CHAPTER 3: CONTENT AND CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS

“Study the past if you would define the future.” – Confucius

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this chapter, the student is expected to:

1. Analyze the context, content, and perspective of different kinds of primary sources;
2. Determine the contribution of different kinds of primary sources in understanding Philippine
history;
3. Develop critical and analytical skills with exposure to primary sources.

Chapter Outline:

1. Content/ Textual Analysis

2. Contextual Analysis
Importance of Context in Analysis and Interpretation by Grace Fleming
3. Subtext

Content, Contextual, and Subtext Analyses are methods of data analysis in historical
research.

1. Content/ Textual Analysis

Content analysis is a research method for studying documents and communication artifacts,
which can be texts of various formats, pictures, audio or video.

Social scientists use content analysis to quantify patterns in communication, in a replicable and
systematic manner. One of the key advantage of this research method is to analyze social phenomena
in a non-invasive way, in contrast to simulating social experiences or collecting survey answers.

Practices and philosophies of content analysis vary between scholarly communities. They all
involve systematic reading or observation of texts or artifacts which are assigned labels or codes to
indicate the presence of interesting, meaningful patterns. After labeling a large set of media, a
researcher is able to statistically estimate the proportions of patterns in the texts, as well as correlations
between patterns.

Computers are increasingly used in content analysis, to automate the labeling (or coding) of
documents. Simple computational techniques can provide descriptive data such as word frequencies
and document lengths. (Wikipedia, 2018)
a. Goals of Content Analysis
Content analysis is best understood as a broad family of techniques. Effective researchers
choose techniques that best help them answer their substantive questions. That said, according to
Klaus Krippendorff, six questions must be addressed in every content analysis:

1. Which data are analyzed?

2. How are the data defined?
3. From what population are data drawn?
4. What is the relevant context?
5 What are the boundaries of the analysis?
6. What is to be measured?

The simplest and most objective form of content analysis considers unambiguous
characteristics of the text such as word frequencies, the page area taken by a newspaper column, or
the duration of a radio or television program. Analysis of simple word frequencies is limited because
the meaning of a word depends on surrounding text.

A further step in analysis is the distinction between dictionary-based (quantitative) approaches

and qualitative approaches. Dictionary-based approaches set up a list of categories derived from the
frequency list of words and control the distribution of words and their respective categories over the
texts. While methods in quantitative content analysis in this way transform observations of found
categories into quantitative statistical data. the qualitative content analysis focuses more on the
intentionality and its implications. There are strong parallels between qualitative content analysis and
thematic analysis. (Wikipedia, 2018)

b. Kinds of Texts

There are five types of texts in content analysis:

1. written text, such as books and papers

2. oral text, such as speech and theatrical performance

3. iconic text, such as drawings, paintings, and icons

4 audio-visual text, such as TV programs, movies, and videos

5. hypertexts, which are texts found on the Internet

c. Types of Content Analysis

There are two general categories of content analysis: conceptual analysis and relational
analysis
 1. Conceptual analysis can be thought of as establishing the existence and frequency of
concepts in a text.

2. Relational analysis builds on conceptual analysis by examining the relationships among

concepts in a text.

1. Conceptual Analysis

Traditionally, content analysis has most often been thought of in terms of conceptual analysis. In
conceptual analysis, a concept is chosen for examination and the number of its occurrences within the
text recorded. Because terms may be implicit as well as explicit, it is important to clearly define implicit
terms before the beginning of the counting process. To limit the subjectivity in the definitions of concepts,
specialized dictionaries are used.

As with most other research methods, conceptual analysis begins with identifying research
questions and choosing a sample or samples. Once chosen, the text must be coded into manageable
content categories. The process of coding is basically one of selective reduction, which is the central idea
in content analysis. By breaking down the contents of materials into meaningful and pertinent units of
information, certain characteristics of the message may be analyzed and interpreted.

An example of a conceptual analysis would be to examine a text and to code it for the existence
of certain words. In looking at this text, the research question might involve examining the number of
positive words used to describe an argument, as opposed to the number of negative words used to
describe a current status or opposing argument. The researcher would be interested only in quantifying
these words, not in examining how they are related, which is a function of relational analysis. In
conceptual analysis, the researcher simply wants to examine presence with respect to his/her research
question, i.e. whether there is a stronger presence of positive or negative words used with respect to
specific argument or respective arguments.

