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1 Calculus of Vector-Functions
De…nition. A vector-valued function is a rule that assigns a vector to
each member in a subset of R1 : In other words, a vector-valued function is
an ordered triple of functions, say f (t) ; g (t) ; h (t) ; and can be expressed as
~r (t) = hf (t) ; g (t) ; h (t)i :
For instance,
~r (t) = h1 + t; 2t; 2 ¡ ti
¿ À
1 p
~q (t) = ; ln (t) ; 2 ¡ t
t¡1
are vector-valued functions. The domain of a vector-valued function is a
subset of all real number at which the function is well-de…ned, i.e.,
Domain of ~r (t) = ft j ~r (t) = hf (t) ; g (t) ; h (t)i is de…nedg
= ft j each of f (t) ; g (t) ; h (t) is de…nedg
= ft j f (t) is de…nedg \ ft j g (t) is de…nedg \ ft j g (t) is de…nedg :
So
D (~r) = D (f ) \ D (g) \ D (h) :
Any vector-valued function ~r (t) = hx; y; zi may be written in terms of its
components as
x = f (t)
y = g (t)
z = h (t) :
Thus, the graph of a vector-valued function is a parametric curve in space.
For instance, the function
~r (t) = h1 + t; 2t; 2 ¡ ti
is de…ned for all t: Its component form is
x = 1+t
y = 2t
z = 2 ¡ t:
1
The graph is a straight line with a direction h1; 2; ¡1i passing through (1; 0; 2) :
Example 1.1. Find the domain of
¿ À
1 p
~r (t) = ; ln (t) ; 2 ¡ t :
t¡1
Sol: We know that
µ ¶
1
D = ft 6= 1g = (¡1; 1) [ (1; 1)
t¡1
D (ln (t)) = ft > 0g = (0; 1)
¡p ¢
D 2 ¡ t = ft · 2g = (¡1; 2]:
So
µ ¶
1 ¡p ¢
D (~r) = D \ D (ln (t)) \ D 2 ¡ t
t¡1
= ((¡1; 1) [ (1; 1)) \ (0; 1) \ (¡1; 2]
= ((¡1; 1) [ (1; 1)) \ (0; 2]
= (0; 1) [ (1; 2]:
°
O 1 2
For any vector-valued function ~r (t) = hf (t) ; g (t) ; h (t)i ; the limit
D E
lim ~r (t) = lim f (t) ; lim g (t) ; lim h (t)
t!a t!a t!a t!a
2
(a) Find
lim ~r (t) ; lim ~r (t) :
t!0 t!¼ =2
Solution: (a)
D E
lim ~r (t) = lim (2 cos t) ; lim sin t; lim t
t!0 t!0 t!0 t!0
= h2; 0; 0i
¿ À
lim ~r (t) = lim (2 cos t) ; lim sin t; lim t
t!¼ =2 t!¼ =2 t!¼ =2 t!¼ =2
D ¼E
= 0; 1; :
2
(b) Let us …rst take a look at the projection of the curve onto xy ¡ plane
x = 2 cos t
y = sin t:
¼
t= is the angle to x ¡ axis
4
In 3D; as t increases from t = 0; the curve starting at (2; 0; 0) on xy-plane,
moves in the way that its …rst two component (x; y) moving along the ellipse
in the above …gure counter-clockwise while its z¡ component increases lin-
early, as if we raise vertically the ellipse. The curve is on the elliptic cylinder,
and is called elliptic helix.
3
De…nition. For any vector-valued function ~r (t) = hf (t) ; g (t) ; h (t)i ;
if the limit of the di¤erence quotation
~r (t0 + h) ¡ ~r (t0 )
lim
h!0 h
exists, we say ~r (t) is di¤erentiable at t = t0 : In this case, we call the limit
the derivative at t = t0 and denote it by ~r0 (t0 ) or
d~r ~r (t0 + h) ¡ ~r (t0 )
(t0 ) = ~r0 (t0 ) = lim :
dt h!0 h
We can show that ~r (t) is di¤erentiable at t = t0 if and only if all three
components are di¤erentiable and
The derivative vector for any t; ~r0 (t) ; is again a vector-valued function.
