from one continent to another.
2. Presence of Tillites in Warm Regions
- Tillites – glacial deposits from rock strata that is
once covered with snow.
3. Presence of Coal Seams in Polar Regions
- Coal – fossil fuel originated from chemically
altered remains of prehistoric vegetation.
- * Make Wegener believed that these areas used
to be near the equator and just drifted away
from it.
4. Continuity of Rock Layers in Different
Continents
- Applachian Mountains, Caledoian Mountains of
Scotland, Scandinavian Mountains of Norway,
and Atlas Mountains of Morocco were thought
have been ONE MOUNTAIN RANGE during
time of Pangaea.
5. Similarity of Rock Types in Different
Continents
- Rock types found in Brazil, India, South Africa,
and Antarctica seem to have similar layers and
sequence.
Initially, Wegener’s Theory did not gain acceptance
form scientific community.
But during 1940s, initial survey for ocean floor
mapping and other geological formation, lead to the
discovery of the moving continents;
PLATE TECTONIC THEORY
- In 1929, Arthur Holmes suggested the idea of
Thermal Convection as driving force for the
movement of continents.
- act as Conveyor Belt
- Later years, concept of Thermal Convection was
changed into Mantle Convection Currents to
specify that the heat is actually radiating from
the mantle.
The term “Tectonic Plate” is used to describe the
moving continents, since not only the crust is the
one moving, but the lithosphere (crust and upper
mantle)
Tectonic Plates
- Composed of Oceanic lithosphere and
continental lithosphere.
Tectonic Plate Boundaries
- highest hazard areas (exit point of energy
release).
Types of Boundaries:
1. Convergent boundaries
2. Divergent boundaries
3. Transform boundaries
1. Convergent boundaries
o Two tectonic plates move towards each other .
o Two possible created:
 Trench
 Mountain / Mountain ranges
2. Divergent boundaries
o Tectonic plates are moving away from each
other .
o Newly formed crust formed.
3. Transform boundaries
o Tectonic plates slide past each other.
o Neither plates get subducted.
Aside from the shrinking and expansion of Earth’s
crust, deformation also happens during tectonic
movements of plates.
CRUSTAL DEFORMATION
- can either be Folding or Faulting.
1. Folding
o type of Earth movement resulting from the
compression of rock strata.
o Bending, curving, clumping, or buckling of
rocks into fold.
2. Faulting
o type of Earth movement that forms cracks or
fractures in rocks.
o Cracks are called “Fault Lines”
o Mountains formed from faulting are called
Block Mountains because of their sharp
edges.
SEAFLOOR SPREADING
• Developed by Harold Hess and Robert Dietz
• Continuous process where tensional force on
both side of the plates cause them to constantly
move apart.
• Magma rises to the surface of the mantle.
• In time, magma cooled and become oceanic
crust.
• Rocks from the separated plates would have
similar rock types and compositions
• *old-sedimentary rocks; new-igneous rocks
Plate Tectonic Theory has explained that despite of
the geological processes constantly reshaping the
Earth, there is really NO CHANGE in its overall
volume and size.
GOODLUCK BUKAS!! -Martin
libre niyo nako niyan ahex