2. Relational Analysis

As stated above, relational analysis builds on conceptual analysis by examining the

relationships among concepts in a text. And as with other sorts of inquiry, initial choices with regard
to what is being studied and/or coded for often determine the possibilities of the particular study. For
relational analysis, it is important to first decide which concept type(s) will be explored in the analysis,
it is important to first decide as few as one and as many as 500 concept categories. Obviously, too
many categories may obscure your results and too few can lead to unreliable and potentially invalid
conclusions. Therefore, it is important to allow the context and necessities of your research to guide
your coding procedures.
 There are many techniques of relational analysis available and this flexibility makes for its
popularity. researchers can devise their own procedures according to the nature of their project. Once
a procedure is rigorously tested, it can be applied and compared across populations over time. The
process of relational has achieved a high degree of computer automation but still is, like most forms
of research, time consuming. Perhaps the strongest claim that can be made is that it maintains a high
degree of statistical rigor without losing the richness of detail apparent in even more qualitative
methods.

d. How to Use Content Analysis

1. The first step involves preparing a coding schedule. This consists of a table when each row
is a unit for which data is being collected (e.g. an assignment or discussion contribution might
be a unit of data collection). Each column is a dimension or theme for the analysis that will
depend on your evaluation questions. For a discussion contribution for example these
dimensions might be the type of contribution, the contributor, the timing of the contribution.
There should be no overlap in dimensions. Themes are therefore predefined, unlike the
qualitative approach of template analysis where themes may emerge during the analysis.

2. A coding manual is then produced to accompany the coding schedule, listing the codes for
each of the categories that are valid for each dimension to ensure reliability and consistency
in the coding. For example, for the contributor dimension, valid codes and categories might
be 1-student, 2-tutor. There should be no overlap in the categories. Codes for each observation
of a category are entered into the appropriate cells in the schedule.

3. Elements of the content are described and organized using these categories This process is
called coding and particularly if appropriate software is used to aid the process, enables more
efficient sorting and retrieval of data by each category

4 Categories are used to describe the information that is emerging from this data. The unit of
analysis may be different than that used for data collection. This is the level at which data is
analyzed and findings reported. In the example of the discussion forum already used, the
purpose of the analysis is to provide insight into the interaction between the participants and
therefore analysis at the level single contribution would be meaningless. The unit of analysis
would need to be the whole discussion.

5. The coded content is quantitatively analyzed for trends, patterns, relationships,

similarities, differences etc. This may suggest further avenues of inquiry using qualitative
approaches that seek insight into possible reasons for these relationships and trends.
(University of Sheffield, 2014)

e. Issues of Reliability and Validity

 The issues of reliability and validity are concurrent with those addressed in other research
methods. The reliability of a content analysis study refers to its stability, or the tendency for coders to
consistently re-code the same data in the same way over a period of time; reproducibility, or the
tendency for a group of coders to classify categories membership in the same way; and accuracy, or
the extent to which the classification of a text corresponds to a standard or norm statistically

The overarching problem of concept analysis research is the challengeable nature of

conclusions reached by its inferential procedures. The question lies in what level of implication is
allowable, i.e.do the conclusions follow from the data or are they explainable due to some other
phenomenon? For occurrence-specific studies, for example, can the second occurrence of a word carry
equal weight as the ninety-ninth? Reasonable conclusions can be drawn from substantive amounts of
quantitative data, but the question of proof may still remain unanswered.

The generalizability of one's conclusions, then, is very dependent on how one determines
concept categories, as well as on how reliable those categories are. It is imperative that one defines
categories that accurately measure the idea and/or items one is seeking to measure. Akin to this is the
construction of rules. Developing rules that allow one, and others, to categorize and code the same
data in the same way over a period of time, referred to as stability, is essential to the success of a
conceptual analysis. Reproducibility, not only of specific categories, but of general methods applied to
establishing all sets of categories, makes a study, and its subsequent conclusions and results, more
sound.

f. Advantages of Content Analysis

Content analysis offers several advantages to researchers who consider using it. In particular,
content analysis:

a looks directly at communication via texts or transcripts, and hence gets at the central aspect
of social interaction
b. can allow for both quantitative and qualitative operations
c. can provides valuable historical/cultural insights over time through analysis of texts
d. allows a closeness to text which can alternate between specific categories and relationships
and also statistically analyzes the coded form of the text
e. can be used to interpret texts for purposes such as the development of expert systems (since
knowledge and rules can both be coded in terms of explicit statements about the relationships
among concepts)
f. is an unobtrusive means of analyzing interactions
g provides insight into complex models of human thought and language use
h. when done well, is considered as a relatively "exact" research method (based on hard facts,
as opposed to Discourse Analysis).

g. Disadvantages of Content Analysis

Content analysis suffers from several advantages, both theoretical and procedural
In particular, content analysis:
 a. can be extremely time consuming
b. is subject to increased error, particularly when relational analysis is used to attain higher
level of interpretation is often devoid of theoretical base, or attempts too liberally to draw
meaningful inferences about the relationships and impacts implied in a study
d. is inherently reductive, particularly when dealing with complex texts
e. tends too often to simply consist of word counts
f. often disregards the context that produced the text, as well as the state of things after the
text is produced
g. can be difficult to automate or computerize

2. Contextual Analysis
A contextual analysis is an analysis of a text (in whatever medium, including multi-media) that
helps us to assess that text within the context of its historical and cultural setting, and also in terms of
its textuality-or the qualities that characterize the text as a text.