Higher order derivatives are then de…ned accordingly. For instance,
Geometrically,
~r (t0 + h) ¡ ~r (t0 )
represents the vector from ~r (t0 ) to ~r (t0 + h) : So for any small h > 0;
~r (t0 + h) ¡ ~r (t0 )
h
4
r (t 0+h) – r(t0 )
r (t0 )
r (t0+h)
~r0 (t0 )
T~ (t0 ) = 0
j~r (t0 )j
the unit tangent vector. A curve ~r (t) is called smooth if ~r0 (t) exists and
~r0 (t) 6= ~0:
Example 1.3. Consider a circular helix
Find ~r0 (t) ; T~ (t) ; and ~r00 (t) : Find also ~r0 (0) ; T~ (0) :
5
Solution:
1. Addition:
(~u (t) + ~v (t))0 = ~u0 (t) + ~v0 (t)
4. Dot product:
5. Cross product:
6. Chain rule:
µ ¶
d d~u df
~u (f (t)) = (f (t)) (t) = ~u0 (f (t)) f 0 (t) :
dt dt dt
6
All above properties can be veri…ed by direction computations.
As in the case of one variable functions, derivative ~r0 (t0 ) measures the
rate (vector) at which function ~r (t) changes across t = t0 : Thus
we have
d 1 1 0
j~r (t)j = (~r (t) ¢ ~r (t))¡ 2 (~r (t) ¢ ~r (t))
dt 2
1
= j~r (t)j¡1 (~r0 (t) ¢ ~r (t) + ~r (t) ¢ ~r0 (t))
2
~r0 (t) ¢ ~r (t)
= :
j~r (t)j
This shows that in general,
d
j~r (t)j 6= j~r0 (t)j ;
dt
i.e.,
Rate of change for j~r (t)j 6= Magnitude of rate of change for ~r (t) :
7
~ =
Note that for inde…nite integrals, we always end up a constant vector C
hC1 ; C2 ; C3 i:
Z ¿Z Z Z À
~r (t) dt = ~
f (t) dt; g (t) dt; h (t) dt + C:
(b) The tangent line passes through the terminal point of the vector ~r (0) =
h1; 0; 0i ;i.e., passing through (1; 0; 0) with direction
x=1
y=t
z = 2t:
R R¼
Example 1.5. Find (a) ~r (t) dt and (b) 0 ~r (t) dt if
- ®
~r (t) = 2 cos t; sin t; 3t2 :
Solution: (a)
Z ¿Z Z Z À
2
~r (t) dt = 2 cos tdt; sin tdt; 3t dt
- ®
= 2 sin t + C1 ; ¡ cos t + C2 ; t3 + C3
- ®
= 2 sin t; ¡ cos t; t3 + C~
where
~ = hC1 ; C2 ; C3 i is an arbitrary constant vector.
C
8
(b) According to Fundamental Theorem of Calculus,
Z ¼
- ®
~r (t) dt = 2 sin t; ¡ cos t; t3 jt=¼
t=0
0
- ®
= 2 sin ¼ ; ¡ cos ¼ ; ¼ 3 ¡ h2 sin 0; ¡ cos 0; 0i
- ®
= 0; 2; ¼ 3
Homework:
1. Find domain and limit.
¿ À
t¡1 p 2
(a) ~r (t) = ; t; sin (¼ (t + 1)) ; lim ~r (t) =?
t+1 t!1
¿ À
2 ln t
(b) ~r (t) = arctan t; e¡t ; ; lim ~r (t) =?
t t!1
(a) x2 + y2 = 4 and z = xy
(b) z = 2x2 + y2 and y = x2
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6. Find (i) unit tangent T~ at given point and (ii) equation of tangent line
to the curve at that point.
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