A contextual analysis combines features of formal analysis with features of "cultural

archeology," or the systematic study of social, political, economic, philosophical, religious, and
aesthetic conditions that were (or can be assumed to have been) in place at the time and place when
the text was created.

While this may sound complicated, it is in reality deceptively simple: it means "situating" the
text within the milieu of its times and assessing the roles of author, readers (intended and actual), and
"commentators" (critics, both professional and otherwise) in the reception of the text. (Behrendt, 2008)

a. How to Use Contextual Analysis

A contextual analysis can proceed along many lines, depending upon how complex one wishes
to make the analysis. But it generally includes several key questions:

1. What does the text reveal about itself as a text?

 Describe (or characterize) the language (the words, or vocabulary) and the rhetoric (how the
words are arranged in order to achieve some purpose). These are the primary components of
style.

2. What does the text tell us about its apparent intended audience(s)?
 What sort of reader does the author seem to have envisioned, as demonstrated by the text's
language and rhetoric?
 What sort of qualifications does the text appear to require of its intended reader(s)? How can
we tell?
 What sort of readers appear to be excluded from the text's intended audiences? How can we
tell?
 Is there, perhaps, more than one intended audience?
3. What seems to have been the author's intention?
  Why did the author write this text? And why did the author write this text in this particular way,
as opposed to other ways in which the text might have been written?
 Remember that any text is the result of deliberate decisions by the author. The author has
chosen to write (or paint, or whatever) with these particular words and has therefore chosen
not to use other words that she or he might have used. So, we need to consider:
(1) what the author said (the words that have been selected);
(2) what the author did not say (the words that were not selected); and
(3) how the author said it (as opposed to other ways it might or could have been said).

4. What is the occasion for this text? That is, is it written in response to:
 some particular, specific contemporary incident or event?
 some more "general" observation by the author about human affairs and/or experiences?
 some definable set of cultural circumstances?

5. Is the text intended as some sort of call to - or for - action?

 If so, by whom? And why?
 And also, if so, what action(s) does the author want the reader(s) to take?

6. Is the text intended rather as some sort of call to -or for reflection or consideration
rather than direct action?
 If so, what does the author seem to wish the reader to think about and to conclude or decide?
 Why does the author wish the readers to do this?
 What is to be gained, and by whom?

7. Can we identify any non-textual circumstances that affected the creation and
reception of the text?
 Such circumstances include historical or political events, economic factors cultural practices,
and intellectual or aesthetic issues, as well as the particular circumstances of the author's own
life. (Behrendt, 2008)

Importance of Context in Analysis and Interpretation

by Grace Fleming, edited by Stacy Jagodowski
January 28, 2018

Historical context is an important part of life and literature and without it, memories, stories
and characters have less meaning.

But what exactly is historical context? It's essentially the details that surround an occurrence.
In more technical terms, historical context refers to the social, religious economic, and political
conditions that existed during a certain time and place.
Basically, it's all the details of the time and place in which a situation occurs, and those details
are what enable us to interpret and analyze works or events of the past, or even the future, rather than
merely judge them by contemporary standards.
 A strong understanding of the historical context behind a work's creation can give us a better
understanding of and appreciation for the narrative analyzing historical events, context can help us
understand what motivates people to behave as they did.

Put another way, context is what gives meaning to the details. It's important, however, that you
don't confuse context with cause. "Cause" is the action that creates an outcome; "context" is the
environment in which that action and outcome occurs. (Fleming 2010)

...Whether dealing with fact or fiction, historical context is important when interpreting
behavior and speech. (Fleming, 2010)

...No work of literature can be fully appreciated or understood without historical context. What
may seem nonsensical or even offensive to contemporary sensibilities, might actually be interpreted
in a completely different manner by considering the era it is from. (Fleming, 2010)

…Scholars and educators rely on historical context to analyze and interpret works of art,
literature, music, dance, and poetry. Architects and builders rely on it when designing new structures
and restoring existing buildings. Judges may use it to interpret the law, historians to understand the
past. Any time critical analysis is required, you may need to consider historical context as well.

Without historical context, we are only seeing a piece of the scene and not fully understanding
the influence of the time and place in which a situation occurred. (Fleming 2010)

3. Subtext
The subtext of a document or object refers to its secondary and implied meanings. The subtext
embraces the emotional or intellectual messages embedded in, or implied by the document or object.

The epic poems of the ancient Greeks, for instance, which glorify prowess and physical courage
in battle, suggest that such virtues are exclusively male. The state portraits of Napoleon Bonaparte
carry the subtext of unassailable and absolute power. Andy Warhol's serial adaptation of soup cans
and Coca-Cola bottles offer wry commentary on the supermarket mentality of postmodern American
culture. Identifying the implicit message of an artwork helps us to determine the values and customs
of the age in which it was produced and to assess those values against others.